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Gaspard de La Nuit Humor, The Eau-Forte, And the Chiaroscuro Vignette
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Gaspard de la Nuit: Humor, the Eau-Forte, and the Chiaroscuro VignetteAuthor(s): Dana MilsteinSource: College Literature, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Spring, 2003), pp. 137-161Published by: College LiteratureStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25112723Accessed: 26/07/2010 21:33
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Gaspard de la Nuit: Humor, the Eau-Forte, and the Chiaroscuro Vignette
Dana Milstein
Precursors of literary genres are often
snubbed by contemporary readers.
Skimming over dedicatory prefaces, their
unfamiliar names generally appear as a mor
tuary list of unknown influences on the
renowned author with whose text we prefer to begin. Such is the case, for example, with
Aloysius Bertrand. Considered the father of
the modern prose poem, Bertrand made
every concession possible to eternalize his
name and text, Gaspard de la Nuit (1842). His
fear of being forgotten permeates his dedica
tion to Victor Hugo, wherein with pessimistic
clairvoyance he proclaims "[t]he little book
that I dedicate to you will have suffered the
fate of all that dies, after, perhaps for one
morning, having amused the court and city, which are amused by so little" (1994, 15).
Despite Maurice Ravel's piano pieces, Antonio Giacommetti's guitar suite, and an
adapted performance by the NewYork City
Dana Milstein is in the
Department of French at
CUNY, The Graduate Center.
She has published and presented
papers primarily on comparative
art and literature of the nine
teenth century.
138 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
BaUet,1 today Bertrand's name and texts remain virtuaUy unknown, save a
brief and ambivalent homage made by Baudelaire in the preface to his Petits
poemes en prose. In the manner of Bertrand's prose poems, Baudelaire propos
es a text that is "poetic, musical without rhythm or rhyme, unconventional
enough to adapt itself to lyrical movements of the soul, to undulating rever
ies, to shocks of conscience" (1975, 1. 276; my translation). Instead of likening his text to the musical idiom, Bertrand applied a
painterly rhetoric to his works. In the closing Unes of his preface to Gaspard de la Nuit, the fictional Gaspard bequeaths his manuscript to the author, Louis
Bertrand. Explaining the parturition of style in the text, Gaspard suggests that
"This manuscript wiU teU [readers] how many instruments have tried my lips before arriving at the one that renders the note pure and expressive, how
many paint brushes have been used on the canvas before seeing born there
the shadowy aurora of chiaroscuro" (1994, 11). This ekphrastic metaphor aUudes to a sequence of artists and styles that Bertrand dabbled in while per
fecting his manuscript. Composed of short literary sketches or vignettes, Bertrand's text is more in keeping with the technique of etching than with
painting. Surreptitiously, Bertrand utilizes engraving as a metaphor for trans
ferring images from original plates onto paper as "poetic" impressions or lit
erary prints.2 His personal iUustrations for his text reflect engraving tech
niques, and his instructions to the printer stipulate engraved or iUuminated
motifs of a fantastic or anachronistic nature.3 InitiaUy, Bertrand's amateur
experiments with this new writing genre reflect an interest in the grotesque and capricious engravings of a seventeenth-century group labeled "I
Bamboccianti." As his emerging style matured, and he became acquainted with the Parisian literary scene (and thus, more modern views of humor and
art), Bertrand replaced the burlesque humor of the Bamboccianti with a
more complex aesthetic of dualism, or the oxymoron. Encountering the
engravings of Jacques CaUot and Rembrandt, he later subtitled his text
Fantaisies a la maniere de Rembrandt et de Callot after these two artists, whose
theories of etching conformed to the new and more profound antithetical
dynamic present in his writing. Furthermore, presupposing linked evidence
to techniques of chiaroscuro, etching, and to Rembrandt and CaUot in these
literary impressions, it becomes obvious that Bertrand's aesthetic objective is
to rescind traditional relationships between original and copy, and to annihi
late barriers imposed between the author, text, and reader.4 The fruition of
this objective, coupled with the oxymoronic dynamic of the text, is a unique aesthetic that characterizes the modern prose poem.
Dana Milstein 139
Titular Evolution: Bamboccio and the Question of Humor
Modern critics and contemporaries of Bertrand often argue that the
author made a poor decision in his subtitle Fantaisies a la maniere de Rembrandt
et de Callot. It is easy enough to find rapports between specific Callot etch
ings and certain prose poems. With Rembrandt, however, it is harder to cor
relate any specific work to the poems. "The Rembrandtesque elements orig inate more from the impression created by this great artist's etchings than
from an awareness of his vision," writes Renee Hubert (1964,83). Embracing this perspective, scholars have created a corpus of literature that is lopsided in
its abounding references to Callot works and stinted explanations of
Rembrandt. Approaching the text in this manner has permitted the injudi cious conclusion that there is little logical relation between the entire text
and any specific corpus of engravings by Callot or Rembrandt. Perhaps it is
Bertrand's own comments upon his text that have resulted in the authority of this assumption. Envisaging his work, Bertrand extends his allusions to Art
beyond Rembrandt and Callot to other artists including Van Eyck, Albrecht
Diirer, and Lucas Van Leyden. Many critics thus incorrectly assume that
Rembrandt and Callot play a less significant role in the text than first
thought. Scholars including Renee Hubert and Max Milner have empha sized the rapport between individual poems and specific engravings, but
inadequate explanation has been provided for Bertrand's particular choice of
subtitle and its relation to the entire text. Bertrand mentions other artists to
emphasize that his text is not a literal illustration of Rembrandt's and Callot's
works. Rather than transposing specific works into his prose poems, which
would be an imitation of style, the subtitle cleverly reveals that Bertrand
chooses to work "in the manner" of these two artists.
The distinction between style and manner is important, yet often
ignored.5 Style, a metonymical term for the instrument used to write (stylus), relates the text to a specific characteristic of another work. Transposition of
style is mere imitation; it is the conversion of visual image into verbal phras es. Manner, a term
belonging to the artistic lexicon, suggests a
reproduction
of taste or principles taken from another artist. Manner confines itself to a
thematic reproduction of imagination, design and shade.6 Writing in the
manner of Rembrandt and Callot, Bertrand did not desire an identifiable for
mal relationship between his prose poems and their works. What Bertrand
was imitating was the method or procedure of design and shade utilized by these two artists. Bertrand's use of the word Fantaisie in the subtitle is anoth
er adoption from artistic terminology. In painting and music,fantaisie denotes
a work in which the artist's caprice and imagination take precedence over
stylistic rules; the painter/composer is left to treat his subject matter liberal
ly without respecting traditional approaches. Thus, the phraseology of
140 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
Bertrand's subtitle indicates merely an improvisation on CaUot and
Rembrandt's methods and themes. In order to elicit this relation, we must
backtrack along the path from which this subtitle evolved.
On 12 September 1828, Le Provincial published three of Bertrand's prose
poems with a note by the author proposing to publish a corpus of pieces in
the same genre under the title Les Bambochades. More often than not, this
original title has been glossed over by contemporary scholars and briefly summarized as a reference to Peter van Laer, (caUed "il Bamboccio"), a
Dutch painter from the first half of the seventeenth century. Max Milner
provides some elaboration, characterizing van Laer's work as depicting pop ular rural or burlesque scenes using a technique prevalent in Rome during the first half of the seventeenth century. Bertrand borrowed from van Laer's
work the notion of creating provocative and lively scenes that evoke a
humorous response, as Milner explains.7 Certainly this claim is valid; howev
er, a more specific clarification is warranted for Bertrand's choice of title.
Because "il Bamboccio" names a specific individual whose birthplace,
Haarlem, is elaborately depicted in Book 1 of Gaspard de la Nuit, "The
Flemish school," it is assumed that Bertrand's Bambochades refer to this par ticular artist. Oddly however, Bertrand mentions van Laer's name neither in
the second preface, nor among the poems of the "Flemish School." In
"Haarlem," for example, an altogether different group of Flemish artists is
catalogued: "Haarlem, that wonderful Bamboccio which sums up the
Flemish school, Haarlem painted by Jan Brueghel, Peter Neefs, David
Teniers, and Paul Rembrandt" (1994, 21). What does the absence of van
Laer's name signify? In fact, Les Bambochades is a title that refers not to Peter
van Laer, the reputed "Bamboccio," but to an entire group of seventeenth
century artists labeled "I Bamboccianti." Several Haarlem-born artists in
addition to van Laer belonged to this circle, including Jan Miel and Dirk
Theodor Helmbreker, with whose work Bertrand would have been familiar.
Conclusively, Bertrand's pluralized title, les Bambochades, refers to the aes
thetic theory propounded by this group rather than to the reputation and
work of a single artist.
Bamboccianti painters practiced what was considered a pictorial genre, a
minor art form. Concerned with the mundane and realistic episodes of daily
life, their works often depicted grotesque or ridiculous characters and scenes
whose nature went counter to the traditional themes of painting. Bamboccianti scenes detail quotidian life, obscenities, and unconventional
situations including ladies pissing, dogs eating vomit, merry-making, brawls, and masquerades. Painting in this manner was inappropriate in a time when
neo-classicist aesthetic tradition reigned. Because they resisted the accepted rule that beauty in Art comes from elevating an idea into a contemplative,
Dana Milstein Hi
sublime, or divine image, the Bamboccianti were labeled as practicing a
lower, minor art form.
Disagreeing with the vilification of this group by other contemporaries, two art critics of the time, G. B. Passeri and F. Baldinucci, nonetheless noted
the important contributions the Bamboccianti made to art:
The Bamboccianti similarly depict those actions of the populace in brief
paintings: merry-making, brawls, and masquerades of carnivals. Their fig
ures, meeting in the breadth of a palm's span, are so lively and so well col
ored, and so brilliantly accompanied by landscaping or animals that each
work seems, as Passeri says, to show all the avenues from an open window,
not generally found in only one canvas. We mustn't forget painters of this
sort, but retrieve several works by Peter [van Laer] to study verism and tinc
ture; although others have argued that his works are rendered vile by their
comic nature. (Briganti 1950, 25; my translation)
Creating in the Bamboccio manner entails panoramic capturing of a brief, chaotic moment in which the frank, absurd truths?a multitude of men and
animals, all manners of costume and gesture?are displayed to the viewer as
a curiosity. This hodge-podge of exaggerated characters, attitudes, and situa
tions magnified into a single episode?yet still absurdly incongruous?rep resents the grotesque. The viewer must laugh at the bizarre or fanciful image
placed before him, deeming it a capricious travesty. The poem "Haarlem" best illustrates Bertrand's use of the Bamboccianti
grotesque. Haarlem, described as a bambochade, is depicted as a multifarious
environment: "And the canal where the blue water trembles, and the church
whose golden glass glows, and the stoel where linen dries in the sun, and the
roofs green with hops" (1994, 21). Here, nature in the form of flowing water
and hop vines, the spirituality and glory of the church, and peasant life all
appear peacefully intertwined in a spring milieu. Further magnifying the set
ting, Bertrand presents a series of different moments that could not exist
simultaneously. Birds catching raindrops have replaced the sun that was dry
ing peasant linens; the lively magistrate and florist ponder prosperity, loss, and
love; and a carnival of music, drinking and feasting appears to ensue. No
definitive ambiance can be created, and it appears as if several temporal set
tings have been superimposed onto a single stage. The reader, confused by this almost cubistic conglomeration of capricious detail, is confronted with a
grotesque moment. Bertrand had succeeded in finding a literary equivalent of the Bamboccianti caprice.
By February 1828, Bertrand had completed most of the "Flemish
School" and other pieces in the same manner, and still intended to group them under the burlesque title les Bambochades. About 20 of these works were
to be published, and Bertrand was working as chief editor of Le Provincial,
142 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
where he remained until June. Five months later he departed for Paris. WhUe
sojourning in Paris, Bertrand frequented the salons of Victor Hugo and
Charles Nodier, and expanded his knowledge of art and foreign literature.8
In August 1829, the editor to whom he had entrusted les Bambochades went
bankrupt. Recurring iUness and depression over his unpublished masterpiece left Bertrand isolated and in financial difficulties during the foUowing
months. It was at this period that he began further acquainting himself with
another engraver's work?namely, that of Jacques CaUot:
Bertrand lived for a while in financial difficulty, and it was in a miserable attic that he passed hours contemplating the world depicted in each work
of CaUot: devils, beggars, and hanged people. He perceived them, however,
to be quite like their master engraver, with a preoccupation for the pictur
esque. (Sprietsma 1926, 127; my translastion)
In aU Ukelihood, Bertrand was already familiar with CaUot's work. A print connoisseur such as Bertrand must have encountered him in the more than
8,000-print coUection avaUable to the public in Dijon's cabinet. Enriched by
revolutionary war spoils, the works of more than 140 artists were represented,
including the Bamboccianti, CaUot, and Rembrandt.9 Nevertheless, it had not
yet occurred to Bertrand to incorporate CaUot's or Rembrandt's work into
his text. Content with the Bamboccianti burlesque, it was not untU his stay in
Paris that Bertrand reevaluated the aesthetic at work in les Bambochades.
Drastic changes were
occurring when Bertrand arrived in Paris. The
Parisian literary milieu of 1828 was experiencing an upsurge in the avail
ability of translated foreign literature, particularly from England and
Germany. Around this time, the name E.T A. Hoffmann began circulating in
reviews and articles. Creator of the fantastic genre, Hoffmann was greatly admired by Charles Nodier, whose salon Bertrand was then frequenting.10
InitiaUy, very few of Hoffmann's works were available in French; however, by December 1829, the first four parts of Fantasiestucke in Callots Manier had
appeared in a deluxe iUustrated edition by Renduel. Bertrand had already returned to Dijon by this time; hence, we cannot assume that his Hoffmann
inspired subtitle, Fantaisies a la maniere de Rembrandt et de CaUot, originated with this publication. Prior to the Renduel edition, however, an article
appeared in Le Globe on 2 August 1828 that compares Hoffmann to CaUot.
Composed by Jean-Jacques Ampere and borrowing heavily from a German
biography by Julius Edouard Hitzig, Hoffman is described as possessing
A vigorous imagination and lucid mind, a bitter melancholy and an inex
haustible verve for buffoonery and extravagance. Imagine a man who
designs with a steady hand the most fantastic figures, rendered ... in the
strangest scenes, simultaneously shivering, dreaming and laughing?in
Dana Milstein 143
short, who composes like Callot ... and you will have an idea of Hoffmann.
(Sprietsma 1926, 45; my translation)
The comparison to Callot probably went unnoticed by the broad public who
had yet to hear of Hoffmann's Fantasiestucke in Callots Manier. It is not incon
ceivable, however, that Bertrand had come across this title during discussions
of Hoffmann at Nodier's salon. Recognizing strains of the fantastic in his still
unpublished work, and already obsessed with engraving as a mimetic medi
um, Bertrand set to work researching and reediting his prose poems a la
maniere ^'Hoffmann. After a brief return to Dijon, Bertrand permanently set
tled in Paris. By January 1833, he had entered into negotiations with
Renduel to publish his revised manuscript, Gaspard de la Nuit: Fantaisies a la
maniere de Rembrandt et de Callot.
Bertrand and the Fantastic Genre: Metaphysical Laughter
What revelation did Hoffmann's title, together with Callots and
Rembrandt's engravings, provide that warranted a drastic change in
Bertrand's title les Bambochades! Simply, the burlesque comedy of the
Bamboccianti no longer satisified Bertrand's aesthetic demands as a nine
teenth-century writer and, more importantly, no longer seemed to him an
adequate vehicle of modern humor.
Undoubtedly both the Bamboccianti and Callot belong among artists of
caricature. However, a significant difference distinguishes the works of an
artist like van Laer from one like Callot. Bamboccianti paintings, as described
above, depict quotidian scenes that gently satirize the living conditions of the
common people. Because their works imitate scenes from ordinary life, the
Bamboccianti belong to a mimetic aesthetic that remains faithful to Nature.
Such depictions may be described as the comique ordinaire or, as Baudelaire
defines it, le comique significatif The viewer laughs in amusement at the plight of another man; in other words, he laughs at something visibly present to any viewer. Callots engravings, by contrast, play on the uncertain boundary of
theartrical, illusory motifs by focusing on masquerades, pantomime and cos
tume. In Callot's work, "figures are disposed with concern for harmonious
staging, graceful bearing and rhetorical gestures (Chappell 1986, 2). In the
Two Zanni (1616), for example, two characters from the popular Italian the
ater appear in the foreground, their poses based on stylized ballet movements.
Generally appearing at festivals and carnivals, these zanni performed for a
diverse group of gentility. A close inspection of the engraving reveals the
nobles to be as much, if not more, involved in the spectacle as the fore
grounded performers. To the immediate left, two gentlemen couples non
chalantly dance, and a noblewoman listens to her companion while clutch
ing a pantaloon. A central group seems to impersonate the theatrical. To the
144 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
extreme right, a
pantaloon leans upon a noblewoman's knee, and a proces
sion-like carriage moves off. No aspect of the painting appears ordinary.
Humor is created by an uncanny mingling of the aristocracy and the dancers.
The viewer remains uncertain of whether the true spectacle lies in the fore
grounded pantomime, or in the aristocratic theatrical occurring behind the
players. The scene depicted is unnatural, and the double nature of aristocrat
ic life, not visible to the ordinary spectator, is satirized.
Opposing le comique ordinaire, CaUot's prints define the true grotesque. By
presenting a theatrical exhibition in which expected social class and individ
ual behavior are thrown into question, CaUot creates an original spectacle rather than mimicking a realistic scene. CaUot's work, Baudelaire would have
claimed, belongs to the realm of fe comique absolu.11 The viewer amuses him
self not by understanding any moral reality, but rather by grasping the intu
itive glimpse of an alternative truth provided by the artist. Consequently, humor arises not from the satire of an
ordinary man in a mundane setting,
but out of the artist's triumph over Nature in creating an iUusion.
CaUotian humor abounds in Gaspard de la Nuit. "Le Macon," for exam
ple, presents the reader with an unusual situation. The text opens from the
single perspective of Abraham Knupfer, who is given a panoramic view of
the city: "The mason Abraham Knupfer sings, his trowel in hand on the airy
scaffold, so high that, reading the Gothic verses on the great beU, he levels
with his feet both the church with thirty flying buttresses and the city of thir
ty churches" (Bertrand 1994, 22).The reader first notices the immediate sur
roundings on which Knupfer is stationed?a gothic church with grotesques, where he reads verses inscribed upon the beU. Oddly, Bertrand has situated
Knupfer, a Jewish mason, on the church, where he gaily sings. The Jew's body is sublimated above both the great church and the Catholic city below.
Expanding his gaze onto this city, noble constructions such as a fortification,
palaces, and cloisters first appear. Following is a rather uncanny description of troops and veterans. Bertrand describes a horseman whose weapon would
have been anachronistic in relation to the costume of that period. Retired
soldiers attack an artificial wooden bird placed upon a May Pole, displaying
contempt for their city or perhaps for the amorous carnival ensuing. The set
ting is destabilized by the simultaneous depiction of a scene of love and cel
ebration with a scene of war and chaos, aU under the scrutiny of a religious outcast. As with CaUot's work, an absurdly incongruous situation is magni fied by an unusual perceiver. No moral is expressed. Bertrand merely creates
a tableau in which characters and their respective actions are aU scrambled
and reapportioned?or "leveUed."
Bertrand changed his title to highlight the CaUotian humor in his text,
and to indicate an homage to Hoffmann's Fantasiestucke in Callots Manier.
Dana Milstein 145
Nevertheless, it must be mentioned that Callot s engravings were not the pri
mary influence on Hoffmann's own particular notion of humor. Desiring to
evoke a relationship between his "fantasy pieces" and engraving, Hoffmann
chose Callot as the artist most exemplary of this aesthetic, but more influen
tial upon Hoffmann's theory of humor was Jean-Paul Richter, whom
Hoffmann so admired that he requested him to write the Introduction to
Fantasiestucke. Hoffmann emphasizes that Richter's "humorous" introduction
should be placed before his preface, which is essentially an accolade to Callot
and his style. Here, Richter takes precedence to Callot. Hoffmann's letters
reveal that his tribute to Callot's works developed as an after-thought upon
completion of the text: "[t]he addition 'in the manner of Callot' I weighed
thoroughly; with it I gave myself leeway for variety. ... Do leave the title as
once decided upon, and don't be too timid in such matters, my dearest
friend" (Sahlin 1977, 205). Hoffmann, like Bertrand, had originally intended
a different title for his text.12 These title changes, post-dating completion of
both authors' texts, provide evidence that their idea of humor evolved from
other sources. In Hoffmann's case, that source was Jean-Paul Richter; and
subsequently, it is Richter's influence upon Hoffmann's notion of humor that
abounds in Bertrand's text.
In the same letter that defends his reference to Callot, Hoffmann explains that "Humor swings his scepter of fun, but he crowns with thorns, and the
mesmerized sleeper is threatened with sharp daggers" (Sahlin 1977, 205). Humor is created not out of joy, but out of its inversion?grief. Grief arises
when the least anticipated situations affect the least suspecting individuals.
This moment may be either comic or tragic in nature. Either the degrada tion of the aristocracy through participation in inappropriate amusement, or
the ennobling of a wretch, for instance, creates an unsuspected
moment for
the reader. The reader is shocked by this kind of travesty, and from this inver
sion of the sublime and grotesque humor evolves.13
Hoffmann's statement metaphorically outlines the complicated theory of
Humor proposed by Richter:
Humor, as the inverse sublime, annihilates not the individual but the finite
by contrasting it with the idea. It knows no individual foolishness, no fools,
but only folly and a mad world; unlike the common joker, delivering side
swipes, it does not single out a particular folly; rather, it hauls down the
great, but?unlike parody?in order to put it next to the small, and raises
the small, but?unlike irony?in order to put it next to the great and thus to
annihilate both, because in the face of infinity all is equal and nothing. (Casey 1992, 250)
Here, Humor arises out of a contrast and union between two dualities, the
Finite and the Idea. The "Finite" defines that which already exists in a per
146 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
feet state without need of amendment. The "Idea" impUes something stiU in
progress and thus incomplete. EssentiaUy, Richter s terms may be substituted
by their sister concepts, the "sublime" and the "grotesque." Baudelaire posits this same theory of the comic by stating that laughter requires two presences in conflict. The
peculiar oxymoronic nature of comic art, which [Baudelaire] treats as a
contradiction in terms, represents in boldly exaggerated form, Uke a good
caricature, the dualism of art itself, the contradiction inherent in aU artistic
creation, as in mankind?at once diabolical and divine, real and ideal, ugly
and beautiful, temporal and enduring, inferior and superior. (Hannoosh
1992,3)
Given the logical equation then, Richter (and Baudelaire) suggests that
the subUme and the grotesque must meet through an inversion of status. The
sublime is not degraded for purposes of satirical imitation?what Richter
labels Parody?but in order to commensurate it with the grotesque.
Likewise, the grotesque is elevated to balance this shift. The convergence of
these antipodes annihUates both, and proves that everything is simultaneous
ly equal and nothing. It is essential, before continuing, to point out that
Richter s concept of humor is more elaborate than Hugo's weU-known
notion of the sublime and the grotesque. For Hugo, "The real results in the
natural combination of two types, the sublime and the grotesque, which
intersect in the drama, just as they intersect in life and in creation.True poet
ry, or complete poetry, exists in the harmony of opposites" (1933, 60; my
translation). While two corresponding duaUties are necessary to achieve
Humor, for Hugo no dialectical inversion or annihilation is necessary. The
grotesque is not the inverted sublime, but rather an ugliness content to exist
as a harmonious opposite. Indeed, Hugo's definition seems representative of
the parody and irony that Richter argues against. Bertrand's work (via
Hoffmann) is thus more in Une with Richter s notion of the comic as an
absurdity or negation of understanding rather than Hugo's theory of humor, which inspires gravity and moral improvement.
For nineteenth-century aesthetes, art too was divided in two parts that
result in "the convergence of two fundamental points: topicality and durabil
ity" (Baudelaire 1975, 1. 352; my trasnslation). Baudelaire postulates that
"Beauty is always of a dual composition, even though the impression it pro duces is single. It consists of an eternal, invariable element and a relative, cir
cumstantial element" (Hannoosh 1992, 261). These elements correspond
respectively to Reason and Emotion, the Finite and the Idea, or the Sublime
and the Grotesque. Bertrand maintains that art is achieved by two conditions:
feeling, represented by God and Love, and reason, signified by Satan.14 Gaspard reflects upon this theory when recounting his tale to the narrator: "This
Dana Milstein 147
adventure gave me pause to reflect. I reflected that since God and Love were
the primary conditions for Art, that which is feeling in art, Satan could well
be the second of these conditions, that which is reason in Art" (Bertrand
1994, 9). Determining these conditions for Art, Gaspard embarks on a search
for Satan. Unnoted by Gaspard, the reader does not ascertain until the con
clusion that Gaspard himself is the Devil. Gaspard searches for his inner Self, a component that must unite with God or the sublime. The meeting of these
two conditions results in an annihilation of duality, permitting the realization
that Art exists only "in the bosom of God" (11). Based on this aesthetic, this annihilation occurs through a dialectical
inversion of the sublime and the grotesque. The end result is what Baudelaire
defines as an explosion of the comique absolu: writer and reader enter the
realm of the fantastic, or merveilleux. Unlike Hoffmann, whose Fantasiestucke
centralizes itself around the theme of the grotesque to facilitate the use of the
fantastic,15 Bertrand (though equally concerned with the fantastic) exhibits
an obsession with the dialectical equation of Art. While Hoffmann was con
tent to rely solely upon Callot as the artist most representative of his theory of humor, Bertrand required a second artist who would represent the sub
lime?hence, the addition of Rembrandt's name to his subtitle.
The choice to juxtapose Callot and Rembrandt as representative of the
two conditions of art is explained in Bertrand's second preface to Gaspard de la Nuit:
Art has always two contrasting sides, a medallion whose one face, for exam
ple, bears the likeness of Paul Rembrandt and the reverse that of Jacques Callot. Rembrandt is the white-bearded philosopher, who corkscrews him
self into his retreat; who gathers his thoughts in meditation and prayer; who
closes his eyes to wrap himself in thought; who communes with the spirits
of beauty, science, wisdom, and love; and who wastes away delving into the
mysterious symbols of nature. Callot, on the other hand, is the mercenary
soldier, braggart and licentious, who struts about the square, who is noisy
in the taverns, who caresses the gypsy girls, who swears only by his sword
and his blunderbuss, and whose only other care is waxing his moustache.
(Bertrand 1994, 14)
A certain inversion ensues between the two artists. Callot, who was born into
an aristocratic family, is here reduced to a gruff and pompous dandy. This
degradation is in keeping with Callots depiction of the grotesque. In fact at
one point, Callot portrays himself among disfigured Gobbi, intentionally
inverting his nobility as a deformed, comic figure. Rembrandt, by contrast, is
the philosopher or dreamer who envisages the deformed or common as sub
lime. In more than 30 self-portraits done over his lifetime, Rembrandt
appears not as an artisan, but as a compendium of aristocratic and holy fig
148 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
ures?as a burgher, Democritus, St. Paul, and in armor or aristocratic cloth
ing. Rembrandt's works can be characterized as an attempt "to catch the
awkward truth," (Schama 1999, 9) and this is exhibited primarily by the end
less attempts of self-portraiture as various personae. The motif of double
inversion of the subject (in this case, the artists' role reversals), defines a comic
moment: "Distorting the subject while maintaining a likeness sufficient to
ensure recognition, caricature both preserves and alters it in one same image"
(Hannoosh 1992,75).
Gaspard de la Nuit: Callot and Rembrandt
Were I to open for you the sliding door to the magic lantern of my imag
ination, you would see yourself in many poses. (E.T. A. Hoffmann, letter to
Hippel 28 May 1796)
For CaUot, who had lived in Rome during the blossoming of baroque
theater, theatricality and pageantry were most significant. Reacting against Mannerism, CaUot was
moved by what could be caUed a Baroque concern for heightened persua
sion of the beholder. [He] practiced a new style combining a return to
verism in color and drawing, a preference for compositions reminiscent of
Florentine High Renaissance exemplars of good disegno, and restrained
gestures and expressions. (ChappeU 1986, 4)
Working "in the manner of" CaUot's etchings, Bertrand creates a series of
vignettes characterized by magnified figures placed in varying reliefs, or on
various stages.
The subject matter of La Chanson de Masque recalls the grotesque motif
in CaUot's Les Bohemiens. Irony abounds with the unfolding plot of an undig nified processional making its fervent pilgrimage towards death. Like CaUot's
bohemiens, this "band of poor beggars, fuU of adventure, carries nothing other
than future hopes."16 A mock crowning of the Harlequin foUows after this
buffoon regales them with what would have been a poor man's supper.
Undertaking to feast their monarch, the company performs a mock pageant in which the nobleman is played by the haggard and the phony, and in which
libidinous pleasure conquers the joy shared by romantic lovers. In this drama, aristocratic games and riches are deemed boring, and placed offstage behind
the curtain. Instead, the spectacle revolves around a masquerade predominat
ed by dancing and singing. As the ephemeral spectacle unfolds, the text
becomes part of the ronde being enacted by the figures. Reading the lines, we
are obliged to engage in the dance, repeating the refrains "let us join hands"
and "let us sing and dance" along with the fictitious characters (Bertrand
1994, 94).17 Cleverly, Bertrand removes any definable boundary between
simulacrum of the text and real action.18 By subtly involving us in this musi
Dana Milstein 149
cal text, fictitious images become threaded with fabricated memories. The
uncertainty of whether the reader has engaged in actual or imagined action
delineates the deconstruction of position between reader and text. This
marks the moment of Humor the text accomplishes.
Similarly characterized by the grotesque and inspired by a fifteenth-cen
tury stringed instrument used primarily in consort music, La Viole de Gamba
parallels the "manner of" Callot's Balli di Sfessania. Conceived in three dis
tinct planes, Callot's composition conveys qualities of an Italian Comedy set
in action upon a specific stage. Masked comedians gesticulate rapidly in the
foreground, unconcerned with performing. In the middle ground, a more
conservative spectacle entertains onlookers. The stage and scenery compose the background, adding a three-dimensional quality to the piece.
Set in three reliefs disjointed from each other by stars, Bertrand's stanzas
can be analyzed as an improvisation upon Callot's spectacle. In the fore
ground, the instrument becomes animated by an interior comedy. The direc
tor's first strum upon the instrument results in an improvised piece played
independently of the orchestrated music intended. In the middle ground, a
comedy in three acts ensues. Anger abounds in Act I, in which Barbara scolds
Pierrot for clumsiness. Farce dominates Act II with the characters harmo
niously staged in the pantomime of mocking poor Monsieur Cassandre.
Finally, Act III is marked by disillusionment when Harlequin abducts
Pierrot's goods. The absurdity of the drama is accentuated by the mish-mash
of a troupe of characters who have no specific link to each other; accord
ingly, the narrative dramatic function is preempted by the visual image of the
characters.19 In the background, the moment of real action occurs?the
director expresses distress in discovering a broken string. Like Callot, Bertrand is more concerned with improvisation upon a theme and the par
ticipation of the spectator in that theme than with a historically credible per formance. Mirroring the middle-ground drama, Bertrand divides La Viole de
Gamba into three acts?the anger of the director, the imaginary perform ance, and the director's disillusionment. Multiple reliefs are created by corre
sponding visual and auditory immediacy of a text to the interior drama.
Bertrand uses this metatext to lead the reader into this mysterious realm so
that he can appreciate the synesthetic effects. By entering the text to observe
the embedded spectacle, the reader participates in the vignette, and the bar
rier between illusory and real action is annihilated.20
Unlike Callot, Bertrand does not intend to capture an historical event.
His purpose, working in Callot's manner, is to magnify in a single page a
multiplicity of actions and figures that would not meet in a real context.
There are not, as Hubert claims, "arbitrary limitations in [Bertrand's] uni
verse" (1964, 80). Ultimately, perspective is displaced by restructuring the
150 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
panoramic "glance" as a
multiple rather than single vision. Creating a scope
of visibiUty, Bertrand intends, as does CaUot, for the surreal to evolve out of
an impossible game of "pin the tale" on the absolute perspective. Bold color
schemes and aggressive lines, present in the form of textual relief and com
bined antithetical forms and themes, mark several of the prose poems as
vignettes in CaUot's manner.
La Chasse may be the one prose poem that contains both
Rembrandtesque and CaUotian technique. The work begins in CaUot's man
ner by depicting a typical aristocratic hunt. Kinetic activity is projected by man into field, animals, and horns that become animated participants in the
pursuit. Like CaUot's etching, aU action is suffused in the middle ground of
the work, and the observer is drawn into the text. Halfway through the work, at the cathartic moment, the chase is inverted. It is now man who is being tracked down to the death, ravaged by the violent act of his kin. The strug
gle reverts toward the exterior. Contrasted with the former iUusory chase, the
moving figures appear to jump out of their textual confinement. By shock
ing the reader with this twist of events, the narrator provides us with an inte
rior perspective?we are given the honor of pronouncing the (fictitious)
blessing for the dead and the curse for the damned.
UnUke CaUot, Rembrandt's style of engraving is less concerned with
magnitude and relief as a technique. Instead, drama is created in Rembrandt's
work primarily through shading, using a technique known as chiaroscuro.
LiteraUy translated as the oxymoron "light-dark," chiaroscuro is a technique in which extreme contrasts between light and dark shades create a dramatic
effect. Realistic scenes are easily emphasized through this technique of
Baroque iUusionism, in which the eye must acknowledge the emerging fig ures moving against the background. Chiaroscuro "demonstrates that somber
colors don't tend towards non-colored obscurity, but rather transform the
localized color of objects and characters, contrast the light of bright colors,
and give the painting a dramatic tension, a profundity and exceptional inte
riority" (Alpers 1991, 85; my translation). The exchange of perceptions between the interior and exterior creates a heightened sense of motion and
fluidity between various subjects. By juxtaposing extreme opposites of Ught and dark and displacing subject and perspective, Rembrandt creates a rupture or nervous tension, leaving an awkward or absurd ambience with the viewer.
Throughout Gaspard de la Nuit, Bertrand implements the technique of
chiaroscuro to unsettle the reader's perspective. Movement and displaced per
spective is used primarily to blur the relationship between reader, narrator,
and characters; or, to erode the barriers between interior and exterior, sub
ject and object, or original and copy in the text.
Dana Milstein 151
L'Ecolier de Leyden, for example, is a subterfuge used to confuse the
boundaries between reality, history, and fiction. The epigram?recounting the Spanish and French invasion of Dutch land?opens with the theme of
guarding oneself against counterfeit.21 Given certain details of costume and
chattel, the setting opens in a sixteenth-century money-lending house. As the
narrator, a poor student, waits for his loan, he ponders the unethical manner
by which goldweighers prosper. Disgusted by Monsieur Blazius's suspicion of
his pawned object, the narrator turns his attention to the oriental box that
houses the weigher's scales. The appearance of this foreign object, likened to
a spider crouching for attack, mesmerizes the student. He fantasizes that
Blazius is forced to return to God what has been gained through deception. Fantastic images such as spiders and odd tulips awaken and recede with the
closing of the box. Humbly and without complaint, the student takes his
money and leaves.
The poem itself is most likely a transposition of Rembrandt's etching, fan
Uytenbogaert, The Receiver-General. Long known as The Goldweigher, the etch
ing depicts a scene strongly reminiscent of Bertrand's text. Composed as an
act of gratitude to Jan, the Receiver-General, the work is actually a historic
document. Captured in this image is Rembrandt's humble dispute over two
paintings done for the king, for which he had not been properly compen sated. Jan, an admirer of Rembrandt's works, intervened and arranged full
compensation for the paintings. Christopher White speculates that The
Goldweigher was etched in thanks for Jan's assistance (1964, 50). In this genre scene in which Jan's portrait appears as the central figure, a sense of forebod
ing or caution permeates the picture. Distrust coupled with an expectation of honest work radiates from the weigher's eyes into those of the servant
child kneeling before him, and he clutches the pouch that the child seems
eager to take from him.
The Goldweigher may be a metaphor of Rembrandt's own relief as he
humbly accepted his payment from the treasurer. Yet the comparison between Rembrandt's image and Bertrand's text opens an additional possi
bility for interpretation. Who is the apprentice first depicted in Rembrandt's
portrait as a servant, then depicted in Bertrand's text as a poor student from
Leyden? In fact, Bertrand's text is an interpretation of Rembrandt's genre scene in terms of biographical metaphor. The son of a miller's family,
Rembrandt was removed from this lowly environment to begin an appren
ticeship with Jacob van Swanenburgh, an "undistinguished local architectur
al painter" (White 1964,13). The "poor student of Leyden with holey stock
ings and breeches," narrator of Bertrand's text, alludes to Rembrandt's status
during his youth. Bertrand's ability to create confusion between original and
copy, simulacrum and real, is masterly. Based on a Rembrandt etching, which
152 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
is itself based on a historic incident, L'Ecolier de Ley den becomes a journalis tic narration rendered during the artist's actual experience. Which of the
three resources?the text, the etching, or
experience?evolved first? Is
Rembrandt a fictitious character or a historic person? The text eliminates
space-time parameters by crossing the fabricated drama of our minds with
real life drama. In a chiaroscuro manner, authenticity is ruptured. In L'Alchimiste, Bertrand aims to destabilize the reader's confidence in
first-person textual narrators. Reading the hermetic wisdom of Raymond
LuUy,22 the narrator attempts to decipher the mystical writings independ
ently of instruction. The presence of divine inspiration or revelation, neces
sary to disentangle hermetic metaphor, is absent from the alchemist's mind.
A salamander appears amidst the chemical apparatus, but its attempts to dis
tract the alchemist from continuing his efforts go unnoticed. This creature,
which should be perceived as a symbol of having achieved purity, is instead
viewed as a nuisance. Indeed, even the distiUation equipment begins to
whistle strongly, trying to guide the student in the right direction. But the
alchemist remains incognizant, unaware of the truth surrounding him and
trying to capture his attention. Frustrated, he continues his studious efforts
in vain.
Aside from displaying fantastic imagery, this vignette is intended to be an
aUegorical sketch. Taking the epigram's advice, the reader must acquire Bertrand's wisdom "by bonds, which are very obscure and entangled" in
order to "find evidence and truth" in the text (1994, 30). A specific context
can be grasped from the alchemical imagery. The reference to LuUy, the
appearance of the salamander, and the use of a retort in chemical experi
mentation aU hint that the alchemist is attempting to solve the process of
chemical and spiritual distiUation. In chemical terms, distiUation involves
condensing a solution to increase its purity; but spirituaUy, the distiUation
process symbolizes transcendence of the psyche to the most sublime level
possible. In this state, the psyche is freed of sentimentality, and cut off from
emotion. The salamander, known to resist the flames of temptation, appears as a symbol of this purification from passion. In rudimentary terms, distiUa
tion is the process of "getting the human out of the way" in order to tap into
one's creativity (Hauck 1999, 124). The bleak weariness of the determined student recaUs Rembrandt's
Student with a Light. Seated in pitch dark, the shape, much less the features, of
the figure barely appears outlined by a coruscating candle. The lack of mate
rial visibUity suggests that neither man's logic, nor the book he is pondering, can reveal concealed wisdom. Only through a transcended psyche, here sym boUzed by the flame (the exclusively discernible object on the print) is the
PhUosopher's Stone?or Art?obtained.
Dana Milstein 153
The pictorial language and fantastic iconography of Bertrand's vignette
allegorizes the author's own pursuit of Art. As the Philosopher's Stone of the
nineteenth century, Art can be obtained through the alchemical process of
purification. Important to this process is the annihilation of subject and iden
tity of the seeker. Bertrand, like Richter and Baudelaire, alludes to the com
mon alchemical credo that all things originate from the Divine, and can
achieve perfection only through the annihilation of dualities.23
Attempted identity elimination courses through the preface of Gaspard de la Nuit.24 Initially, the narrator's body is likened to a statue standing in the
Garden where the story opens. While he is meditating upon the statue?
which is of a priest sitting and reading?a Christ-like figure approaches and
distracts his attention. Unknown yet to the narrator or reader, it is Gaspard de la Nuit, Bertrand's poetic daemon. Retrieving a withered flower that has
escaped from the stranger's book, the narrator engages in a conversation
about Art and the quest for it. As Gaspard describes his experiences and
observations, it becomes increasingly apparent that his book?the book he
loans to Bertrand?is a notebook that records this alchemical quest. The
preface is merely a summary of that quest. Gaspard's adventures lead him to
hypothesize that Art is composed of two conditions?God and Satan.
However he later resolves?and hopes that the narrator will do the same
after completing his book?that true Art exists only with God, and that the
devil is a fabrication. The narrator is left with a manuscript, whose title is
Gaspard de la Nuit: Fantaisies a la Maniere de Rembrandt et Callot. As a data
repository of spiritual processes, the manuscript is the sole substantiation that
Gaspard has achieved his quest for Art.
The preface concludes with the narrator's discovery that Gaspard de la
Nuit is the devil; or alternatively, the second condition of Art. One page later, the reader learns that Gaspard is a pseudonym for Bertrand himself. Is it
Bertrand as Gaspard who plays the part of the alchemist, vigilantly attempt
ing to decipher the secrets of purification to obtain absolute Art? Be that as
it may, Gaspard determines that the second condition of Art?Satan?exists:
"[t]hey etch him in vignettes; they stitch him in novels; they clothe him in
plays. One sees him everywhere, as
clearly as I see you. Pocket mirrors were
invented that he might better trim his beard" (1994, 10).The implication is
that this second condition of Art, which can be seen simply by gazing into a
mirror, is a reflection of the author's psyche. Finishing his recollection, how
ever, Gaspard denies the devil's existence and deems that Art is perpetuated in the bosom of God, the only original creator. Inquiring after Gaspard the
next day to return his book, the narrator learns that Gaspard is the devil.Why then, had Gaspard denounced his own existence? Why, in other words, does
Bertrand make copious efforts to nullify his authority over the text, and real
154 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
locate the triumph of his works to God? The answer evades the reader until
s/he reads UAlchimiste. There the first-person narrator sits and ventures to
discover the secret of distiUation. Achieving this spiritual process would grant the secret of Creation?of true Art, but in this prose poem spiritual transfor
mation occurs without the author's recognition. Bertrand's abandonment of
true identity, and his acquisition of a new identity in the form of Gaspard, does not register in the author's mind as spiritual distiUation. Instead, the frus
tration of unproductive study is recorded in the manuscript. Later summarizing his completed manuscript to the narrator, Gaspard
proclaims that the devil doesn't exist. This afterthought is placed prior to the
text to delude the reader into confusing actual recorded experience for
prnlosophical fabrication, or the original for the copy. If, as Gaspard claims, his text retains an aura of chiaroscuro, this means that both conditions of Art
have been satisfied in the given work. In other words, this corpus of prose
poems is proof of the discovery of the Philosopher's Stone?Art. Given the
alchemical belief that the Philosopher's Stone can be obtained only by
renouncing the Ego, it becomes necessary for Gaspard (or Bertrand) to
renounce his own authority and identity, and to proclaim Art's existence
with God.25
Conclusion
An inquiry into the metamorphosis of the title (and subtitle) of Gaspard de la Nuit reveals the inteUectual expansion Bertrand experienced over sev
eral years. Beginning his work as a coUection of caprices, Bertrand intended
nothing more than a series of short, improvised sketches that were satiric in
nature. Progressively, however, this simple concept of Humor was
replaced
with a more complex theory along the lines of Richter s and Hugo's notions
of the subUme and the grotesque. In the manner of Rembrandt and CaUot, Bertrand's prose poems evolve as magnified sketches in which characters and
scenes osciUate between varying reliefs (or between the sublime and the
grotesque). This movement results in a distorted perspective for the reader
and the elimination of central authorial authority. By dividing the text into
brief images that are implanted as the authors fabricated memories, Bertrand
transforms his text into a process?an alchemical quest?whose goal is Art.
Consequently, the text becomes less identifiable as a literary object than as a
"mental process involved in aesthetic apprehension" (Scott 1988, 11).
Coupling the etching technique of Rembrandt and CaUot with Richter s
notion of Humor, Bertrand's poems become typified by what may be caUed
a neo-baroque aesthetic of the oxymoron?"briUiant darkness."26 Contained
in this aesthetic are the elements of suspended lyric, surreal juxtapositions,
Dana Milstein 155
and conscious jolts and disruptions that would come, through more famous
authors such as Baudelaire, to characterize the modern prose poem.
Unquestionably, these "croisements',' as Baudelaire calls them in the preface to his Petits poemes en prose, achieve what Hugo defines as the goal of all art:
The goal of art. . .is to open to the spectator a double horizon, to illumi
nate simultaneously the interior and the exterior of men; the exterior by
their discourses and actions; the interior, by their monologues; to intersect,
in a word, in the same tableau, the drama of life and the drama of the con
science. (Hugo 1933, 83; my translation)
Notes
Special thanks to Richard Sieburth and Royal S. Brown for their suggestions and aid in producting this text. This article is dedicated to Michael Adamcik.
1 Maurice Ravel composed "Gaspard de la Nuit: 3 poemes pour piano d'apres
Aloysius Bertrand." The music was set to a baUet in 1976 and made into a motion
picture of the same title. The work was later filmed for the Jerome Robbins Archive
by Amram Nowak Associates with the assistance of a grant from the National
Endowment for the Arts, at the NewYork State Theater on January 31, 1976, per
formed by members of the New York City BaUet. Antonio Giacommetti's piece is
entitled "Gaspard de la nuit : sette pezzi per chitarra."
2 For a broader explanation of engraving, see Hind:
Engraving may be broadly defined as the art of drawing or writing on any substance
by means of an incised line. By a natural transference from the abstract to the con
crete, the term may be referred to the work so performed, and by a further trans
ference, illogical, but stereotyped by usage, it is applied to an impression taken on
paper or some allied material, from the original engraved work. (Hind 1963, 1)
3 The 1980 GaUimard (French) edition of Gaspard de la Nuit, edited by Max
MUner, includes an Appendix in which notes by Bertrand on the manner of iUus
tration are included. Bertrand explains that "Le caractere general du dessin sera
moyen-age et fantastique," and that "plus il y aura dans l'encadrement de confusion
et de figures, plus il fera d'effet." 4 "To an ever greater degree the work of art reproduced becomes the work of
art designed for reproducibUity. From a photographic negative, for example, one can
make any number of prints; to ask for the 'authentic' print makes no sense"
(Benjamin 1922,218). 5 Writing to a friend about his text, which has been prefaced by Richter,
Hoffmann concludes: "The real goal is reached with the words on the title page
"With a preface by Jean Paul," and he himself speaks in the preface of his manner (not
style)! I wiU say no more about it" (Selected Letters ofE.T.A. Hoffmann, 225). 6 These summarized explanations
are based on definitions taken from E. Littre,
Dictionnaire de la Langue Frangaise, cd-rom version (Paris: Redon, 1998). 7 This explanation is provided in Milner s French edition of Gaspard de la Nuit
(1980, 12).
156 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
8 Sprietsma notes that Bertrand was
particularly occupied by the following
writings: De IAllemagne of Mme de Stael, Shakespeare by Guizot, Schiller by Barante,
and le Cours de Litterature by Schlegel. 9 For further information, see Claudon (1993, 107). 10 Information here was taken from Schneider (1985, 145). Nodier, in an arti
cle of November 1830 entitled Du Fantastique en Litterature, labels Hoffmann the cre
ator of the fantastic genre, and divides his work into four principle themes: "folie et
puissance du mal, illusion et humour." 11 Le comique est, au point de vue artistique, une imitation; le grotesque, une crea
tion. Le comique est une imitation melee d'une certaine faculte creatrice, c'est a
dire d'une idealite artistique. . . .
Je veux dire que dans ce cas la (du grotesque) le
rire est l'expression de l'idee de superiority, non plus de l'homme sur l'homme, mais
de l'homme sur la nature. (Baudelaire 1975, 2.535)
12 The original accolade was to Hogarth, not Callot. 13
Hugo's "Preface to Cromwell" which outlines this new aesthetic of the sub
lime/grotesque, was published in 1827, just as Bertrand began on the poems that
would become Gaspard de la Nuit. 14 This duality is further elaborated by Baudelaire, who explains that Humor
(in the form of caricature), is double: "La caricature est double: le dessin et l'idee:
le dessin violent, l'idee mordante et voilee; complication d'elements penibles pour
un esprit naif, accoutume a comprendre d'intuition des choses simples comme lui"
(1975,2.529). 15
Unfortunately, this paper cannot concern itself with Hoffmann's use of
Callot; however, his decision to emphasize the grotesque is represented in the intro
duction of the Fantasiestucke: "Even in [Callot's] realistic depictions?the parades,
battle scenes, and such?lively facial characteristics give his figures and groups a dis
tinctive style?a peculiar familiarity, I might say" (1996, 5). 16
Inscription appearing on Callot's print, The Bohemians Marching: The Rear
Guard. 17 A ronde is a song in which one person sings the verses, and a refrain is repeat
ed by all participants while dancing in a circle.
18 For a description of the uncertain status of narrative and poetic authority in
Gaspard de la Nuit see Sieburth. Speaking in the context of duality between narrator
and interlocutor, Sieburth writes
"The specular identity of narrator and interlocutor (or of poet and devil, author and
reader) bears directly on the uncertain status of narrative and poetic authority with
in the work as a whole and, more specifically, serves to dramatize the difficulties of
distinguishing the simulacrum from the real, the derivation from the original."
(Sieburth 1985,239) 19 Diane Russell explains that "it would be impossible to piece together a
respectable comic company with the figures from Callot's Balli, since there is a pre
dominance of certain character types to the exclusion of others" (1975, 76). 20 This argument is a reassessment of Renee Riese Hubert's claim that the
synesthetic effects in this text "merely increase visual and auditory immediacy and,
Dana Milstein 157
unlike Baudelairean 'correspondances,' does not lead to some mysterious realm."
(1964, 78). Clearly, Bertrand intended the reader to appreciate both the immediate
synesthesia of actual textual description, and the corresponding "mysterious realm"
created in the iUusory action of that description. Denying the duplicity of texts is a
misunderstanding of CaUot's technique and intent, and thus an argument against
CaUot's influence upon the text.
21 This text appeared only in the first edition, and was later replaced by Captain
Lazare.
22 Raymond LuUy was a hermetic philosopher. He is most appreciated for the
theory expounded in the Ars Magna, which holds that there is no distinction between
phUosophy and theology, or Reason and Faith, so that even the highest mysteries may
be proved by means of logical demonstration (The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1919). 23 The most important laws of alchemy originate from the Emerald Tablet,
believed to originate from Hermes (the EgyptianToth). A Hermetic philosophy out
lined on these tablets was carried down through modern times, and appeared dur
ing the late eighteenth century when alchemy and secret societies came into vogue.
The second law of tablet reads:
That which is Below corresponds to that which is Above, and that which is Above
corresponds to that which is Below, to accomplish the miracles of the One Thing.
And just as all things have come from this One Thing, through the meditation of
One Mind, so do all created things originate from this One Thing, through
Transformation. (Hauck 1999, 45)
24 Several suggestions have been proposed for the origin of Bertrand's charac
ter. Among the list of mimes and actors, I would like to propose a character from
Richter's novel Titan. In Richter's text, Count Gaspard de Cesara uses elaborate
tricks to create misunderstanding and mistaken identity. Indeed, the novel's theme is
the masque and mystery of konterfeis. The character seems not unlike Bertrand's and
requires further inspection as a possible source.
25 It is very difficult to summarize the components of alchemical philosophy without digressing from the main topic. Bertrand seems to replace the symbolic con
cepts of the One Thing and the One Mind respectively with Satan and God, or
Reason and Feeling. As Hauck explains, the One Thing is a theoretical substance
found everywhere. As the name of God, the One Thing represents Logos, Reason,
or the Ego. This One Thing, however, has no perceptible reality or form until it is
materialized by the action or thought of the One Mind, the "mind of the supreme
being." Bertrand systematically replaced this alchemical pair so that Satan (or
Gaspard, or Bertrand) assumes the guise of alchemy s "One Thing," while God is the
One Mind from which Satan (the One Thing) manifests itself. (Hauck 1999, 58). 26 It might be interesting to assess the use of this term with CoreneiUe's use of
"obscure clarte."
158 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
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Dana Milstein 159
Figure 1: Jacques CaUot, "The Two Zanni, 1616
Private CoUection
its pmtwTP duewn pfeim w h&naduftures w
Qj^f pct-tenr tirn auf &n hmet fuHtrtt.
Figure 2: Jacques CaUot, "La Bohemiens, 1619
Private CoUection
160 College Literature 30.2 (Spring 2003)
Stapine. Cap. *&rbt*w~~ '"TlTT^l'T!!?""" --^ Watpr "J v i. i ^v. - rra'uchma. Gumr&rma.
Figure 3: Jacques CaUot, "BaUi de Sfessania," 1619
Private CoUection
Figure 4: Jacques CaUot, "The Hunt," Private CoUection
? i
^ i <,"
Figure 5: Rembrandt van Rijn,"The Hunt," Private CoUection
Dana Milstein 161
Figure 6:
Rembrandt van Rijn "The Goldweigher, 1639
Teylers Museum, Haarlem
Figure 7:
Rembrandt vanRijn "Student with a Light," 1656
Teylers Museum, Haarlem