GCSE Citizenship (Short Course)

Revision Guide for Edexcel Course

GCSE Citizenship (Short course) Revision guide Updated to : 19/04/2023

How to use this Revision Guide: Use the guide in conjunction with your notes and any other revision aid you

have written or purchased. Read through the key terms and concepts at the start of each module. Do

you know accurately what each one means ? Read through the text. Alongside the text in the right-hand column, write

notes, give recent examples, highlight key points; add extra facts. Construct some useful revision notes, or mind maps, or revision cards –

whatever suits your revision style best !

Mind mapping is a favourite technique of some students. Use the mind maps created by your tutor. Remember that with a mind map it is really useful to finish the end of each sub-branch with an example. Below is the half-completed mind map from Module 1; Rights and Responsibilities in the UK and the Wider World.

Filename & path = /tt/file_convert/55cf92c4550346f57b996bb5/document.doc Updated to : 19/04/2023

Module 1 : Rights & Responsibilities in the UK& in the Wider World

Further explanation / evidence / examples

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Key concepts and terms:- Universal Declaration of Human Rights (set by the UN)- UN Convention on the Rights of the Child- UK Human Rights Act (in force from 2000)- European Court of Human Rights (part of the Council of Europe) & the European Convention on Human Rights- Human rights, legal rights, political/civil rights, social rights, moral rights- Rights in conflict (key cases, e.g. Welsh Sikh girl & the Kara bangle)- Human rights abuses- International Criminal Court (in the Hague, Netherlands)

a) IntroductionIn a democracy like the UK a citizen can expect to enjoy a range of rights, but to have a series of obligations or responsibilities to fulfil. These rights can be thought of as- freedoms to………do some form of action, e.g. protest,- freedoms from…….some type of negative action, e.g. an employer’s discrimination.

Some of these rights are legal, i.e. are clearly enshrined in the law, e.g.- the right to a fair trial (HRA)- the right to a solicitor when arrested- the right to privacy (HRA)

Some of these can be described as fundamental human rights, e.g.- the right to life and liberty- the right to be free from torture

Some of these can be described as civil/political rights, e.g.- the right to free speech- the right to vote- the right to demonstrate peacefully- the right to form a Trade Union- the right to stand for election

Some of these can be described as social or economic rights, e.g.- the right to an education- the right to health care- the right to be supported by the state in the event of

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unemployment or disability- the right to a pension

Some other rights can be described as moral (or ethical) rights, e.g.- the right to choose whether to have an abortion- the right to decide the time and manner of one’s own death assisted by another person (assisted suicide debate)But in some of these cases there is often disagreement as to whether that right should be recognised (e.g. assisted suicide)

Some rights are age-related – see below:

Under 10s can be subject to a Local Child Curfew be a member of school council take part in mock school elections be a director of a company (16 years in Scotland) pay income tax

be tried by a jury in Crown Court be convicted of a criminal offence (8 years in Scotland) be fingerprinted, photographed and searched in custody be subject to Anti Social Behaviour Order (breach can be up to

five years’ imprisonment) be locked up

be employed part-time (only in certain jobs)

drive a moped (with license) leave school have heterosexual relationships (17 in Northern Ireland) get married (with parental consent in England and Wales; without

parental consent in Scotland) drink wine/beer with a meal in a restaurant work full-time if left school pay full fare on all public transport leave home (with parental consent) make a request to be accommodated (received into care of local

authority) change name by deed poll pay for prescriptions, dental treatment or eye sight tests (unless in

full-time education, or in receipt of social security benefits) join the Armed Forces without parental consent (certain sections

only) if male claim social security benefits in certain circumstances vote in local community council elections in some Scottish local

authorities be interviewed by the police without an ‘appropriate adult’ being

present obtain a provisional driving licence pilot a plane or helicopter join the Armed Forces with parental consent if female be tattooed

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Under 10

13+

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vote buy cigarettes/tobacco leave home marry without parental consent adopt a child serve on a jury be elected as a local councillor, MP, MSP, Welsh AM or MEP

b) Origins and sources of our rightsAs the Second world War drew to a close, a number of politicians were giving thought to the kind of society that should emerge in post –war Britain. William Beveridge’s ideas became the foundation for the Welfare State. He identified the ’five giant evils’ which needed to be erased through government measures:- Ignorance…...thro’ the free secondary schooling- Disease……..thro’ the creation of the NHS- Squalor ……..thro’ new council houses and a new approach to planning with more green spaces- Poverty……...thro’ the provision of unemployment and sickness benefits- Idleness……..thro’ government-funded work programmesThrough these measures many economic and social rights came into being.

Following the end of the Second World War the creation of the United Nations (UN) led to the signing of a Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), and later the UN Declaration on the Rights of the Child (1989). The creation of the Council of Europe (with originally 10 member states, but now totalling 47) led to the signing of the European Convention on Human Rights (1950), which is upheld by the European Court of Human Rights meeting in Strasbourg.

Britain has a long history of respect for human rights, but as the 1990s drew to a close there was a recognition that those rights had to be established in law, and so the incoming Labour Government of 1997 introduced the Human Rights Act, which was passed in 1998 and came into effect in 2000. It mirrors the main provisions of the European Convention on Human Rights.

c) Safeguarding our rightsWith the Human Rights Act in place it has been more straightforward for individual citizens to claim in the courts that their human rights have been abused or infringed. In addition there

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21+

18+

are many laws which protect individuals from discrimination or abuse, e.g. Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006. Lastly, there are organisations that defend and promote peoples’ civil liberties and human rights. Examples include…..In the UK:- Commission for Equality and Human Rights- pressure groups like LibertyAnd in the wider world:- the UN Council on Human Rights- the International Criminal Court set up by the UN in the Hague (which has tried a number of war criminals from the former Yugoslavia and African countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo: problem = only 121 countries have signed up as members; Russia, USA, India & China have not !)- pressure groups like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch

d) Responsibilities – the other side of the coin !Reflecting our rights in the UK, there are a range of responsibilities:Legal responsibilities- paying taxes- providing a healthy and safe workplace (if an employer)- putting out your rubbish sack on the right day !

Social/political responsibilities- reporting a crime- using my vote

Moral responsibilities- serve in the armed forces if called up- act faithfully towards your partner in marriage

e) Rights in conflictIn a modern democracy individuals and organisations frequently discover that their rights can be in conflict. In such cases it is usually left to the courts (the judiciary) to decide whose rights should prevail. The rulings might be based on:- a particular law, and its interpretation- the Human Rights Act- a previous case or commonsense principles !The persons concerned may even appeal to the ECHR in Strasbourg as the highest court of appeal for human rights.These conflicts can arise in- the school/educational context……surveillance of parents who claim to a live in a certain school catchment area (the right to an education and the right to privacy

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versus a council’s right to establish the facts in a school application)

- the family context…….a separated couple fighting over the right to use their frozen embryos (woman’s right to found a family versus the man’s right to choose when he becomes a father)

- the political context…….a prisoner seeking to establish his right to vote (a basic democratic right versus the state’s right to punish an offender through deprivation of certain rights)

- the individual context….... a woman trying to prevent her husband from being prosecuted if he helps her to take her own life (person’s right to decide on the manner and timing of their death versus the state’s right to protect life at all costs) …….a celebrity trying to prevent a story about him/her appearing in the media (a person’s right to privacy versus a newspaper’s right to freedom of expression ….in the public interest)

f) Restrictions on our rightsThe threat from terrorism has had a significant impact on the level of certain freedoms and rights in this country. In the wake of the 9/11 attacks, coupled with the threat from organised crime, the British Government under PM Tony Blair introduced a range of laws:- detention without trial (the Government originally wanted 90 days, but Parl. would only agree to 28, and then later 42 days)- control orders on terrorist suspects- freezing of financial assets of terrorist suspects- bans on certain forms and places of peaceful protest- government surveillance of telephone conversations, including mobiles, e-mails, internet usage, car number plates, car journeys- an identity card scheme (now dropped under the Con-LibDem coalition)Many of these restrictions have been very controversial, but the Government has defended its actions explaining that:- evidence of terrorist plots is difficult to prove in a court of law- “It is better to be safe than sorry” when protecting the public- the police have requested such powers in order for them to do their job properly

Module 2 : Changing, Diverse Communities in the UK

Key concepts and terms:- Multiple identity

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- Multiculturalism- Migration (immigration, emigration, net migration)- Push factors and pull factors- Commonwealth citizens- Ethnic origin- Race- Discrimination (see various anti-discrimination Acts)- Tolerance / prejudice / stereotyping- Political asylum- Refugee- Economic migrant- Segregation / integration- Socio-economic group- Social mobility

The UK society of 2012 is a vastly different one from that of your grandparents in the immediate post-war era.

a) Different identitiesIdentity is a general term used for an individual's understanding of him or herself as a discrete, separate person. We speak of a person’s ‘multiple identity’ when we are referring to the many different roles that person plays, e.g. David Beckham = husband, father, footballer, Olympic ambassador, fashion model ! A range of factors have increased the number of identities that people fulfil:- Migration (with many immigrants recognising their original ethnic background as well as their Britishness)- Increased numbers of working women- Growth of arts/cultural/sports/religious groups, which give people an added dimension to their identity

b) MigrationThe late 1940s and early 1950s were marked by a significant inflow of migrants from initially the Caribbean countries. Earlier British governments had promised all Commonwealth citizens the right of entry and residence in the UK. Following early inflows from the Caribbean, many thousands of Commonwealth citizens from the Indian sub-continent (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh) settled in Britain. (They followed previous inflows in the 1930s and 1940s by Jews and other groups persecuted by the Nazis.)

Migration is the result of factors which can be classified into one of two groups:PUSH FACTORS:

• Persecution in their original country• Poverty

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• War (civil war or inter-state war)PULL FACTORS

• Increased safety and security• Better employment opportunities• Better quality of life• Freedom from discrimination / more democratic system

Migration has produced significant concentrations of non-White British people in certain areas, e.g. Leicester and people of south Asian origin.

Place%

White, British

% Mixed

% Asian or Asian British

% Black or Black British

% Chinese

UK (2001 census)

92.1 1.2 4.0 2.0 0.4

Eng & Wales (2011 census) 83.4 1.8 5.9 2.8 0.8

N.B. Other ethnicities have not been quoted yet for the 2011 census.

c) Equality and inequality in UK societyAre we all equal ? Yes and no ! It is helpful to distinguish between:Equality= a situation in which everyone is equal in terms of income, work, health level, housing, etc.Equality of opportunity= a situation in which every person has an equal opportunity to access (i.e. enjoy) good-quality education, well-paid work, decent housing, high health levels, etc.

Some commentators would argue that our society is less equal today than ten or twenty years ago. Look at the graphs below. Income distribution is less uneven than wealth distribution, but there is still a wide gap between the poorest and the richest in the UK. (Each column represents one per cent of the population.)

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Income distribution in the UK

Wealth distribution in the UK

What factors make our incomes so unequal, and with that so many of our opportunities so unequal ?- Differences in levels of qualification, leading to ……..- Differences in types of job- Part-time work, as opposed to full-time work- Unemployment, as opposed to employed status- Single parenthood, as opposed to two-adult households

d) How can we improve ‘equality of opportunity’ in UK society ?Many politicians and academics have grappled with this problem over the decades. We have widely varying income and wealth levels, but the following measures have been taken by governments to ‘level the playing field’ and give children from less well-off backgrounds the chance to rise ‘socially’ (so-called social mobility):- Encouraging women back to work after child birth (nursery vouchers), thus boosting family income- Sure Start initiatives which give mothers and children from less well-off backgrounds good-quality advice on parenting, childcare and play opportunities, programmes like smoking cessation - Children’s tax credits (i.e. payments per child for those in work)- A progressive taxation system, which results in the better-off paying a larger proportion of their income in tax- Child benefit payments (maintained under every government, until removed from higher tax payers by Con-LibDem coalition)- Improving the quality of education in every school across the country (using city academies, ‘free schools’ set up by parents and other voluntary groups).

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e) Life expectancyInequality does not only manifest itself in terms of income differences, but also in terms of life expectancy, for example, in Kensington & Chelsea (West London) life expectancy was 84.4 years for the average male, whereas in Glasgow City it was 71.1 years.

Environmental factors and lifestyle issues affect a person’s life expectancy and in both cases the level of a person’s income and their educational attainment play a part, for example:- Diet (low income can = cheaper food > a less nutritious, unbalanced diet)- Poorer quality housing >>> more respiratory diseases, less hygienic conditions- Higher rates of smoking and alcohol consumption

f) Fighting discrimination in society Racial discrimination

Following the entry of Commonwealth citizens into the UK during the 1950s Britain began to experience the growth of ethnic minorities in towns and cities across the country, principally West Indian, Indian and Pakistani groups. Sometimes non-white groups were able to integrate into the existing communities; on other occasions – for a range of reasons – segregated communities arose. The latter situation implies that separate communities arise; housing, education and work patterns reveal a high proportion of ethnic minority persons.

Racial tension between communities was evident sporadically in the 1950s and 1960s (e.g. Notting Hill race riots of early 50s). In response to the problem of racial discrimination faced by non-white citizens in employment, education and housing the government introduced the Race Relations Act in 1976. Under this Act it became unlawful to discriminate against anyone on the grounds of race, colour, nationality, or ethnic or national origin. It created the acts of - direct discrimination (where a person has been treated less favourably on racial grounds than others in similar circumstances, i.e. specific cases; John who is white is favoured for a job over Asif who is Asian)- indirect discrimination (when a condition which applies equally to everyone can not be met by a particular racial group, i.e. headgear restrictions for a Sikh, school uniform regulations for Muslim girls)- harassment = violating another person’s dignity; or creating an

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intimidating or hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment for them- victimisation (in this context) = treating someone less favourably than others in the same circumstances because he/she has complained about racial discrimination, or supported someone else who has.

How does the law deal with racial abuse ? (or any abuse aimed at old people, the disabled, homosexuals, etc.)The Public Order Act, 1986 is used to protect a person who is a victim of threatening, abusive or insulting words or behaviour; the perpetrator must be “within hearing or sight of the victim.”

Some organisations have been accused of displaying ‘institutionalised racism’, e.g. the Metropolitan Police. This infers that racism is part of the organisation’s culture, i.e. the way its members think and act.

How can racism be tackled in individuals, groups, schools and organisations ? Measures include

strengthening the laws regarding discrimination

increased media regulation

changes and emphases in the school curriculum

support for multi-faith, multi-cultural activities

Positive discrimination has been used in some settings, i.e. in cases where white and non-white persons present identical cases for employment, the person from the ethnic minority is favoured in order to increase the proportion of persons from that minority in that organisation (so-called quotas). This policy could be applied to all forms of discrimination.

Gender discriminationAs the decades of the 20th Century unfolded, the dominant perception of women’s role in society changed considerably. Many historians would argue that it was the role of women in the war efforts (1914-18 and 1939-45) that were highly influential in shaping the emancipation of women. The choice (and the need) of many women to work rather than be full-time homemakers was also instrumental in the growth in women’s rights. In what settings can gender (i.e. sex) discrimination arise ?

- at work- in education- access to medical services

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- caring roles in family and wider family- in the field of justice and safety (treatment of rape victims, and women’s safety issues)Two important pieces of legislation concerning sexual discrimination were :1) The Equal Pay Act of 1970 laid down the principle that men and women have equal terms and conditions of employment if they are both employed in similar or the same work.2) The Sex Discrimination Act of 1975 stated that it was unlawful to treat a person less favourably because of their sex. (The provisions of this Act match those of the Race Relations Act, i.e. in terms of direct and indirect discrimination).

In 2010 Parliament passed a new Equality Act designed to consolidate all of the anti-discrimination laws and to remove some of the remaining sex inequalities, e.g. City salaries – women earn considerably less than men in equivalent posts. It also tackles some aspects of age discrimination, e.g. in insurance premiums paid, and discrimination against breast-feeding mothers.

Age discriminationThe UK is an ageing society in terms of the average age and age distribution of its citizens. This is the result of- improved longevity (resulting from better healthcare, better diet and lifestyle)- lower birth ratesThe implications of an ageing society are felt in terms of- accommodation for the elderly- education and leisure opportunities- help and support for the elderly- pensions- retirement ages- transport facilities

Disability discriminationWith the passing of the Disability Discrimination Act (1995) it became unlawful to treat someone less favourably because of a disability. The Act had implications for- the ways in which employers and other organizations treated disabled people- the physical structure of buildings; improved accessibility to disabled persons became essentialThe law states that the employer has a duty to make “reasonable adjustments” to employment practice and premises if these place a disabled person at a substantial disadvantage. In 2001 the Special Educational Needs and Disability Act made it unlawful

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to discriminate in the education of people with disabilities.

Sexual orientation discriminationThe relevant legislation is to be found in the Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003. Unlawful sexual orientation discrimination happens when someone is treated less favourably due to their sexual orientation, their perceived sexual orientation, or the sexual orientation of those they associate with. Just like racial discrimination there are two types :- direct discrimination- indirect discriminationThere are logical exceptions to these Regulations (where a gay or lesbian person may be specifically chosen for a job), but these do not include same-sex couples seeking to become adoptive parents.

g) Seeking redress – for all discriminated groupsThe organisation responsible for promoting equality across UK society is the Equality and Human Rights Commission which opened for business in 1 October 2007. A person seeking compensation (redress) in a case of alleged discrimination will be supported at the tribunal by the EHRC, or the EHRC may bring the case itself if it feels the law has been broken.

h) Do religions and cultures unite or divide society ?Religion has been accused of being the catalyst or root cause of many conflicts around the world:

• Protestant (Loyalists) versus Catholic (Nationalists/ Republicans) in Northern Ireland during the 20th century

• Bosnia – early 1990s: Bosnian Serbs (largely orthodox Christians) versus Bosnian Muslims

• India: Muslim versus Hindu (1950s, sporadic outbreaks recently) – see Gandhi film

N.B. To what extent were these conflicts of religion, or conflicts between different ethnic groups who happened to have different religions ? In other words, was religion the major cause or a side issue ?

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There have been a number of issues in recent years in which members of ethnic minorities, here and in Europe, have challenged laws and decisions which outlawed their religious/ethnic practices:

a ban on the sale of halal and kosher meat (Netherlands) a ban on the construction of minarets on Swiss mosques

One of the most controversial measures taken by the French and Belgian governments has been to ban the wearing of burqas in public places (see table of arguments overleaf)

i) Becoming a UK citizenA person is a citizen of a nation-state. (A nation-state is a definite territory in which a government has the ability to control its own activities without interference from other countries or organisations.) The UK is a nation-state comprising four regional entities: England, Wales (a principality), Scotland (joined after the Act of Union, 1707) and Northern Ireland, 1920).What then is a citizen ?= “A person who has a legal status and legal rights within a nation-state, balanced against a range of responsibilities.”Can a person have dual citizenship ? Yes……

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How does a person become a UK citizen ?• being born within the boundaries of the state with a British

citizen as parent (mother or father) or to a person settled in the UK

• adoption by a British citizen• being born to a British citizen whilst outside of the UK (so

long as that parent did not receive his/her citizenship by descent)

• registration (i.e. when a child born in the UK claims citizenship at the age of 10 or above, having not lived outside the UK for more than 90 days a year)

• naturalizationThe term UK citizen and UK national are used interchangeably. However, a person applying for citizenship or ‘indefinite leave to remain’ (settled) in the UK has to sit an English language test and the ‘Life in the UK’ citizenship test.

All British citizens have the right of abode, i.e. the right to live in the UK. Other non-British citizens have this right of abode or right to remain (in some cases indefinitely). Many of these non-British citizens are Commonwealth citizens. EU citizens have the right to live and work anywhere in the EU; in some cases national governments (like our own) have restricted the right to work to a certain number of EU migrants (in the case of those from Romania & Bulgaria), so those EU citizens who want to want to work but cannot only come and stay as visitors.

The Government states it has the power to “take away you British citizenship if, in our opinion, it would be in the public interest for us to do so and you would not be made stateless as a result of us removing British citizenship.”

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Module 3 : Consumption and Employment

Key terms and concepts:- A contract (offer, acceptance, etc …….)- Sale of Goods Act (1979, amended 2003)- ‘As described’ / ‘of satisfactory quality’ / ‘fit for their purpose’- Supply of Goods and Services Act (1982)- Consumer Credit Act (1984)- Unfair Contract Terms Act (1977)- Trade Descriptions Act (1968)- Consumer Safety Act (1987)- ‘Caveat emptor’ = ‘Let the buyer beware’ (the principle in private sales)- Citizens’ Advice Bureaux (CABs)- Small Claims Court- Trading Standards Department (of local council)- Job offer- Employment contract- Express terms (of the employment contract)- Implied terms (of the employment contract)- Health & Safety At Work Act (1974) - HASWA- Minimum wage- Written statement of employment- Fair dismissal- Unfair dismissal- Redundancy- ‘Improvement note’ (similar to old verbal warning)- Written warning- Misconduct and ‘gross misconduct’- Notice period- Employment tribunal- Trade Union- Industrial relations- Strike / picketing / work-to-rule / sit-in / overtime ban- Official strike / unofficial strike- Postal ballot

We turn now to two related economic settings in which citizens and organisations (including businesses ) have rights and responsibilities.

a) The rights and responsibilities of the consumerThe rights of the consumer in this country are centred on the law of contract which applies in a number of fields of civil law. A contract is a legally binding agreement which can therefore be enforced in

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the courts. For a contract to be formed there must be- an offer- an acceptance (of that offer)- a consideration (i.e. both parties must put something into the contract; from the purchaser, usually a sum of money; the product or service from the seller)The majority of consumer laws are civil laws, namely- Sale of Goods Act (1979, amended 2003), with its requirements that products are ‘as described’, ‘of satisfactory quality’ & ‘fit for their purpose’- Supply of Goods and Services Act (1982) with its requirements of ‘reasonable skill and care’, ‘reasonable time’ & ‘reasonable cost’- Consumer Credit Act (1984) – clearer, more accurate information for consumers taking out consumer credit- Unfair Contract Terms Act (1977) – unfair wording in a contractThe two most significant criminal laws are- Trade Descriptions Act (1968) – deliberately misleading or false claims about a product- Consumer Safety Act (1987) – an offence to sell new or second-hand goods that are not safe

Buying an item using a debit card involves a straightforward transfer of money from your bank account to the seller’s account without any interest or charge. Buying an item using a credit card is a different matter: if you fail to pay your credit card account in full at the end of the month you will be charged interest on the unpaid balance. This rate of interest appears reasonable over one month, but the interest on the outstanding mounts up very quickly, and the rate of interest over a year can easily be in the region of 20%-30%.

Sellers of second-hand goods only have to ensure that their products are ‘as described’. If a consumer has problems with a seller then they can turn to the following sources of help and advice:- Citizens’ Advice Bureaux (CABs) – initial source of help- Small Claims Court (where a solicitor or lawyer is not required; claims of up to £5,000 can be settled)- solicitors – for more complex, more costly issues- local Trading Standards Department – which prosecutes if the trader is found to have committed a criminal offence

b) The employee-employer relationshipThis relationship is contractual one. When an employee accepts a job offer from an employer a contract is formed; the written

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statement of employment has to follow within two months of the employee starting work. This must contain a series of details about the job, e.g. the name of the employer, hours of work, notice period, holiday arrangements, etc. These are referred to as the express terms of the employment contract; the implied terms are the duties and responsibilities of employees and employers that courts have decided over the years, e.g. the duty of an employer to provide a safe working environment; the duty of an employee not to work simultaneously for a competitor (so-called faithful service).

Other laws which affect employees include: National Minimum Wage Act (1998) Health & Safety at Work Act (1974) Laws allowing part-time workers the same rights as full-time

ones, e.g. paid leave

A fair dismissal by an employer is based on one of the five reasons listed below:• Redundancy (i.e. there is insufficient work)• Legal prohibition (i.e. the employee is legally prevented

from carrying out some or all of their job)• Capability (i.e. the employee becomes unable to do the

job)• Conduct (i.e. the employee breaks certain basic rules of

behaviour)• Some other substantial reason

An unfair dismissal would be one in which these are NOT the grounds. Wrongful dismissal occurs when your employer dismisses you in breach of the terms of your contract.ACAS, the Advisory Conciliation and Arbitration Service, is the

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body appointed to assist in the resolution of conflicts between employees and employers, and to educate on good practice in this field.

“Trade Unions (TUs) are organisations of workers that seek, through collective bargaining with employers, to…….• protect and improve the real incomes of their members• provide job security• protect workers against unfair dismissal• provide a range of other work-related services including

support for people claiming compensation for injuries sustained in a job.” (tutor2u)

Trade Unions have their origins in the industrial unrest of the early 19th Century with the “low wages, appalling conditions and unemployment, bad winters and poor harvests in 1829 and 1830 [fuelling] a great explosion of anger. The six Tolpuddle Martyrs were all farm labourers, who were paid 9 shillings a week and lived in dreadful poverty. Their leader, George Loveless, decided to set up a Union in Tolpuddle to give the labourers bargaining strength. The landowners, led by James Frampton and supported by the government, were determined to squash unions and to control increasing outbreaks of dissent.” (Tolpuddle Martyrs website)

The power and influence of the TUs in the UK were substantially reduced in the 1980s under the Thatcher Governments which introduced a series of reforms, e.g.- outlawing of the unofficial strike; an official strike requires a secret, postal ballot of all TU members, a majority in favour of strike action and two week’s notice to the employer- restrictions on picketing, e.g. official picket of 6 outside the place of work- outlawing of secondary action, i.e. supporting action by workers not in dispute with their employer- outlawing of the so-called ‘closed shop’, i.e. the insistence that anyone who works for a particular firm or industry must be a TU member

One of the consequences of these reforms has been the decline in the membership of TUs. Nowadays TUs exert less influence on the Labour Party (their traditional allies) as well as the Conservative Party. Many employers welcome their involvement though as they find it easier to deal with one TU (collective bargaining) rather than a multitude of individual employees.

Module 4 : Citizenship & Government in the UKKey concepts and terms

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- Democracy- Dictatorship- Representative democracy- Direct democracy (e.g. thro’ referendums)- Parliament- Presidential democracy- Parliamentary democracy- House of Commons- House of Lords- Speaker- Cabinet- Front bench- Government minister- Opposition- Coalition- Constituency- Bills and Acts of Parliament- Devolution (and the regional assemblies)- Local government (local councils)- First Past The Post voting system- Alternative Vote (AV)- PR electoral systems (including STV, list system, AMS)

a) The UK’s system of national governmentPolitical power in a country lies in the hands of the State. The State is made up of three parts:

The law-makers, (the so-called legislature) Those who propose the laws and carry them out (the so-

called executive) Those who rule on the law, i.e. the judges and the courts

(the so-called judiciary)In some countries the Head of State is a monarch, i.e. a king or queen. In virtually all countries around the world the monarch has given up some or all of their powers to elected politicians. This is referred to as a constitutional monarchy, compared to an absolute monarchy, as we had in England in medieval times. Many countries have a Head of State who is an elected politician, and the monarch has no political influence at all. A country with no monarch is known as a republic.

Governments usually take two forms – democracies and dictatorships. Democracy literally means ‘rule by the many’, whereas dictatorship refers to a system where rule is by one, or a few persons. In a dictatorship the ruler holds absolute power, and does not have to stand for election. In some cases elections are held, but these are not free, fair or frequent, and the political

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system can still be described as a dictatorship.

The UK is a liberal democracy. This means that the government has the consent of the population civil liberties are respected elections are free and fair there is open competition for power

Broadly speaking, there are two types of democracy, direct democracy and representative democracy.Direct democracy is achieved by constant calls on the electorate to express their views through methods such as referendums. (A referendum = a vote on a single issue.)

Representative democracy is based on the election of representatives to represent the wishes of the electorate.Representative democracy takes two forms: presidential democracy (e.g. the USA) and parliamentary democracy. The UK has the latter type. Our Parliament in Westminster comprises two houses, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The government is formed by the party with the largest number of MPs in the 650-seat House of Commons. Its leader becomes the Prime Minister, who forms a Cabinet of senior Ministers to direct the Government. The Cabinet proposes Bills, which are put before parliament.

The role of the Opposition in Parliament is to challenge the Government on its actions and policies, and to propose alternatives to its bills. The role of an MP is to represent his/her constituents (all of them – whether they voted for the MP or not !), to examine all the bills going through Parliament with the view to improving them, and to hold the Government to account. Individual MPs can also bring forward Private Members’ Bills with the hope they will attract support from other MPs. (These bills very rarely pass into law.)

The second chamber of the UK parliament is the House of Lords, which is made up of peers, soon to be elected (?) rather than appointed. The House of Lords’ main function is to scrutinise and vote on government bills. Once a bill has gone through all the stages in the HoC and HoL it receives Royal Assent.

Central government is divided into departments headed by a Minister or Secretary or State (usually MPs, but they could be peers.) The employees running the department are known as civil servants. Examples of central government departments include

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- the Ministry of Defence- the Department of Health- the Department for Education

b) Regional government in the UKEach of the three regional entities, apart from England, has an elected regional body. In Wales and Northern Ireland these are called assemblies; in Scotland it is the Scottish Parliament. These elected bodies have (limited) powers which have been given to them by central government in Westminster. This process of de-centralising power is known as devolution.There are clearly advantages and disadvantages to this system of regional government.

c) Local government in the UKThe system of local government in this country covers- county councils/metropolitan areas- local councils- parish councilsA councillor is elected to his/her council by the voters in his/her ward on a first-past-the-post basis. A few local councils have elected mayors. Councils raise large sums of money to finance local public services through the council tax, the (business) rates and charges; they are also given large sums of money (grants) by central government. Local services include:- local schools- parks and leisure- refuse collection- road maintenance- libraries- social services, etc.

d) The voting systems in the UKMPs are elected on a First-Past-The-Post voting system from their constituencies. There distinct advantages and disadvantages of this electoral system:Advantages:- Simple and easy to understand- Produces a absolute majority for the most popular party across the UK- Creates a direct link between the MP and his/her constituentsDisadvantages:- Disproportionality, i.e. the winning party often receives a far greater proportion of the seats in the HoC than their share of the vote; minor parties (e.g. Lib Dems) can be vastly under-represented- Voters feel their votes are wasted if their choice for MP is not

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elected- Voters who vote for the winning MP may feel their vote was unnecessary and surplus to requirements.Both these last two arguments may produce some voter apathy, i.e. low turnout in subsequent elections.

The most recent General Election produced the following results:

Without an absolute majority the Conservatives formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats (306+57 seats).

In the post-war period the main parties’ shares of the vote have been as follows:

In the post-war period the main parties’ shares of the seats have been as follows:

In May 2011 a referendum was held regarding a change in the UK parliamentary elections system; the Alternative Vote system (AV) is being proposed. Voters express up to three preferences; if the

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leading candidate does not win 50.1% of the vote, the second preferences of the lowest candidate are reallocated to see if a winner with an absolute majority (50.1% +) emerges. Second preferences are reallocated from the lowest candidate at each stage until an outright winner emerges. There has been much controversy about this proposed change to the Westminster electoral system. The referendum produced a 2:1 majority against AV, so our FPTP system continues for Westminster elections.

In the regions:The Welsh Assembly members (AMs) and the Scottish MSPs are elected by the Additional Member System (AMS), which is a mix of FPTP and a list system. Northern Ireland Assembly members (MLAs) are elected via STV (Single Transferable Vote). Members of the European Parliament are elected using a regional list system, where voters choose the party they want to vote for, and then the seats in that region are distributed according to the number of votes cast. These three systems are types of Proportional Representation (PR).

In local councils:Local councillors are elected on a FPTP basis in their wards (an area represented by three councillors, with approx. 10,000 residents in each ward), e.g. Prittlewell ward, Blenheim ward, Milton ward.

e) The political parties of the UKThe two main political parties which dominate central government are the Labour and Conservative Parties. Like all political parties they have- a membership- an organisational structure- funds to spend on election campaigns- party conferences- an election manifesto (i.e. promises to the electorate) when elections are heldOver the last ten years the two main parties have moved closer in terms of their policies, although differences remain.

Minor / regional parties represented in Westminster include:- the Liberal Democrats (nationwide)- Scottish National Party (SNP)- Plaid Cymru (Welsh nationalists)- Sinn Fein (Northern Ireland)- Ulster Unionists (Northern Ireland)Other active parties not represented in the HoC, but with local

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councillors include:- British National Party (BNP)- UKIP (anti-EU party)- Independent councillors (e.g. Dr Vel in Southend Borough Council)

.

Module 5 : Media – Representation & Reality

Key terms and concepts:- Tabloid (red-top) newspapers (Mirror, Sun, NotW, etc.)

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- Mid-market newspapers (Mail and Express)- Broadsheets / quality newspapers (Guardian, Times, Independent, Financial Times, etc.)- Sensationalising the news- Ofcom- Objectivity of reporting- Subjectivity of reporting- Defamation of character- Libel- Slander- Press Complaints Commission (PCC)- Privacy and harassment- Injunctions and super-injunctions- Advertising Standards Authority (ASA)- Party political broadcasts- Celebrity endorsement- Censorship

a) Forms of the mediaThere are five major forms of the media:

newspapers and magazines television radio internet advertising

The strong links between the different forms are now well established. For example:- popular magazines develop into TV formats, OK magazine, and vice versa (Top Gear)- TV and radio programmes are available online (Test Match Special online; programmes in BBC i-Player)- most newspapers (plus their archives) are now available over the internet, with some papers charging a subscription for access

b) The newspaper marketLike all businesses newspaper publishers target their products at particular groups of customers rather than the whole group of newspaper readers across the country. These particular groups of consumers are known as market segments. The newspaper market can be categorised into- red-tops or popular press (e.g. Daily Mirror, The Sun, News of the World; formerly known as tabloid press)- mid-market press (i.e. Daily Express and Daily Mail)- broadsheets or quality press (e.g. Guardian, The Times, Daily Telegraph)The popular press is renowned for its sometimes shocking,

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sometimes flippant story lines, involving celebrities, and its sensationalising of news stories; the quality press is known for its more factual coverage of events. The content of all papers can be influenced by the editor’s or owner’s point of view, for example some commentators accuse Rupert Murdoch, whose company News International owns The Sun, The Times and Sky TV, of influencing the content and opinion expressed in his media.

c) The broadcasting industryThe industry is divided into radio (via DAB and internet) and TV, which is in turn available via terrestrial and satellite/cable channels, as well via the internet. Programmes on terrestrial TV channels are generally less biased because the TV producers have to obey broadcasting codes (the BBC Charter or Ofcom Broadcasting Code) which insist that each channel must include programme information that incorporates a number of different viewpoints.

d) Media bias (objectivity v. subjectivity)It is difficult to envisage any media reporting which is completely unbiased. The most important aspect to reporting is that the journalist must acknowledge what are the facts surrounding the event or issue and what are his/her opinions.Objectivity implies that an issue is presented without the bias of the journalist’s own views, attitudes and opinions influencing the article. Merely the facts are recorded.Subjectivity implies that the journalist has allowed his/her own views, attitudes, opinions to influence, (a) the decision about what goes into the article & (b) the way that facts are presented.

How does bias show itself in the media ?• Lexical choice (tone of the piece – positive or negative;

exaggerated language) • Presentation of opinion as fact• Misrepresentation of a person’s views (Quotation out of

context; also people frequently say they have been misquoted by journalists)

• Simple factual inaccuracy• Bias by placement (Where does the news item occur in the

broadcast, newspaper or website ? Is it prominent or buried away ?)

What is the difference between a statement of fact and a statement of opinion ? (This question is regularly asked by the examiner !)= A fact is a statement which can be proved because it can be verified/supported by reference to evidence= An opinion is a statement which cannot be verified by evidence;

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it shows a person’s beliefs and values

e) The role of the mediaThe UK prides itself on its diverse press. Here is an illustration of the wide range of newspapers on sale in this country. On one Saturday in September 2005 the following headlines featured in national newspapers (see box right).

What is the role of the printed and broadcast media ? • to inform the public (about current events)• to educate the public (on matters of importance and public

interest)• to amuse and entertain• to campaign for issues and policy decisions about which the

newspaper/TV station feels strongly• to expose wrongdoing and mistakes (e.g. by politicians)• to reflect public opinion … or perhaps to manipulate it ?

f) Regulation of the mediaThe courts protect individuals from defamation of character (i.e. false statements which create a negative image of a person) through the laws related slander (spoken) and libel (written). The Press Complaints Commission monitors the activities of the newspapers, but they can only enforce a code of practice upon newspapers, which does not have the force of law. Many individuals (including celebrities) have complained to the PCC, with varying degrees of success. Many complaints relate to breaches of sections 3 and 4 of the code:Section 3* Privacy

i) Everyone is entitled to respect for his or her private and family life, home, health and correspondence, including digital communications. ii) It is unacceptable to photograph individuals in private places without their consent.

Section 4* Harassment 29

i) Journalists must not engage in intimidation, harassment or persistent pursuit.ii) They must not persist in questioning, telephoning, pursuing or photographing individuals once asked to desist…

Some well-known personalities have sought protection from the courts by seeking and obtaining an injunction (a legal ban preventing a person or organisation from disclosing information). The latest super-injunctions prevent anyone even reporting that an injunction has been granted – some apply worldwide !

Advertisers using the media are governed by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) which demands that "no marketing communication should mislead, or be likely to mislead, by inaccuracy, ambiguity, exaggeration, omission or otherwise”.

g) The media and the political system- Governments use the media to publicise their decisions and policies. Government ministers and the PM hold press/media conferences and answer reporters’ questions. Also ministers “brief” journalists, i.e. give them inside information so that the journalist can report exclusively on an issue.- During election campaigns (but also at other times) political parties run party political broadcasts and political adverts, in which they highlight other politicians’ and parties’ apparent failures and explain what they would do if elected.- Pressure groups, as well as businesses and other organisations, are often equally adept in using the media to put across their points and views. Often they seek the support of celebrities to attract the public’s attention (so-called celebrity endorsement). A good example would be the role of the film star, George Clooney, as a UN ‘messenger of peace’.

h) The role of the internet in shaping public opinion30

In recent years the internet has come to the fore as a means of informing and influencing public opinion on a wide range of issues. The worldwide web has allowed:- minority groups and individuals to post their views and opinions to a vast audience at low cost - webloggers to become authors without having to go through the traditional routes to be published (i.e. publishing companies)- groups which are opposed to government in their country, and which are having their views censored by those governments, to release material (text, mobile phone footage, pictures) to the wider world and therefore highlight their cause (see Iraq 2010, Egypt 2011)

Module 6 : Crime, Punishment and the Justice System

Key terms and concepts:- Criminal law- The Criminal Justice System (CJS)- Civil law- Tort (e.g. nuisance, trespass, negligence, etc.)- Contract law- Arrest- Solicitor- Charge- Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)- Prosecution and defence- Barrister- Magistrates Court compared to Crown Court- Youth court- Youth offending teams- ‘Beyond all reasonable doubt’ – criminal law- ‘On the balance of probabilities’ – civil law

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- Evidence- Acquittal- Punishment- Rehabilitation- ‘Restorative justice’- Victim Impact Statement- Remedy (or redress), including compensation- InjunctionSee also the sentencing slide later…..

a) The criminal justice processThe justice system in the UK varies between regional entity. We shall refer to the system in England and Wales, as the Scottish system is different in a number of respects. There are basically two branches of the law:- Criminal law, which covers crimes against the State- Civil law, which covers laws regulating the relationships between individuals and/or organisations (see later section)If a person is suspected of an offence they are- arrested (unless they voluntarily attend a police station)- charged- imprisoned on remand (awaiting trial), or bailed to attend either a police station or a court- tried (prosecuted) in court- judged by either jury or magistrate(s)- found guilty or not guilty (i.e. the verdict)- sentenced (if guilty) or acquitted (if found not guilty)The burden of proof which the prosecution must ‘construct’ requires the defendant to be ‘guilty beyond all reasonable doubt’. If that is not the case then he/she should be acquitted. In this country less serious cases are heard before a magistrate(s), but the more serious ones are heard in a County Court before a judge. Majority verdicts are sometimes offered by judges if a jury cannot decide (11-1, 10-2).

These serious cases normally involve jury trials. In every case the defendant has rights:- on his/her arrest- in court- on appeal

Undecided cases are retried; cases which fall apart due to, for example, insufficient evidence, are dismissed. Media influence can sometimes ruin the hopes of a fair trial for the defendant.

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b) SentencingWhat are principles behind sentencing policy ?- Retribution- Rehabilitation- Deterrence- Protection- Vindication

See sentencing diagram below:

c) Youth justiceIn dealing with 17 year olds and younger, the youth justice system operates differently:- the youth court is less formal- the juvenile is accompanied by a parent or responsible adult- the press may attend, but not disclose the name of the offender- the Youth Offending Team are represented

d) Sources of legal adviceA person seeking legal advice can go to:- a solicitor- the Citizens Advice Bureau- their Trade Union (if it is an employment issue, and they will be directed to a solicitor)Is justice easy to access in this country ? Or does expense play a part ?

e) Crime rates and re-offending rates (recidivism)

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Crime statistics are reported in two ways: the British Crime Survey (BCS) involving a large survey of all households in the UK, and police-recorded crime figures. (See some recent figures above.) The two sources sometimes showing diverging pictures.

f) The role of the policeThe police have a wide range of functions in the community; one role that is closely scrutinised is crime detection. Many detection rates for certain types of crime are quite low. For this reason some argue that:- more police should be one the streets, rather than doing administrative tasks- more police should be out of their vehicles, patrolling- more PCSOs (Police Community Support Officers) need to be recruited- police should refocus their activities on detection- sentences for certain crimes should be increased…….etc.

g) Does prison work ?

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This debate has raged over many decades. The most recent contribution has come from the Coalition Government and the Justice Minister, Ken Clarke, who has claimed that “there is no link between rising levels of imprisonment and falling crime......... Meanwhile, the Chief Inspector of Prisons for England and Wales, Dame Anne Owers, warned that "overpopulated" prisons are "increasingly brittle". She said the government should invest in alternatives to locking people up.” (Source: BBC News)

The role of the National Probation Service (NPS) is crucial here. They supervise rehabilitation schemes (e.g. for those coming off drugs) and those offenders who are doing community service. These offenders work on schemes to improve run-down areas, and on activities to support local charities. Most importantly perhaps, they work with ex-prisoners on their release to try to prevent them falling into criminal patterns of behaviour again.

Is prison the right place to reform prisoners ? The Prison Reform Trust would say not, on the basis of the figures below:

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.

Grendon Prison is an example of a prison with a significantly different regime from other prisons. It operates as a ‘therapeutic community’ and requires the inmates to face up to their offending behaviour by means of small group meetings with a range of staff. Its recidivism rate for prisoners four years after release is just 8%, only one third of that for all prisoners of (24%).

h) Disputes under civil lawThe civil courts deal with a range of disputes between individuals, groups and organisations; they include:

family disputes (divorce, custody of children, inheritance disputes, etc.)

property disputes (land, boundaries, trees, access) claims related to poor goods or services; contracts unfulfilled employment issues

In civil cases the if the claimant or plaintiff wins their case the defendant may be required to:

pay compensation (damages) serve the terms of an injunction (e.g. not to contact or

approach another person) carry out some other action, e.g. give someone their job

back, move a fence, chop down a tree, etc.Are there better ways to settle disputes then through the courts ?

Module 7 : Making Change Happen (tied in with the Controlled Assessment task – A Campaign of your

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choice) Key terms and concepts:- Participation- Apathy- Pressure group (sectional PG and cause PG)- Campaigning- Non-violent protest / civil disobedience- Demonstration- Consumer boycott- Lobbying- Petitions (including e-petitions)- Student voice & student councils- Empowerment (of individuals and groups)

a) IntroductionThis module centres on the ways and methods that citizens can use to change the decisions which affect their interests and the interests of others. To generalise, the UK has seen a shift over the last twenty years away from more traditional channels of political participation and towards more single-issue and pressure group politics. Every UK political party likes to promote the idea of giving power back to the people, and encouraging grass-roots democracy. Sometimes this is more of an ideal than reality !

Why do people join political parties ?- to win positions of political power, and influence policy- to serve the public (to assist fellow citizens whose interests are being ignored)

b) Pressure groupsA pressure group (PG) is a group which seeks to influence public policy, (but does not put up candidates for election – as a political party would). PGs can be categorised into two groups: sectional groups representing and promoting the interests of their members; and cause groups whose aim is to pursue objectives which are not directly of benefit to its members, i.e. on behalf of others. Some are a mix of the two.

Some PGs are referred to as ‘insider groups’, i.e. they have the ear of government and comment regularly on government policy, e.g. National Farmers’ Union . Other PGs are ‘outsider groups’, i.e. they operate outside the political system in order to enjoy more independence and freedom of action, e.g. Greenpeace.How do pressure groups achieve their aims ?

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The extent to which a PG, or any campaign, is effective is influenced by:- the resources at its disposal (people, time, money)- its access to the decision-makers- its ability to influence the media, and gain support for its campaign- the strength of support it has among the population- the support it has from high-profile personalities

Pressure groups are often adept in influencing the politicians in terms of policyAn example: The campaign for the right of Gurkhas who fought in the British Army to reside in the UK. The campaign was headed by Joanna Lumley. She (and her fellow supporters) pressurised the government into allowing retiring Gurkhas to stay in the UK.

Can you describe a national or local campaign which has proved - effective….- ineffective…..What were the reasons for the varying degree of success ?

c) The role of the internet in campaigningThe growth of the worldwide web has made possible a vast channel for campaigners. The result has been

e-petitions, including those put up by Government internet consultation on issues, e.g. planning issues website information on campaign issues greater opportunities for fund-raising

Module 8 : Global Issues

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Key concepts and terms for the global economy:- Globalisation- Multinational companies (aka TNCs)- MEDCs- LEDCs- North-South divide- Anti-globalisation movement- Westernisation / Americanisation- Exploitation of workers- Fairtrade movement - Subsidisation (of First World commodity producers by their individual governments)- Common Agricultural Policy (of the EU)- World Trade Organisation (WTO)- Climate change- CO2 emissions- Ozone layer- Kyoto Treaty- Bali Conference- Binding targets on CO2 emissions (e.g. in the EU)- Growth of new economies (BRICs – Brazil, Russia, India & China) - Al Gore – ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ lecture- Melting of polar ice caps- Sea level rises

a) GlobalisationOne of the most striking forces of the late 20th

Century and the early 21st

century has been that of globalisation. This phenomenon is defined as “the rapid increase in cross-border economic, social and technological exchange.” This process has been fuelled by the factors shown in the box above.

What does globalisation mean from the consumer’s point of view ?• Wider choice of products and services imported from

countries all around the world39

• Cheaper products and services available• Easy opportunities to invest our savings in any investment

we like, in any venture, using any currency, all around the globe

What does globalisation mean from the employee’s point of view ?• A threat to jobs as businesses switch their operations to the

country where costs are the lowest (or at least lower than the UK). See examples in telecommunications & call centres

• Pressure to drive down UK wages, or at least keep them fairly constant, esp. as migrant labour may be prepared to work at low wages

• Opportunities to move between countries to find work

What does globalisation mean from the business’s point of view ?• Opportunities for growth…more customers, larger markets • Opportunities to find cheaper sources of raw materials and

finished products • Opportunities to move operations to low-cost countries

(particularly with lower wages) in order to improve profits

The process of globalization has its critics and opponents. “Anti-globalisation is the umbrella term for a group of different protest causes, including • environmentalism • third world debt • animal rights • child labour • anarchism, and• anti-capitalism and opposition to multinationals.”(Source : BBC News website)

What are the broad arguments against globalisation ?• Encourages consumerism and materialism• Destroys ethnic cultures• Imposes ‘Western’ or American ways on the people• Gives free reign to large multi-national companies, which

only think short-term, seek to exploit the low-cost resources, and then move on…….

• Leads to damage to the environment• Local producers lose out to the powerful multinationals

selling their global products; local products are swamped

b) The problems of global developmentThe study of development reveals that many linked factors can hinder a country’s development to a more advanced economic state:Some problems require intergovernmental action. Do you agree with the views shown below ?

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The UN’s response to the slow progress of development in some parts of the globe was to set the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for achievement by 2015 (see below).

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rates Goal 5: Improve maternal health Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

c) The role of intergovernmental organisations and NGOs European Union

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The EU plays a significant role in the government of the UK in terms of the EU legislation (laws) that is passed which applies directly or has to be adopted into British law. There are presently 27 member countries in the EU (2012). The EU came into existence in 1957 with six founding members; the largest expansion came in 2004 with ten new members, eight of whom were former Communist countries of Eastern Europe. Seventeen countries of the EU share a single currency (the euro), but the government borrowing crisis in a number of eurozone countries has left the euro looking weak. It is feared Greece may have to default (announce it cannot pay back its government bonds) and leave the euro.The EU has five main bodies:- The European Parliament, whose members are elected every 5 years (there are 75 MEPs from the UK out of a total of 786)- The Council of the EU, which is made up of minsters from each of the 27 member countries, depending on the issue under discussion(These two bodies co-decide on the majority of EU laws and directives.)- The European Commission, which initiates the legislation, and then carries it out once it has been passed- The European Council, attended by the Heads of the 27 Governments, and led by the President of the European Council (currently Herman van Rompuy)- The European Court of Justice, which rules on matters where EU law may been broken. Example: the Bosman ruling, in which the law was changed with regard footballers at the end of their contracts – now free to move.

The UK’s membership of the EU has been a constant source of conflict amongst many politicians over the last 40 years. Supporters of the EU (europhiles) argue that the EU:

gives the UK access to 26 export markets without any trade restrictions

increases UK influence around the world has brought stability and peace to a historically troubled

continent provided wide opportunities for travel, education and work

Those opposed to membership (eurosceptics) argue the EU has: been incredibly expensive for British taxpayers & consumers reduced the UK Government’s independence to act tied businesses up in ‘red tape’ (more bureaucracy) forced unpopular laws and decisions on UK citizens United Nations

The UK is one of 192 member countries of the UN. It has one of the five permanent seats on the 15-seat Security Council, which

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passes resolutions calling for action and change in countries that are breaking international law. (These resolutions require the agreement of all 15 countries – if one vetoes the resolution it falls; abstention is possible though.) The General Assembly is a discussion forum for the 192, but its powers are more limited.The UN’s role is to:

1. Prevent conflict through diplomacy2. Engage in peace-making and peace-keeping (UN ‘high-

readiness’ brigade in Copenhagen)3. Assist in post-conflict situations(policing & re-establishment

of law and order, democratisation process)4. Promote human rights and fundamental freedoms5. Fight terrorism, increasing security, disarmament, tackling

arms proliferation6. Meet humanitarian needs (disasters and emergencies)7. Aid economic development, fighting poverty & disease,

developing education8. Uphold international law – 500 multilateral agreements

signed through the UN; trials for genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity

The Commonwealth The British Empire of the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries has been replaced by the Commonwealth, which comprises the former colonies. The links between the countries are primarily educational, cultural and sporting. It is not in essence a political organisation. It describes itself as “an association of 53 independent states consulting and co-operating in the common interests of their peoples and in the promotion of international understanding.” (Commonwealth website). It aims to further democracy, human rights and development in its member countries.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) The public knows these better as aid or development charities. Many governments work hand in hand with NGOs when relief efforts are surging ahead after a natural disaster, e.g. the UK government places its monetary aid in DEC (Disasters Emergency Committee - the umbrella organisation uniting the 14 leading UK aid agencies). Other well known NGOs in the field of development:

Oxfam World Vision Christian Aid

d) Trade – Fair or unfair ?The industrialised countries have long been accused of distorting world markets. In what senses can world trade be unfair ?

The Third World worker or producer receives a tiny

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proportion of the final value of the product sold to consumers in First World markets

By setting high tariff barriers First World governments make it harder/impossible for LEDC producers to sell their products in MEDC markets. (The role of the World Trade Organisation is crucial here.) Additionally, some First World governments (EU and USA) subsidised the export prices of their agricultural produce, depressing the world price for struggling Third World producers. (Cotton is an example here.)

Third World employers (with the knowledge and co-operation of multinationals) are allowed to produce products in conditions which would be outlawed in First World countries

What are the root causes of unfairness ? The power of multinational companies over the LEDC

growers and producers - power in terms of price The subsidies given by organisations like the EU, allowing

First World producers to export cheaply and so depress the world price for Third World producers

The poverty in Third World countries forces producers to accept low prices, and workers to accept low wages & poor conditions

What can be done to reduce or remove some of this unfairness ? Campaigns to put pressure on multinationals (e.g.

consumer boycotts) Greater availability and purchase of fairly traded alternative

products Consumer education Support for fair trade organisations

Example of Fair Trade:Fairtrade promises to pay its growers in LEDCs a minimum price regardless of the world coffee price. If the world price exceeds that minimum price, Fairtrade promises to pay its growers a premium over the world price, e.g. + 10% per tonne.

e) Climate change The Earth Summit of 192 held in Rio de Janeiro highlighted the issue of climate change and the need for sustainable development which is reflected in Agenda 21. This is a commitment on behalf of the signatory countries to develop plans of action to achieve sustainable development – through informing and consulting local communities. By 1997 most industrialized countries were ready to sign the binding Kyoto Treaty in which they promised to reduce their carbon emissions. Shortly after his inauguration in 2001 George W Bush announced America’s

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withdrawal from the treaty obligations. The USA remains the largest contributor to carbon emissions.

The assertion by the vast majority of the scientific community across the world is that high levels of CO2 are causing an unprecedented rise in global temperatures which will bring about huge climate changes.

Al Gore (former US Vice-President) has been one of the most high-profile commentators on climate change and its causes. His film and DVD, ‘An Inconvenient Truth’, achieved popular acclaim in 2005, but also some criticism from a small section of the UK community. (It can only

be shown in schools after some prefaced remarks about its ‘political’ nature in parts.)

Key terms and concepts for the UK economy:- Public sector- Private sector- Third sector’ (aka voluntary sector, ‘not-for-profit sector’)- Production, distribution & consumption in the economy- Gross Domestic Product (GDP)- Economic growth- Recession/ downturn- Slump- The business cycle (or trade cycle)- Government expenditure- Infrastructure- Welfare benefits (e.g. child benefit, unemployment benefit, sickness benefit)- Government revenue- Direct taxes (on income and wealth)- Indirect taxes (on spending and usage)- Income tax- Inheritance tax- Corporation tax (i.e. tax on company profits)- National Insurance (paid by employees & employers)

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- VAT- Excise duties (e.g. tobacco duty, alcohol duty, road tax)

f) The Government’s role in the economyMost western European countries have mixed economies, i.e. they have a large public (government) sector as well private sector (privately owned businesses). The UK is no exception; through its expenditure Government contributes approximately 40% to GDP, the measure of the value of all the goods and services produced in the economy. In the UK there is also the third sector, which covers the activities of all the charities and voluntary organisations.

Over recent years the Government has worked increasingly closely with the charitable sector, offering them ‘service contracts’ to perform certain important functions, e.g. housing for disabled persons.

The government has the responsibility of managing the economy in terms of seeking to bring about steady growth at low inflation. From the early 1990s to 2008 the Conservative Government (1992-97) and the subsequent Labour Governments succeeded in achieving this goal, but the recent events in the banking sector, coupled with a global recession, have brought about a serious downturn in the UK economy (see quarterly GDP growth figures below).

The largest amounts of government expenditure are to be found in social protection (29%), i.e. social welfare benefits health (18%) education (13%) public order and safety (6%), i.e. law & order (police, etc.)

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During 2008/9 the UK government was forced to ‘bail out’ many of the crisis-ridden banks, e.g. Lloyds TSB, RBS. In some cases the bank was taken into public ownership (e.g. Northern Rock).

GCSE Citizenship – Improving Your Exam Grade

The structure of the Edexcel exam paperThe Edexcel paper is one hour in length, and the total number of marks available is 50. This means that with reading time and review time (at the end) you should be

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keeping to approximately one minute for every mark allocated. So if a question is worth two marks, don’t spend more than two minutes when writing your answer.

The paper has short-answer questions of 1 or 2 marks, and a longer 12-mark essay question at the end. We shall take each question type in turn.

General advice:IN YOUR ANSWERS USE THE TERMS, CONCEPTS AND IDEAS THAT ARE SPECIFIC TO CITIZENSHIP STUDIES, that is the ones which appear at the start of each module in this revision guide.

A. The one-markersThese questions frequently contain the function words

STATE WHICH TWO REASONS / STATEMENTS / TRADITIONS……. ?

There is no need to give an example unless you are requested to do so. However, it is still possible to miss out on the mark by failing to give a full, clear answer.

Give an example of a benefit that The Body Shop’s fair trade scheme, CommunityTrade, might create for the customers of The Body Shop. (1 mark)Good answerCustomers would be pleased to know that a fair proportion of the prices they pay for their products are going to the original producers. (One mark)Weak answerCustomers are paying fair prices for what they buy. (Zero marks)

Other one-mark questions are the multiple choice questions. Look out for so-called ‘distractors’, designed to put you off the actual answer ! Revise carefully and check your knowledge and understanding are accurate.

B. Two-markersThese questions frequently demand that you

EXPLAIN…… IDENTIFY and EXPLAIN…… SUGGEST WHY ……..

Again, a full clear answer is required, and importantly a REASON (or REASONS) for the decision/situation/event/policy must be provided. As ever, it is good practice to make your point, explain it / unpack it clearly and support that point with evidence / an example. Many teachers tell their students to P.E.E. properly !

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Make your POINT EXPLAIN the point carefully and fully Support your point with EVIDENCE / EXAMPLES

Past paper question:Give one example of the way in which diversity might be promoted in your schoolor local community. Explain why you think this would be effective. (2 marks)Good answerTeachers and students could plan and run an International Day, in which students from ethnic minority backgrounds show off their different languages and cultures, using different activities. In this way other students would get an insight into what their fellow students do outside school; it would strengthen relationships between students from different ethnic groups. (Two marks)Weak answerStudents could run an International Day to strengthen ties between students of different ethnic backgrounds. (One mark) [The student concerned didn’t explain what the day would involve and exactly why it would work.]

Orange = subject knowledge (citizenship terms, ideas, concepts)Purple = supporting arguments & examplesBlue = provisos/other sides/ ..ah but…. ! (two-sidedness)Look carefully at the following example:

An opinion is properly justified:Question: Explain whether you think direct democracy is fairer than representative democracy.

“Direct democracy is much fairer than representative democracy. People get a chance to decide through votes.” (‘C’ grade)

“Direct democracy is much more effective in showing the actual views of the electorate on an issue. If a referendum (a direct democratic method) were held on whether the UK should adopt the Euro, then the outcome would reflect the wishes of the whole population – so long as the turnout was high. This would be fairer than leaving the decision to elected representatives, who may think differently from the electorate.” (A/A* grade response)

C. The twelve-mark essay questionFor many students this is the question which will decide their grade on the paper. You have a choice of three questions, so study all three carefully before you make a decision about which to tackle. (The questions are spaced out towards the back of the booklet, so turn forward to read each carefully.)

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Each question will be structured in the same way: A STATEMENT THE QUESTION ITSELF, i.e. ‘Do you agree with this view ?’ And then the

advice ‘Give reasons for your opinion, showing you have considered another point of view.’

FOUR CUE QUESTIONS, which are designed to give your answer good coverage and to provide you with a structure. The four cue questions are preceded by this statement: “To answer the question above, you could consider the following points and other information of your own.” This means that a good answer will require you to bring in your own points, arguments and supporting evidence.

Good answers always demand good ‘P.E.E.’ing’ Make your point, explain it, support what you are saying with evidence / examples.

It is essential that you respond to the examiner’s requirement to ‘show that you have considered another point of view’ other than your own. This is put in place so that, in effect, you produce a two-sided essay. A one-sided answer will reduce your mark !

Where appropriate, use the following types of phrases to move your argument on: On the other hand, some commentators argue …/ some people would

argue…… In contrast to this, it is possible to argue…….. To some people, this idea / principle / argument is wrongly founded. They

would argue…….

Each twelve-mark essay answer should have a BEGINNING (in which you briefly state your view, and perhaps how you are

going to demonstrate your view – e.g. which sorts of evidence.) MIDDLE section addressing the four cue questions (P.E.E each time – at

least three supported points in favour of your view, and at least one against, preferably two !)

CONCLUSION (in which you revisit the original statement in the question and give your view.) You may wish to conclude in a balanced way, i.e. that …..“I agree/disagree with this statement to a significant extent because …….., but on the other hand, I recognise that ……….”

Here are some examples of 12-mark questions that have been set so far:

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June 2010

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Jan 2011

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The 1st sample just focuses on the prompt questions.The 2nd sample does not use the prompt questions.The 3rd sample uses answers to the prompt questions and the student’s own information.

Sample answer 1

‘Sending offenders to prison is an expensive mistake; there are better ways to reduce crime.’Do you agree with this view? Give reasons for your opinion, showing you have considered another point of view. (12)

Why has the prison population risen to over 80,000 in recent years? What are the advantages of sending offenders to prison? How many ex-prisoners re-offend and get sent back to prison? What other punishments could be given to offenders and why might they be ‘better ways’?

I think the best way to reduce crime is to send people to prison for long periods, make them do hard manual work and wear uncomfortable uniforms and have no television sets in their cells or sports kit or facilities or telephone calls. Many prisoners have a better life inside prison than they have when they are on the outside.

Why has the prison population risen to over 80,000 in recent years? Because crime has gone up. If everyone who committed crime was caught we would need prison places for two or three times as many people.

What are the advantages of sending offenders to prison? It keeps them away from the public and stabbing or murdering people. That is why we need more prisons.

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How many ex-offenders re-offend and get sent back to prison? About half the prisoners re-offend. Some learn their lesson. The others would learn to behave is they had a harder time doing manual work for at least 12 hours a day, no sport, television or phones.

What other punishments could be given to offenders and why might they be ‘better ways’? In Singapore criminals get caned and in the USA they still have the electric chair. We should have the death penalty in Britain for second offenders. That would stop re-offending.

Sample answer 2

I do agree with this view. The cost of keeping prisoners puts a heavy burden on the taxpayers every year. We shouldn’t just consider prison as an option, as we can spend money looking at other ways to deal with prisoners and also spend money on ways to stop prisoners committing crime altogether.

A recent study showed that more money is spent on the average prisoner’s meal than the average school dinner. We don’t only need to pay for their meals though. Taxpayers money is spent on the upkeep of the prisons, the staff who work in them, and any other cost a prisoner may incur while inside. We can’t always be sure if prison is having an effect on the prisoner that may make them change their ways so rather than paying out all this money, maybe we should actually consider whether it is worth it in the first place.

My friend’s dad went to prison for three months and I’m not sure somebody can actually change their ways in that time, but this money was spent on him to keep him there. So I don’t know if it was actually worth it. It must have made him think about what he did though and it probably wasn’t very nice so it might have had a bit of an effect.

There could be better ways to reduce crime. Maybe money should be spent on putting more police on the streets, because this will stop so many crimes being committed and then we won’t be spending as much money on prisoners. We could also do other things with prisoners to help them change their ways like have education and do community service.In conclusion, there are better ways to reduce crime because if you give money to the police force, they can catch more criminals and stop the number of people who are going to prison. So there will be fewer people in prison costing lots of money. This will reduce crime.

Sample answer 3

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The prison system in the UK serves as a method of punishment and deterrence for criminals, yet has recently come under attack for the increasing financial burden it has placed on the taxpayer. This, coupled with the high rates of recidivism in the UK today, has led to the criticism that it may well be an ‘expensive mistake’. This argument will demonstrate that although prison may indeed be the only option for some prisoners, and a necessity in our society, there are more cost-effective ways in which crime rates can be tackled.As the prison population has gradually risen to over 80,000 due to an increase in the length of sentences handed out, a general increase in the number of laws written that can result in a prison sentence if they are broken, and an increase in serious crime, such as knife crime , so has the cost to the taxpayer. As the average prisoner costs £37,500 a year, this amounts to a considerable sum. If it was clear that prison definitely worked, these costs would perhaps be justified. However, over 50% of ex-prisoners re-offend within a few months of their release. Therefore, it could be argued that prison alone does not offer the chance for prisoners to reform as much as they might. Additionally, it has been proven that some prisoners actually learn more about crime and ‘tricks of the trade’ inside than they would outside, as they associate with other criminals. This points to a waste of money to the taxpayer, who expects criminals to go to prison in order to consider the effects of their crime and have a chance to reform in order to become more responsible members of society on their release.Critics of this view and supporters of the prison system might argue that prison does offer a series of benefits to society. By withdrawing dangerous criminals from society, the public are protected . Additionally, by denying prisoners their freedom and basic choices that may be taken for granted, such as when to eat and sleep or what to wear, combined with a withdrawal from their friends and loved ones, an unpleasant atmosphere is created that serves as a fitting punishment for those that have broken the law and a deterrent for those who may consider it. However, the point remains – if such a high number of ex-offenders are re-offending on their release, the prison system as it stands does not offer a cost-effective method of punishment or a serious enough deterrent to control crime rates.Alternatives may include programmes of community service or more suspended sentences handed out. In this instance, offenders are not sent to prison, so do not require the cost to the taxpayer. However, relatively cheap programmes of community service require the offender to give something back to the community they may have damaged in the first place, and suspended sentences do not cost anything but help deter offenders from committing any further crimes while the suspended sentence stands. These sentences could be given in conjunction with one another and as long as these offenders pose no threat to the safety of society, there is no need for them to be withdrawn to prison. Although it

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could be argued that a number of offenders do re-offend following these punishments, at least these few are given a chance to reform before they place a financial burden on the taxpayer.Alternatively, more opportunity for reform in prisons may also prove cost-effective as it could significantly reduce recidivism, thus crime rates overall. Intensive therapy, such as that offered at Grendon Prison, requires offenders to face up to their offending behaviour. The process itself is unpleasant for the prisoner, and is often used for more dangerous offenders. Although prisoners at Grendon cost £42,000 per year, the recidivism rates are significantly lower, standing at 8% in the four years after release, compared with 24% generally. This means that at a slightly higher cost initially, less crime is committed overall, so it is a more cost-effective use of prisons.In conclusion, although prisons are a necessity in society, in order to protect the public from dangerous individuals and act as a deterrent to those who may contemplate crime, overall, if ex-offenders are re-offending at the current rate, they are not cost-effective ways to reduce crime. Alternatively, more prisons should adopt the ‘therapeutic community’ approach for those offenders who must be kept away from the public fir safety, and more community and suspended sentences should be given out to offenders who deserve punishment but do not pose a serious threat to society. This will ensure that they repay to society what they owe and possibly reform their ways, but do not cost the taxpayer an unnecessary sum in the process.

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