Generative Generative PhonologyPhonology

The originsThe origins

Noam ChomskyNoam Chomsky – a student of Zellig – a student of Zellig Harris; born 1928, interest in Harris; born 1928, interest in language at 10, his father a Hebrew language at 10, his father a Hebrew philologist William Chomsky philologist William Chomsky

Morris HalleMorris Halle – a student of Roman – a student of Roman Jakobson; born in Latvia 1923, 1940 Jakobson; born in Latvia 1923, 1940 in the US, studied engineering, then in the US, studied engineering, then linguisticslinguistics

The fall of American The fall of American structuralismstructuralism

(1)(1) rather than the operationalist, rather than the operationalist,

verificationist empiricism verificationist empiricism theories theories which have which have explanatory and predictiveexplanatory and predictive power within a domain, bring coherence power within a domain, bring coherence to itto it

rather than behaviourism rather than behaviourism more more structured & less simplistic structured & less simplistic psychological theoriespsychological theories in perception & in perception & learninglearning

The fall of American The fall of American structuralism (2)structuralism (2)

the strict requirement of bi-the strict requirement of bi-uniqueness uniqueness led to counterintuitive led to counterintuitive analysesanalyses

analytic difficulties in the area of analytic difficulties in the area of suprasegmentals; e.g., to describe suprasegmentals; e.g., to describe stress in English:stress in English:

requires extensive reference to requires extensive reference to grammatical structuregrammatical structure

the contrasts are not recoverable the contrasts are not recoverable from phonetic data alone from phonetic data alone

The confrontationThe confrontation 1957 Chomsky 1957 Chomsky Syntactic StructuresSyntactic Structures had had

impact since structuralist linguistics didn’t impact since structuralist linguistics didn’t have a theory of syntaxhave a theory of syntax

the strongest point of Am. structuralism the strongest point of Am. structuralism continued by Chomsky: concern for formal continued by Chomsky: concern for formal analysis and explicit statementanalysis and explicit statement

1959 Halle 1959 Halle Sound Pattern of RussianSound Pattern of Russian – – attacked the bi-uniqueness conditionattacked the bi-uniqueness condition

1959 Chomsky’s review of Skinner’s 1959 Chomsky’s review of Skinner’s Verbal BehaviourVerbal Behaviour

1965 Householder’s attack on generative 1965 Householder’s attack on generative phonology in phonology in JL JL 1; Chomsky and Halle’s 1; Chomsky and Halle’s reply in the following issuereply in the following issue

Morris Halle and generative Morris Halle and generative phonology (1)phonology (1)

1952 Jakobson, Fant & Halle 1952 Jakobson, Fant & Halle Preliminaries to Speech AnalysisPreliminaries to Speech Analysis: : Jakobson’s distinctive features in Jakobson’s distinctive features in acoustic and articulatory termsacoustic and articulatory terms

the importance of both the importance of both morphophonemics and acoustic morphophonemics and acoustic phoneticsphonetics

Morris Halle and generative phonologyMorris Halle and generative phonology (2): formal conditions which (2): formal conditions which

phonological descriptions must satisfyphonological descriptions must satisfy representations be organized into representations be organized into

sequences of segments and boundariessequences of segments and boundaries segments are specified in terms of segments are specified in terms of

distinctive featuresdistinctive features(3). it should be possible to infer the (3). it should be possible to infer the

linguistically relevant properties of the linguistically relevant properties of the utterance from the phonological utterance from the phonological representation, representation, BUT NOTBUT NOT

(3a). to infer the proper phonological (3a). to infer the proper phonological representation of any speech event only representation of any speech event only from the physical properties of this event from the physical properties of this event (( bi-uniqueness) bi-uniqueness)

Halle’s argument against bi-Halle’s argument against bi-uniquenessuniqueness

in Russian, voicing is distinctive for all in Russian, voicing is distinctive for all obstruents except /ts/, /obstruents except /ts/, /čč/ and /x// and /x/

/ts/, //ts/, /čč/ and /x/ get voiced before vd obstr/ and /x/ get voiced before vd obstr all obstr are vless word-finally, unless before a all obstr are vless word-finally, unless before a

vd obstrvd obstr

[mo[mok k li] [moli] [mogg bbɨ]; [ɨ]; [žžeečč li] [ li] [žžeeddžž bbɨ]ɨ]

if a phon. repr. satisfies both (3) & (3a):if a phon. repr. satisfies both (3) & (3a):/mo/mokk li/ /mo li/ /mogg bi/; bi/; [[žžeečč li] [ li] [žžeečč bibi]] (there is no vd phoneme (there is no vd phoneme ǰǰ!) & a rule voicing !) & a rule voicing

/ts/, //ts/, /čč/ and /x/ + a rule voicing all other / and /x/ + a rule voicing all other obstruents (so obstruents split into two groups, obstruents (so obstruents split into two groups, and voicing split into two rules)and voicing split into two rules)

if 3a dropped:if 3a dropped: /mo/mokk li/ /mo li/ /mokk bi/; bi/; [[žžeečč li] [ li] [žžeečč bibi]] & a rule of voicing & a rule of voicing

Halle cont.Halle cont. thus, representation chosen for the thus, representation chosen for the

benefit of the rule (one unitary benefit of the rule (one unitary regularity)regularity)

centrality of centrality of rulesrules in a phonological in a phonological descriptiondescription

change towards much more change towards much more abstractabstract representationsrepresentations

language as a complex cognitive system language as a complex cognitive system (including rules and representations) (including rules and representations) rather than an inventory rather than an inventory

antecedents (1)antecedents (1) Chomsky’s ideas were developed largely Chomsky’s ideas were developed largely

in isolation from the linguistic traditionin isolation from the linguistic tradition Halle’s Halle’s clear antecedents in clear antecedents in the Prague the Prague

SchoolSchool via Jakobson: via Jakobson: distinctive featuresdistinctive features, which were used as , which were used as

notation necessary innotation necessary in the evaluation of grammars (uniform the evaluation of grammars (uniform

notation makes it possible to compare notation makes it possible to compare alternative descriptions of the same facts) alternative descriptions of the same facts) evaluation measureevaluation measure

and in formulating and in formulating linguistically significant linguistically significant generalizationsgeneralizations (fewer features to (fewer features to characterize more general natural classes)characterize more general natural classes)

antecedents (2)antecedents (2) concern for concern for explanationexplanation in linguistics and in linguistics and

search for universalssearch for universals from Am. structuralism:from Am. structuralism: explicitness and formal statementexplicitness and formal statement assumptions about morphological assumptions about morphological

structurestructure elimination of redundancy elimination of redundancy Jakobson’s Jakobson’s

information theory; the phonological information theory; the phonological system as a branching diagram for system as a branching diagram for segments (a sequence of successive segments (a sequence of successive choices)choices)

1968

Chapter One. Chapter One. SettingSetting..

1. Grammar 1. Grammar

The goal of the descriptive study of a The goal of the descriptive study of a language is the construction of a language is the construction of a grammar. We may think of a language grammar. We may think of a language as a set of sentences, each with an as a set of sentences, each with an ideal phonetic form and an associated ideal phonetic form and an associated intrinsic semantic interpretation. The intrinsic semantic interpretation. The grammar of the language is the grammar of the language is the system of rules that specifies this system of rules that specifies this sound-meaning correspondence.sound-meaning correspondence.

The speaker produces a signal with a certain The speaker produces a signal with a certain intended meaning; the hearer receives a signal intended meaning; the hearer receives a signal and attempts to determine what was said and and attempts to determine what was said and what was intended. The performance of the what was intended. The performance of the speaker or hearer is a complex matter that speaker or hearer is a complex matter that involves many factors. One fundamental factor involves many factors. One fundamental factor involved in the speaker-hearer’s performance involved in the speaker-hearer’s performance is his knowledge of the grammar that is his knowledge of the grammar that determines an intrinsic connection of sound determines an intrinsic connection of sound and meaning for each sentence. We refer to and meaning for each sentence. We refer to this knowledge—for the most part, obviously, this knowledge—for the most part, obviously, unconscious knowledge—as the speaker- unconscious knowledge—as the speaker- hearer’s “hearer’s “competencecompetence.” Competence, in this .” Competence, in this sense, is not to be confused with performance.sense, is not to be confused with performance.

PerformancePerformance, that is, what the speaker-, that is, what the speaker-hearer actually does, is based not only hearer actually does, is based not only on his knowledge of the language, but on his knowledge of the language, but on many other factors as well—factors on many other factors as well—factors such as memory restrictions, such as memory restrictions, inattention, distraction, nonlinguistic inattention, distraction, nonlinguistic knowledge and beliefs, and so on. knowledge and beliefs, and so on. We We may, if we like, think of the study of may, if we like, think of the study of competence as the study of the competence as the study of the potential performance of an idealized potential performance of an idealized speaker-hearer who is unaffected by speaker-hearer who is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant factorssuch grammatically irrelevant factors..

We use the term “We use the term “grammargrammar” with a ” with a systematic ambiguity. On the one hand, systematic ambiguity. On the one hand, the term refers to the explicit theory the term refers to the explicit theory constructed by the linguist and proposed as constructed by the linguist and proposed as a description of the speaker’s competence. a description of the speaker’s competence. On the other hand, we use the term to refer On the other hand, we use the term to refer to this competence itself. The former usage to this competence itself. The former usage is familiar; the latter, though perhaps less is familiar; the latter, though perhaps less familiar, is equally appropriate. The person familiar, is equally appropriate. The person who has acquired knowledge of a language who has acquired knowledge of a language has internalized a system of rules that has internalized a system of rules that determines sound-meaning connections for determines sound-meaning connections for indefinitely many sentences.indefinitely many sentences.

2. Linguistic universals2. Linguistic universals

General linguistics attempts to develop a General linguistics attempts to develop a theory of natural language as such, a system theory of natural language as such, a system of hypotheses concerning the essential of hypotheses concerning the essential properties of any human language. These properties of any human language. These properties determine the class of possible properties determine the class of possible natural languages and the class of potential natural languages and the class of potential grammars for some human language. The grammars for some human language. The essential properties of natural language are essential properties of natural language are often referred to as “linguistic universals.” often referred to as “linguistic universals.” Certain apparent linguistic universals may be Certain apparent linguistic universals may be the result merely of historical accident. For the result merely of historical accident. For example, if only inhabitants of Tasmania example, if only inhabitants of Tasmania survive a future war,survive a future war,

it might be a property of all then existing it might be a property of all then existing languages that pitch is not used to languages that pitch is not used to differentiate lexical items. Accidental differentiate lexical items. Accidental universals of this sort are of no importance universals of this sort are of no importance for general linguistics, which attempts for general linguistics, which attempts rather to characterize the range of possible rather to characterize the range of possible human languages. human languages. The significant linguistic The significant linguistic universalsuniversals are those that must be assumed are those that must be assumed to be available to the child learning a to be available to the child learning a language as an a priori, innate endowment. language as an a priori, innate endowment. That there must be a rich system of a priori That there must be a rich system of a priori properties—of essential linguistic universalsproperties—of essential linguistic universals—is fairly obvious from the following —is fairly obvious from the following empirical observations. empirical observations.

Every normal child acquires an extremely Every normal child acquires an extremely intricate and abstract grammar, the intricate and abstract grammar, the properties of which are much properties of which are much underdetermined by the available data. This underdetermined by the available data. This takes place with great speed, under takes place with great speed, under conditions that are far from ideal, and there conditions that are far from ideal, and there is little significant variation among children is little significant variation among children who may differ greatly in intelligence and who may differ greatly in intelligence and experience. The search for essential experience. The search for essential linguistic universals is, in effect, the study of linguistic universals is, in effect, the study of the a priori facultthe a priori facultéé de langage that makes de langage that makes language acquisition possible under the language acquisition possible under the given conditions of time and access to data.given conditions of time and access to data.