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Gender division of work, working time and health
Lucía Artazcoz
Public Health Agency of Barcelona
Presentation outline
Conceptual framework based on the sexual division of work
Employment-family balance Part-time work Long working hours
Conceptual framework
Traditional occupational health Work, a potential source of health
hazards Work as a social determinant of health
Occupational social-class inequalities Domestic and family work and health
Gender division of work Interaction between employment and the family
sphere Family sphere:
Domestic and caring work Breadwinner role
Intersection with other axes of inequalities: Individual level: Social class (ethnicity, immigration) Contextual level: Welfare state regimes
The sexual division of work in Europe
Labour force participation in the EU-27 by country and sex in 2013
EU-27
Belgium
Croatia
Czech Republic
Estonia
France
Greece
Iceland
Italy
Lithuania
Malta
Norway
Portugal
Slovakia
Spain
Switzerland
0 20 40 60 80 100
Women
Men
%
Eurostat, Labour Force Survey
Welfare state regimes: Family and labour market models
Welfare state regimes and family models in Europe Nordic countries
Double earner/double carer Continental countries
Traditional family model with support to families Southern-European countries
Traditional family models, with no support to families Post-comunist countries
Double earner/women carers Anglo-Saxon countries
Market-oriented family models
Time devoted to domestic work among workers married or cohabiting
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Continental
Ireland/UK
Eastern Europe
Southern Europe
Nordic
Continental
Ireland/UK
Eastern Europe
Southern Europe
Nordic
Everyday >=1 hours Every 2nd day<1 hour 1-2 a week 1-2 a month 1-2 a year Never
Men
Women
Source: European Working Conditions Survey, 2010
Person who contributes the most to the household income among workers married or cohabiting
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Continental
Ireland/UK
Eastern Europe
Southern Europe
Nordic
Continental
Ireland/UK
Eastern Europe
Southern Europe
Nordic
Yes No Both equally
Men
Women
Source: European Working Conditions Survey, 2010
Explaining the gender division of domestic and family work
Negotiation between partners Better position of partners with more economic resources More equal economic positions between partners, less
domestic work for women but not more domestic work for men (Kroska, 2004)
Stable pattern of male share in domestic work across life
Motherhood increase gender inequalities in domestic work (Baxter et al. 2008)
Gender role expectations (Geist, 2005) Societal norms, gender and family policies
Nordic model: Women in the labour market
Women working full-time or long part-time
Family care outside families More policies for promoting women
participation in the labour market than men participation in domestic work
Other countries: Women in the labour market
Continental countries Promotion of women working part-time
Southern European countries Women working full-time or homemakers Low labour market participation of women
Eastern European countries Women working full-time Women as carers Social care for 3-6 years old children
UK Promotion of women working part-time Low salaries and poor working conditions among women
The gender division of work and health
The case of Spain:
Changing patterns with the economic crisis
Combining employment and family demands and health: the intersection with social class
0
1
2
3
4
Malasalud
Poor general
health
Long-standing
Limiting illness
At least one
Chronic condition
Risk
Sleep < 6 hours
3
4
>4 persons
3
4
>4 persons
3
4
>4 persons
3 4
>4 persons
2 22 2
Female manual workers
0
1
2
3
4
Malasalud
Poor general
health
Poor mental
health
Sleep < 6 hours
Risk
Leisure time
sedentarism
3
4
>4 persons
3 4
>4 persons
3
4
>4 persons
3 4
>4 persons
2 22 2
Female manual workers
0
1
2
3
4
Malasalud
Poor general
health
Poor mental
health
Sleep < 6 hours
Risk
Leisure time
sedentarism
3
4
>4 persons
3
4
>4 persons
3 4
>4 persons
3 4
>4 persons
2 22 2
Male manual workers
Data from the 2010 European Working Conditions Survey Sample: Workers married or cohabiting Employment demands: working hours (< 30, 30-40, 41-50 and
<50) Household composition
Number of children Living with older than 64 Partner’s employment status
Health outcomes General health status Psychological wellbeing
Continental and Southern European countries: Long working hours and family demands associated with health status in both
sexes, although these associations are stronger and more consistent among women;
Men from Southern European countries: Poor health status and psychological wellbeing among living with other than 64
Anglo-Saxon countries: Association between long working hours and family demands and health mainly
limited to men Women: The only country where part-time was related to better health status
Nordic and Eastern European countries: Long working hours and family demands largely unassociated with poor health
outcomes in both sexes.
Understanding part-time, long working hours and health
Welfare state models (cultural aspects)
Family models
Carer
Part-time work
Breadwinner
Long working hours
Involuntary or forced
Poor employment and working conditions and poor health
Labour market characteristics(regulation)
Bargaining power
The importance of economic vulnerability
… and the crisis
Part-time work and employment and working conditions
Part-time work in the EU-27 by country and sex in 2013
Austria
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Denmark
Finland
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Latvia
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Poland
Romania
Slovenia
Sweden
United Kingdom
0 20 40 60 80 100
Women
Men
%
Eurostat, Labour Force Survey
Involuntary part-time work in the EU-27 by country and sex in 2013
Austria
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Denmark
Finland
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Latvia
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Poland
Romania
Slovenia
Sweden
United Kingdom
0 20 40 60 80 100
Women
Men
%
Eurostat, Labour Force Survey
Dimensions of job quality
Source: Eurofound, 2012
(2013)
In search of good quality part-time employment
Quality part-time: Differences between countries
Differences between countries: Definition Incidence Available information
Good quality part-time jobs: Sweden and The Netherlands
Poor quality part-time jobs: United Kingdom
Job quality and part-time in Europe (1)
Job security Part-time more insecure
Training opportunities Less training opportunities Less promotion prospects
Intrinsic job quality Concentration in low-skilled jobs Higher levels of monotony Lower levels of task complexity and problem-solving tasks
(Sandor, 2011) Poor economic and social integration Voluntary or involuntary Attention to mini jobs (Burchell et al.) Occupational downgrading (higher in the UK)
(2010)
(2010)
Job quality and part-time in Europe (2)
Earnings and earnings progression Lower average hourly earning in almonst all
countries (Kalleberg, 2006) Small differences in Norway and the Netherlands Largest gap in the United Kingdom
Exposure to health hazards Lower exposure to safety and ergonomic
hazards; higher exposure to psychosocial hazards
Job quality and part-time in Europe (3)
Working-time quality Part-timers more likely to have control
over their working-time Intensification of work? (Fagan et al.
2008) Irregular working-times? Unpredictable
working hours? On call? (Plantenga and Remery, 2009)
Long working hours and health
Working hours among men in Europe, 2010
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Continental Anglo-Saxon Eastern Southern Nordic
<30 31-40 41-50 51-60
European Working Conditions Survey, 2010
Working hours among women in Europe, 2010
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Continental Anglo-Saxon Eastern Southern Nordic
<30 31-40 41-50 51-60
Karoshi: about 10000 deaths ayear in Japan
Long working hours and health status in Spain
In some circumstances, working 41-60 hours associated with…
Poor general health Poor mental health Job dissatisfaction Hypertension Smoking Sedentarism in the leisure time
Proposed model for explaining the relationship between moderately long working hours and health status
Long working hours and health status in Europe
Long working hours and health status in Europe
Long working hours and health status in Europe (2005)
In all countries, working long hours related to poor health but the association was stronger and more consistent among men from Anglo-Saxon countries;
Stronger association among men in countries with male breadwinner models, similar among men and women from Nordic countries, and stronger among women from Eastern European countries.
Opting out of the 48-hour week in the UK
Workers 18 or over who want to work more than 48 hours a week, can choose to opt out of the 48-hour limit.
This could be for a certain period or indefinitely. It must be voluntary and in writing.
It can’t be contained in an agreement with the whole workforce. However, employers are allowed to ask individual workers if they’d be willing to opt out.
An employer shouldn’t sack or unfairly treat a worker (eg refused promotion) for refusing to sign an opt-out.
Source: https://www.gov.uk/maximum-weekly-working-hours/weekly-maximum-working-hours-and-opting-out
As the directive stands there is only work and resting—no in between such as on-call times, when the doctor may not actually be working. The commission is also concerned about the use of opt outs, which give individuals the right to opt out of the weekly limit on working hours. Doctors may opt out for various reasons, such as the need to earn more money or to receive more training, or simply due to pressure exerted by the trust they work for. The more doctors opt out, the easier it becomes for trusts to comply with the requirements of the directive.
Professionals often choose to work long hours because they enjoy their work, and from a desire to provide a good service and to improve their expertise in their chosen profession. Although limits need to be set on the number of hours people work, the change from 56 to 48 hours is a step too far. The creation of complicated rotas, full shifts, and cross cover is not the solution to a fundamentally flawed reduction in hours of work.
Gender division of work, working time and health
Lucía Artazcoz
Public Health Agency of Barcelona