THE UNIVERSE

The universe is the largest possible world consisting of all the astronomical bodies from the galactic superclusters to the tiniest of subatomic particles. It has millions of galaxies. It has always been a matter of interest for astronomers that how did such a huge universe originated. Some of the important modern theories of the evolution of the universe are following:1. Expanding Universe : According to this theory the primordial universe first compressed and

heated up. A point reached when it started expanding because of excessive heating. And the process is still going on.

2. Big Bang Theory : It is the most famous theory of the origin of the universe. It was propounded by the Belgian astromer-priest Abbe Georges Lemaitre. According to him an explosion occurred in an extremely compressed matter. The stars and other astronomical bodies formed from the fragments. According to this theory the matters will never revert back to the original position.

3. Steady State Theory : It was propounded by Hermann Boudi and Thomas Gold. According to this theory from the central part old galaxies move apart and new galaxies are formed there. So there is constant formation of new galaxies.

4. Pulsating /Oscillating Universe : It was propounded by Dr. Alan Sandage. According to this theory the universe expands and contracts alternatively. The explosion occurred some 12 billion years ago. Since then the universe is expanding, which will continue to expand for another 29 billion years. And then it will start contrasting for 41 billion years, which will ultimately lead to implosion.

THE GALAXY

Galaxies are huge congregations of stars held together by the force of gravity. Optical and radioactive studies indicate that there may be around 100 billions galaxies in the visible universe. Galaxies tend to be grouped into superclusters. When the universe started expanding, it was broken into billions of islands of gaseous matter. These changed into proto-galaxies and finally into differently shaped galaxies.Galaxies occur is three structural forms :(1) Spiral Galaxies : They have central nucleus with great spiralling arms trailing around them.

The Milky Way and Andromeda are such galaxies.(2) Elliptical Galaxies : They show purely elliptical shape without any spiral arm.(3) Irregular Galaxies : These do not have any proper shape. It is conjectured that the irregular, spiral and elliptical galaxies represent youth, middle and old ages, respectively.

Our galaxy the Milky Way is a part of the ‘Local Group’, which has some 24 galaxies. It looks like a river of light in the night . It is a spiral galaxy. It has over a hundred billion stars.

THE STARSStars account for about 98% matters in a galaxy. Stars are self illuminated bodies. They are rich in hydrogen and helium. The nuclear fusion is the source of energy in which hydrogen is converted into heavier matters like helium. So the life of a star depends upon the availability of hydrogen as a fuel. Stars tend to form groups called constellation. Lone stars are a rarity. The stars which seem isolated and single are mostly binary stars, revolving around a common centre. The Sun is the nearest star to the earth, then comes the Proxima Centauri.

Stars have to pass through a definite life sequence. After their birth they enter the main sequence stage. This stage has a helium core, becoming heavier, along with expanding outer layers. At this stage they are referred as adult stars. The process continues till they become red giant.

After the death of stars they can become white dwarfs, pulsars or black holes. If a star is about the mass of the sun or less than the sun it will become a white dwarf. If the star is bigger than the sun but not twice the size of it, it becomes a pulsar or neutron star. If the star is many times

bigger than the sun, it becomes a black hole. The black hole contracts so much that it develops super density of 1016 grams per cubic centimetre. Thus, it captures whatever passes in its way.

THE SOLAR SYSTEMIt consists of the sun and all other astronomical bodies, who are encircling around it. It has 8 planets, some dwarf planets including Pluto, satellites, asteroids (planet like objects), meteoroids, meteors, meteorites, comets, interplanetary dusts and plasmas.

The solar system formed some 4.6 billion years ago. The most acceptable theory for its origin is the solar nebula theory. According to this theory the solar system formed because of the condensation and cooling of a hot gaseous solar nebula (huge congregation of gaseous clouds). The core became the sun, and the planets and other bodies were formed from the peripheral materials.

THE SUNThe sun accounts for about the 99.85% of the mass of the solar system. Its mass is 740 times

to that of all the planets combined together. It is about 32000 light years away form the centre of the Milky Way. It takes about 250 million years to revolve around the centre of the Milky Way. This period is called cosmic or galactic year.

The sun is mainly composed of hydrogen (81.76%) and helium (18.17%). The nuclear fusion is providing it energy incessantly. The glowing visible part of the sun is called photosphere. Above it red coloured chromosphere is found. And beyond the chromosphere, the corona lies, which is visible only during the solar eclipse.

The sun continuously emits streams of protons in all directions either as persistent spiral streams called solar winds or as bouts of incandescent materials called solar flares.

The particles of solar winds are trapped by the earth’s magnetic field and in the earth’s upper atmosphere appear as aural displays. These are called Aurora Borealis in the arctic region and Aurora Australis in the Antarctic region. On the other hand, the solar flares being hot ionised gases pose serious threat to satellite communications.

The surface appearance of the sun changes continuously. The bright spots are called plages, whereas the dark spots are called sunspots. The sunspots are cold and dark regions on the surface of the sun with a periodicity of 11years. The higher sunspots phase leads to increase in the global temperature.

Solar Statistics

Distance from the Earth 150 million kmAphelion (Maximum Distance) 152 million kmPerihelion (Minimum Distance) 147 million kmCore Temperature 15 million 0CSurface Temperature 6000 0CRotation Time 25 daysAge 5 billion yearsComposition Hydrogen – 81.76%

Helium – 18.17%Oxygen – 0.03%Magnesium – 0.02%Nitrogen – 0.01%Other elements – 0.01%

Expected Lifetime of a Normal Star 10 billion yearsDiameter 100 earth diameters

THE PLANETSThe term ‘planet’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘planates’ meaning wanderers. The planets revolve around a star and they do not their have their own source of light. Rather they are illuminated by stars.The solar system has 8 planets and some dwarf planets including the Pluto. The planets are divided into inner planets and outer planets. The inner planets consist of Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are also called as the terrestrial planets because they are like the earth. These are all dense rocky bodies. Venus and Mercury are called as inferior planets, as they are inside the orbit of the earth.The outer planets consist of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They are also called as giant planets and Jovian planets because their similarities to the Jupiter. They are formed of lighter and gaseous materials. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are also called as superior planets as they are found outside the orbit of the earth.

Inner Planets Outer Planets1. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars 1. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune2. Nearer to the Sun 2. Away from the Sun3. Made up of dense metallic minerals 3. Made up hot gases, mainly hydrogen

and helium4. Move faster and have shorter period of

revolution 4. Move slowly and have a longer period

of revolution 5. Have thin, rocky crust 5. They are all gaseous bodies 6. Have very few natural satellites 6. Have a larger number of natural

satellites 7. Have core of molten metals 7. Have ring systems around them 8. Have thinner atmosphere 8. Have thicker atmosphere 9. They are called Terrestrial Planets 9. They are called Jovian Planets

THE MERCURY

Mercury is the smallest planet. It is closest to the sun. When it is closest to the sun its temperature reaches 3450 C on the equator, but it can drop up to -150 c in the night. It is visible to the naked eye. There may not be atmosphere because due to low gravity gaseous molecules must have escaped in the interplanetary space.It has cratered surface like the Moon. It has the highest diurnal range of temperature and the shortest year of all the planets.

Mercury Trivia

Diameter 4849.6 kmMoon NoneAverage Distance from the Sun 57.6 million kmLength of Day 176 earth daysLength of Year 88 earth daysNamed After Roman god of commerceVisited by Mariner-10

THE VENUSIt is closed planet to the earth. It is the brightest planet of the solar system. It is popularly

known as the evening star and the morning star. It is seen in the east in the morning and in the west in the evening

It rotates backward, means from the east to the west. It is possibly the hottest planet but it is also wrapped up with clouds, where temperature drops to minus 1.66 C.

Its atmosphere consists of 90 to 95% of carbon dioxide. Its atmospheric pressure is 100 times heigher than the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere. It is called as the twin of the earth because of its similar size, density and mass. It has the slowest rotational speed.

Venus Trivia

Diameter 12032 kmMoon NoneAverage Distance from the Sun 107.52 million kmLength of Day 243 earth daysLength of Year 225 earth daysNamed After Roman goddess of beauty Visited by Galileo, Magellan, Mariner 10

THE EARTHIt is the fifth largest but the densest planet of the solar system. Unique for the presence of

higher forms of life.Theories of the Origin of the Earth :1. Gaseous Hypothesis – Immanuel Kant2. Nebular Hypothesis – Laplace3. Planetesimal Hypothesis – Chamberlin & Moulton4. Tidal Hypothesis – James Jeans & Harold

Jeffereys5. Binary Star Hypothesis – H.N. Russell6. Supernova Hypothesis – F. Hoyle7. Inter-stellar Dust Hypothesis – Otto Schimidt8. Cepheid Theory – A.C Banerjee

Earth Trivia

Diameter 7600 milesAverage Distance from the Sun 150 million kmMoon OneLength of Day 24 hoursLength of Year 365 Days

THE MARSIt is also referred as the Red Planet as it appears reddish ball. Its polar caps are similar to the

earth and since its axis is tilted at almost the same angle as those of the earth, its polar regions are exposed to sunlight in alternation, giving each hemisphere summer and winter.Mars is internally alive and is more like the earth than the Moon.It highest mountain, Nix Olympia, is about three times higher than the Mount Everest. It has a huge rift in the equatorial region, which is 3700 km long. It proves that the Mars is geologically alive. It is a dusty planet. Mars has dry meandering river valleys.Mars has two small satellites-Phobos and Deimos. Phobos is the only satellite in the solar system which is moving faster than its parent planet.

Martian Trivia

Diameter 6755.22 kmMoons 2Average Distance from the Sun 225.6 million kmLength of Day 24 earth hours

Length of Year 687 earth daysNamed After Roman god of war Visited by Mariner,Viking, Pathfinder, Observer, Climate Orbiter

THE JUPITERIt is the largest planet. It accounts for 71 per cent of the total mass of the planets. But its

density is just one-fourth of the earth. Jupiter’s atmosphere is 40255 km deep. It largely consists of hydrogen and helium (90%). Jupiter is hot inside and it may have 100,000 0C temperature at its centre. Its core is made up of solid hydrogen.

It has the great red spot. It could be a huge storm-a super hurricane, existing for hundreds of years, without abating. Jupiter has the highest number of satellite and the Ganymede is the largest satellite of the solar system.

Jupiter has the fastest rotational velocity, about 10 hours.

Jovian Trivia

Diameter 141968 kmMoons 63Average Distance from the Sun 772.8 million kmLength of Day 10 earth hoursLength of Year 12 earth yearsNamed After Roman king of godsVisited by Pioneer 11, Voyager, Ulysses, Galileo

THE SATURNIt is the second largest planet and is the outermost planet visible to the naked eyes. It has the lowest density of all the planets. It is known for seven rings. These rings are today identified by the letters A to G. The Saturn has the second largest number of satellites. The Titan is the largest one, which has atmosphere.

Saturn Trivia

Diameter 119296 kmMoons 62Average Distance from the Sun 1417.6 million kmLength of Day 10 hours 39 minutesLength of Year 29.5 earth yearsNamed After Roman of god of agricultureVisited by Pioneer 11, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Cassini

THE URANUSThe Uranus is tilted 980 as if it is lying on its side as it travels around the sun. It is surrounded by five faint narrow rings. They are named as Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta and Epsilon.

Uranus Trivia

Diameter 52096 kmMoons 27Average Distance from the Sun 2852.8 million kmLength of Day 17 earth hoursLength of Year 84 earth years

Named After Ancient Greek godVisited by Voyager 2

THE NEPTUNEIt is the outermost planet of the solar system. It was discovered in 1846 as a result of calculations made independently by two astronomers, Adams in England and Le Verrier in France. Its atmosphere appears blue. Its atmosphere is mostly constituted of hydrocarbon compounds. It emits more energy than what it receives from the sun. It has the Great Dark Spot which is equal to the size of the earth.

Neptune Trivia

Diameter 49000 kmMoons 13Average Distance from the Sun 4497 million kmLength of Day 16 earth hoursLength of Year 165 earth years

THE DWARF PLANETSA dwarf planet is a celestial body orbiting the sun that is massive enough to be spherical as a result of its own gravity but has not cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals and is not a satellite. It has to have sufficient mass to overcome its compressive strength and achieve hydrostatic equilibrium. The term dwarf planet was adopted in 2006 and the Pluto was included under this category. At present there are five dwarf planets- Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris.

THE MOONIt is the only satellite of the earth. Its size is one-eighth of the size of the earth. Its gravity is only 1/6th

of the earth’s gravity. There is dispute regarding its origin. It is said that either it may be part of the earth or it came from outside. Another view says that it may be formed along with the earth simultaneously.The Moon rotates on its own axis in exactly the same time as it revolves. That is why we see only the same side of the moon.The bright parts are mountains and highlands which receive sunlight, whereas the darker patches are low-lying plains.It has craters which are caused by the bombardment of the meteors. It has sharp-peaked mountains, of which Leibnitz Mountains near the South Pole is 10660 meters high.

Because of low gravity it does not have any atmosphere. The moon’s gravity along with the sun’s cause tides in the oceans, but the tidal impact of the moon is greater than that of the sun because of its nearness to the earth. The moonlight takes only 1.3 seconds to reach the earth. The ratio of lunar and solar power for tide raising is 11 to 5.

The landing spot of Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin is called ‘the sea of tranquility’. The Blue Moon is second full moon within one month.

Lunar TriviaAverage Distance from the Earth 3.84 lakh km Diameter 3500 kmCircumference 11,000 kmSurface temperature 1340C - 1700CRevolution Velocity 3700 km/h

Revolution Time 27

13 days

Age 4.6 billion yearsApogee 406699 km

Perigee 356,399 kmFraction of Moon’s Surface 0.410Always Invisible

SOLAR STATSPlanet Mean

Distance from Sun

(in mn km)

Relative Period of

Revolution

Relative Period of Rotation

Diameter (000 km)

Relative Mass

(Earth = 1)

Number of

Satellites

Surface Temperature

Density (Water = 1)

Mercury 58 88 days 59 days 4.9 0.06 0 + 3500C (day) - 1700C (night)

5.43

Venus 108 224 days 243 days 12 0.8 0 + 4750C 5.24Earth 150 365 days 23h 37m

04s12.8 1 1 +150C 5.52

Mars 228 687 days 24h 37m

23s7 0.1 2 -220C 3.94

Jupiter 778 12 years 9h 50m 143 318 63 -1230C 1.33Saturn 1427 29.5 years 10h 25m 121 95 34 -1800C 0.70Uranus 2869 84 years 17h 20m 47 15 21 -2180C 1.30Neptune 4498 165 years 16h 45 17 13 -2280 1.76

THE COMETSThe comets are long-tailed astronomical bodies. They revolve around the sun. They consist of dust, gas, and ice. They generally originate in the outer region of the solar system. Here they remain non-luminous and have no tail. When they come near the sun they start glowing and the tail is formed. The tail of a comet always points away from the sun because of the force exerted by the solar wind and the radiation pressure.

A comet can have a nucleus, a head and a tail. Comets are distinguished from an asteroid with the presence of a coma (head) or a tail. The head appears when a comet comes near the Jupiter’s orbit, and the tail develops when it crosses the orbit of the mars. The comets can have three types of orbits-elliptical, parabolic and hyperbolic.

The comets are named after their discoverers. On an average about half a dozen new comets are discovered in a year. The comets which keep reappearing in the solar system are called periodic comets they divided into two groups – short period group and long period group. The short period group has periods of less than 200 years each. Halley’s Comet reappears after 76.3 years. The long period group has periods of more than 200 years, going up to thousands of years.

The Jupiter is called the comet disturber. The Jupiter can change the elliptical orbit of comets. This event is known as the capturing of comets.

Every time a comet passes near the sun, it loses something. The gas and dust escape first. Sometimes even the core itself disintegrates. This leads to the death of the comet.

THE ASTEROIDS Asteroids are planetoids, tiny planets, moving around the sun, mostly between the Mars and the Jupiter. They are also called as minor planets. The region is referred as the Asteroidal Belt.

The asteroids form two groups-Apollos and Trojans. The Apollos is a small group of 19 asteroids. Most of these cross the orbit of the earth. The Trojans travel in the Jupiter’s orbit, and the asteroids, the Jupiter and the sun form an equilateral triangle.

THE SHOOTING STARS A meteoroid is a sand-to bolder-sized particle of debris in the solar system. Those who enter the atmosphere of the earth are called meteors, or colloquially a shooting star or falling star. If a meteoroid reaches the ground and survives the impact, then it is called as meteorite. Many meteors appearing seconds or minutes apart are called meteor showers. These are supposed to be the fragments of comets.

Fireballs are exceptionally bright meteors. They are supposed to come from the belt of asteroids. Some meteors which can be seen in the day-time are called bolides. Tektites resemble

glass pieces. Chemically they resemble nothing on the earth but their most interesting feature is that they appear to have had a fiery high speed journey though the earth’s atmosphere.

ADDITIONAL FACTS- Doppler Effect: It was named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler, who

proposed it in 1842. It is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to the source of the wave. Due to this effect if the star is moving towards the observer, its light will be shifted towards the blue end of the spectrum, and if the star moves away from the observer its light will be shifted to the red end of the spectrum.

- Speed of Light – 299, 792.5 km/second or 186,282 miles per second- 1 Light Year = 5.88×1012 miles- Astronomical Unit (A.U.) = Mean distance between the sun and the earth (93 million miles

or 150 million km)- 10 Angstroms = 1 nanometer- In a Nova only the outer shell explodes, whereas in the Supernova the entire star explodes - 1 Parsec = 3.26 light years- Hubble’s Law : The speed of a galaxy moving away form the earth depends on its distance

from the earth. If a galaxy is 5 times as far away as another galaxy, it is moving away times faster.

THE EARTHThe age of the earth is estimated to be approximately 4.6 billion years. There are various methods of calculating the age of the earth –1. Tidal method2. Sedimentation method3. Glacial deposition method4. Salinity method5. Evolution of life on the earth6. Rocks dating method7. Nuclear methodMovements of the Earth:(1) Galactic Movement: Movement around the centre of the Milky Way(2) Rotation: Movement around its own axis. The earth takes 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.09

seconds for one rotation. Rotation causes days and nights. The rotational velocity is maximum at the Equator and is nearly zero at the poles. The line that separates the illuminated part of the earth from its darker part is called the circle of illumination.

(3) Revolution: It is the movement around the sun. The path on which the earth moves around the sun is called orbit. The shape of the earth’s orbit is elliptical. The shortest and largest distance between the sun and the earth are called perihelion and aphelion, respectively. The perihelion occurs near about 4 January and the aphelion takes place around 4 July. The speed of the revolution of the earth is 29.72 km/second or 107,000 km/hour.Plane of Ecliptic: Constant plane of the earth on its orbit.

Angle of Inclination: The angle between the axis of the earth and its plane of ecliptic.

Parallelism: At every position in the earth’s orbit, the axis remains pointed towards the same spot in the sky. For the North Pole that spot is close to the North Star or Polaris.

COORDINATES OF THE EARTHParallels and Latitudes: Latitude or parallel is the angular distance measured from the centre of the earth with respect to any point on the meridian. Latitudes are depicted in degree, minutes and seconds. For example, 70º 35’ 40”. The Equator is 0º latitude. The average latitudinal distance is 111 km, but this distance decreases towards the pole because of the geoid shape of the earth. –Zones-Tropical/ Torrid, Temperate and Frigid

Longitude/Meridian: Longitude or meridian is the angular distance between the Prime Meridian and the meridian of a place. It is also measured in degree, minutes and seconds. There are 360 longitudes on the surface of the earth. The distance between two longitudes is 111.32 km at the Equator but it reduces towards the poles. These is because all the meridians join together at the poles. The 0º longitude which passes through Greenwich (near London) has been accepted as the Prime Meridian. On the other hand, the 180º longitude has been designated as the International Date Line.Great Circle: A circle whose plane passes through the centre of the earth and divides the spherical earth into two equal halves is called great circle. The Equator and the two 180º opposite meridians form great circles. All other latitudes form small circles. The great circle denotes the shortest distance between any two points on the surface of the earth. In fact, a nautical mile is the distance measured along the great circle.

TIME ZONESThe mean time at a place of observation is called the Local Mean Time (LMT). Every longitude has its own Local Mean Time. If it is followed it will create great confusion within a country. To avoid such confusion the standard time has been evolved. A country can have one or more than one standard time zones. For example, India and China have only one tine zone, whereas Russia has 11 and the USA has 5 time zones.Time Zones: The earth is divided into 24 time zones. Thus, each time zone represents 1 hour and each longitude represents 4 minutes. But different countries use their political boundaries for forming time zones. For example, India’s longitudinal extent is almost 30º but it has only one standard time and one time zone.International Date Line: It follows the 180º longitude but is not completely parallel to avoid confusion of time over the small islands. There is a difference of 24 hours in east and west of it. That is why one day is either gained or lost while crossing it. While crossing it from east to west a day is gained, whereas crossing from west to east a day is lost.Solstice: It is an astronomical event that happens twice each year when the sun’s apparent position in the sky reaches its northernmost or southernmost extremes. On 21st June it reaches up to the Tropic of Cancer. This position of the sun is called summer solstice. On the other hand, it reaches up to the Tropic of Capricorn on 22nd December. This position of the sun is called winter solstice. Equinox : It occurs twice in a year when the sun shines directly over the Equator. On 21 March it is called spring or vernal equinox, whereas on 23rd September it is called autumn equinox.

Midnight Sun: Beyond 6612 º latitudes in the summer season the sun does not go beyond the horizon

and at midnight it starts rising again. This is known as the midnight sun.

GEOMORPHOLOGY

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTHThe knowledge of the interior of the earth can throw light on many surfacial things. Since the interior part of the earth is not visible directly, knowledge about it is gathered through indirect means. The major sources of knowing the earth’s interior are following:1. Artificial Sources -

(a) Density(b) Pressure(c) Temperature

2. Evidence from the theories of the origin of the earth.3. Natural Sources:

(a) Vulcanicity(b) SeismologyThe seismology is the only reliable source. There are some special features of the

earthquake waves which help us to know the nature of interior of the earth. There are basically three types of seismic waves –1. P-Waves:– First to reach at the surface of the earth – Longitudinal or compressional waves– Particles moves both to and fro in the direction of propagation – They can pass through both solid and liquid but they are fastest through the solid.2. S-Waves:– They reach after the P-Waves – Transverse or distortional waves – Particles moves at right angle to the rays – They cannot pass through the liquid.3. L-Waves:– They are surface waves – They are lower in speed but are most violent and destructive– They can pass through both solid and liquid In the process of knowing the interior of the earth, the P-Waves and S-Waves are important as they pass through the inner body of the earth. The velocity of the seismic waves increases with the increase in the density of the rocks. On the other hand, the S-Waves do not pass through the outer core, suggests that the outer core is made up of liquid materials. Layers of the Earth:– During the origin of the earth, various layers developed one by one. This layering happened

because of gradual cooling and density differentiation. Various geologists have tried to divide the earth into different layers. The classification of Edward Suess is very simple and mostly used. Suess divided the earth on the basis of the chemical composition. He divided the earth into three layers: (1) SIAL– It is made up of Silica and Aluminium. It includes continental mass. Its nature is acidic. Its average density is 2.9 .Its thickness varies between 20 km to 300 km. (2)SIMA: it is basaltic. It is the source of magma. Its density varies between 2.9 to 4.7. Its

thickness varies between 1000 km to 2000 km. It is made up of Silica and Magnesium.

(3)NIFE: It is the most interior part of the earth it is composed of Nickle and Ferrous. It is made up of heavy metals. Its average density is 11. Its diameter is 6880 km.

Recent Views: With the help of seismic waves the interior of the earth has been known more comprehensively. The three layers are following:

(1) Crust: It is the outermost layer of the earth. Its thickness can vary between 30 km to 100 km. The average density of the upper crust is 2.8 and that of the lower crust is 3.0. The lower crust is separated from the upper crust by the Conrad Discontinuity. On the other hand, the Mohorovicic Discontinuity separates the crust from the mantle.

(2) Mantle: The mantle extends up to the depth of 2900 from the Moho Discontinuity. The mantle accounts for about 83% of the total volume of the earth and it has 68% of the total mass of the earth. The mantle is divided into the upper mantle and the lower mantle separated by the Repetti Discontinuity. Between 100 km to 200 km has low velocity of seismic waves because of its plastic nature. This region is called Asthenosphere or the zone of the low velocity.

(3) Core: This the innermost layer and is the densest layer. Its average density is about 11. The core is separated from the mantle by the Weichert – Gutenberg Discontinuity. It extends up to the depth of 6371 km. it accounts for 16% of the total volume of the earth and 32% of the mass of the earth. The core is divided into the outer core and the inner core separated by the Lehman Discontinuity at the depth of 5150 km. The outer core must be liquid in nature as the S-Waves deflect from here. On the other hand, the inner core is solid because of excessive pressure and heavy metals.

Discontinuities:

Conrad Discontinuity Upper Crust- Inner CrustMohorovicic Discontinuity Inner Crust – Upper MantleRepetti Discontinuity In Upper MantleBirch Discontinuity Upper Mantle-Lower MantleWeichert-GutenbergDiscontinuity Lower Mantle-Outer CoreLehman Discontinuity Outer Core-Inner Core

ROCKS* All the hard and soft materials of the earth’s crust are termed as rocks.

The rocks are composed of various minerals.Classification of Rocks : On the Basis of Mode of Formation :

1. Igneous Rocks :- They have been named after the Latin word ‘ignis’meaning fire. These rocks are formed due to cooling, solidification and crystallization of hot and molten

materials, magmas and lavas. These rocks are also referred as primary rocks as they originated the first. That is why they

are also called as parents rocks.Characteristics : Granular and crystalline Harder Lack of strata Generally affected by mechanical weathering Lack of fossils Volcanically formed

* Types of Igneous Rocks (On the Basis of Location) :(a) Intrusive :

(i) Plutonic – Found at a great depth(ii) Hypabyssal :- Near the surface of the earth

Examples : Batholith, Laccolith, Lopolith, Phacolith, Sills and Dykes.(b) Extrusive : Above the surface

(i) Explosive types – Bombs, Lapilli(ii) Quite type – Lava plateaus, lava plains

* Famous Igneous Rocks :

Granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, phyolite, diorite.(2) Sedimentary Rocks :These are formed because of erosion and deposition of other rocks.

These are also called as stratified or layered rocks.Characteristics :

– Presence of fossils They cover 75% of the surface of the earth but form only 5% of the crust. Sequential and systematic Seldom crystalline Permeable and porous Have bedding planes

* Classification of Sedimentary Rocks : On the Basis of Transporting Agents :(a) Argillaceous/Aqueous : Formed because of water

Marine – Inside the seas Lacustrine – In the lakes Riverine – By the rivers

(b) Aeolian : Formed by the air– Loess are the best examples.

(c) Glacial : Formed by glaciers– Moraine– Glacial till

* Famous Sedimentary Rocks : Sandstone, clay, shale, loess, gypsum, salt rock, limestone, dolomite, coal, peat.

(3) Metamorphic Rocks : These are formed because of the complete alteration of pre–existing rocks. This is caused due to the change in the mineral composition and texture through temperature and pressure.

* Igneous, sedimentary and even other metamorphic rocks can undergo metamorphism.* Types of metamorphism :

(a) Thermal metamorphism – Due to heat (b) Dynamic metamorphism – Due to pressure

(c) Hydro–metamorphism – Due to hydro–static pressure(d) Hydro–thermal metamorphism – Due to water and heat

* Examples :From Sedimentary Rocks :

Shale SlateLimestone MarbleSandstone & Conglomerate Quartzite Chalk & Dolomite MarbleCoal Graphite Diamond

From Igneous Rocks :Granite GneissBasalt AmphiboliteBasaltic Rocks Eclogite

From Metamorphic Rocks :Slate PhyllitePhyllite SchistGabbro Serpentine

MOH’S SCALE OF MINERAL HARDNESS

1. Talc 6. Orthoclase Feldspar 2. Gypsum 7. Quartz3. Calcite 8. Topaz4. Fluorite 9. Corundum5. Apatite 10. Diamond

ELEMENTS OF THE EARTH

Whole Earth Earth’s CrustElements Percentage Elements Percentage

1. Iron 35 1. Oxygen 462. Oxygen 30 2. Silicon 283. Silicon 15 3. Aluminium 84. Magnesium 13 4. Iron 65. Nickel 2.4 5. Magnesium 46. Sulphur 1.9 6. Calcium 2.47. Calcium 1.1 7. Potassium 2.38. Aluminium 1.1 8. Sodium 2.19. Others 1.0 9. Others 1.0

ENDOGENETIC FORCES

* On the basis of source of origin, the forces which affect the crust of the earth are divided into endogenetic and exogenetic forces. The endogenetic forces are responsible for creating various vertical irregularities over the surface of earth. On the other hand, the exogenetic forces remove and smoothen these irregularities by the process of denudation. So there exists a find of balance between the upstanding and lower parts of the cust. This crustal balance is called isostasy.

* On the basis of intensity endogenetic forces can be divided into diastrophic forces (slow) and sudden forces.

* Under the sudden forces, we include volcanic eruption and earthquake. It is important to note that these forces are the result of long period of preparation deep within the earth.

* Sudden forces are also called as constructive forces as these create certain relief features.* Diastrophic forces operate very slowly and their effect is seen after thousands of years. These

forces are also constructive and they affect larger area producing meso–level relief like mountains, plateaus and plains.

* Diastrophic forces work both vertically (epeirogenetic) and horizontal (orogenetic)* forces(vertical) can work for both upward and downward. Upward movement leads to

upliftment and emergence of lands, which the downward movement leads to subsidence.* Orogenetic forces work horizontally. They are also called as tangential forces as they work at

a tangent to the centre of the earth.* When orogenetic forces work towards each other, they are called compressional or

convergent forces. On the other hand, the forces working in opposite directions are termed as tensional or divergent forces.

* Conpressional forces create warping when they compress a large region. It can be either upwarping or downwarping.

* Wave–like bends in the crust caused by the convergent forces, relatively in smaller in region are called folds. The upfolded rock strata in arc–like form are called anticlines, while the downfolded structure is called synclines.

* Folding is responsible for the formation of big mountains and valleys. Various ranges and valleys of the Himalayas are nothing but anticlines and synclines, respectively.

* Types of Fold : On the basis of the inclination of the limbs and location folds are divided into following categories :(1) symmetrical fold

(2) asymmetrical fold(3) monoclinal fold (4) isoclinal fold (5) recumbent fold(6) overturned fold(7) plunge fold(8) fan fold (9) open fold(10) closed fold(11) nappes

* Tensional and compressional forces cause crustal fracture. A fracture in which no appreciable movement of rock takes place is called joint. But when there is movement of rocks, a fracture is termed fault.

* Types of Faults :(i) Normal Faults – When tensional forces work in opposite directions (ii) Reverse Faults – When compressive forces work towards each other (iii) Lateral Faults – When the forces work horizontally (iv) Step Faults – When a series of faults occurs in a region and they appear as steps.

* Faulting creates some special relief features like rift valley, grabben and block mountain. * Rift valley is a trough, depression or basin between two upstanding

crustal parts. For example, the valleys of the rivers like the Narmada, the Sonand the Damodar are rift valleys. The most extensive rift valley of the world is the Great African Rift Valley. The valleys of the Rhine and the Rhone in Europe also have rift valley structures.

ORIGIN OF THE OCEANS AND CONTINETS

* Oceans and continents are fundamental relief features of the globe and are considered to be ‘the relief of the first order’.

* Characteristic features of the distributional pattern of the continents and oceanic basins :(1) Ocean and continents account for 70.8% and 29.2% surface area of the globe,

respectively.(2) More than 75% of land is in the northern hemisphere. (3) The southern hemisphere is dominated by water.(4) Continents and oceans are arranged more of less in the opposite direction.(5) The North Pole is oceanic and the South Pole is continental.(6) Only 44.3% o0f oceans are opposite to other oceans and only 1.47 of lands are

opposite to lands.(7) The Pacific Ocean occupies almost one–third of the total earth surface which is

greater than the surface occupied by the total lands. * Any hypothesis or theory should support above distributional pattern. Major theories

regarding the origin and distribution of the oceans and continents are Tetrahedral Hypothesis, Continental Drift Theory and Plate Tectonics.

* Tetrahedral Hypothesis was postulated by Lowthian Green in 1875. His theory was based on the geometrical principle. It supports static nature of the oceans and continents. It postulates that the earth is changing from a sphere into an inverted tetrahedron

* In such tetrahedron plane faces represent oceans, four coigns represent four major shields and the edges represent continental mass.

* Tetrahedral hypothesis was rejected as the continents and the oceans are not static, and the earth is not in a tetrahedron shape.

* The Continental Drift Theory was propounded by Alfred Wegner in 1912. Before him the concept of continental movement was referred by Antonio Snider regarding the similarities of fossils of coal in North America and Europe, and by F.B. Taylor in 1908 regarding the distribution of tertiary fold mountains.

* Wegner presented his theory to solve the problem of climate change. He came to the conclusion that climatic zones remained more or less stationary, whereas the continents moved here and there.

* Wegner successfully defended his theory by collecting various evidences, in which jig–saw fit was most interesting. But his theory failed because he said that only continents moved not the oceans.

* Wegner followed Edward Suess and believed that SIAL is limited to the continental masses and the oceans are the parts of the upper SIMA. He said that the SIAL floats over the SIMA.

* Wegner said that all the land masses were joined together as Pangea and it was surrounded by Panthalsa. Pangea broke into Gondwanaland and Lauratia. Lauratia further broke to form North America, Europe and Asia. The Gondwanaland eventually broke to form South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica.

* Two types of movements occurred. First the equatorward movement was caused by gravitational differential force and force of buoyancy. Second the westward movement was caused by the tidal force of the Sun and the Moon.

* Wegner’s theory had its limitations which were ultimately corrected and improved by the plate tectonics.

Plate Tectonics : It was an improvement over the continental drift theory. It talked about the lithospheric plates and their dynamism. * Plate tectonics was eventually formulated in 1960s. This theory has solved many problems

regarding the distribution of oceans and continents, volcanism, seismicity, landform development etc.

* According to this theory the crust is divided into 6 major plates and several minor plates. The plates have three types of boundaries : divergent, convergent and conservative.

* The plate tectonic theory is based on sea floor spreading and palaeo–magnetism. The driving force behind plate movements is the thermal convectional current generating deep inside the earth.

* The places where the convectional currents rise up are disrupted and broken into divergent boundaries. Here lava erupts, and are spread on both sides equally. This spreading lava is dragged and pulled down at converging boundaries by the current.

* Thus new crusts are formed at diverging boundaries and the old crusts are consumed at the converging boundaries. This phenomenon is called sea–floor spreading. During this process the lava on both sides are magnetised in strips. The magnetism of the past in preserved in alternate strips of normal and reverse magnetism. This is called palaeomagnetism.

* According to the plate tectonics the plates move continuously and in the process the size and shape of the oceans and continents continuously change.

VULCANICITY * Vulcancity is a broad term including all the activities from the rising of magma to getting it

cooled in various forms, either on the surface of the earth or below it.* A volcano is the hole through which volcanic materials come out.* Components of Volcanoes:- Cone, vent (mouth), volcanic pipe, layers, crater.* The molten material inside the earth is called magma. When it is erupted above the surface

of the earth it is named lava.* On the basis of silica content, the lava can be divided into acidic lava and basic lava. Acidic

lavas have high silica content and are sticky and viscous. That is why they get solidified near the crater. Basic lavas have low silica content and are less viscous and sticky than the acidic lavas. They flow freely and form volcanic shields with gentle slopes.

* Classification of Volcanoes : On the basis of periodicity of eruption –

1. Active Volcanoes :- These volcanoes erupt consistently. There are around 500 active volcanoes in the world. Examples : Etna, Stromboli (Lighthouse of the Mediterranean), Cotopaxi, Mt. Erebrus, Barren Island, Hawaii, Pinatubo, Mt. Mayon.

2. Dormant Volcanoes :- These become quite after eruptions for some time and there do not have any indication of eruption, but suddenly they erupt violently.

Examples : Vesuvius, Fujiyama, Krakatoa, Narcondam Island3. Exinct Volcanoes :- These have not erupted for the last thousands of year and there

are no indications of future eruptions as well. The craters of the volcanoes are occupied by lakes. But one must remember that no volcano is permanently dead. Examples : Mt Kenya, Kilimanjaro, Chimborato, Mt Popa, Koh–Sultan, Demband, Aconcagua.

* Distribution of Volcanoes :1. Cricum–Pacific Belt : It is also called as Fire Girdle of the Pacific or the Fire Ring of the Pacific. Two third volcanoes of the world are found here.2 Mid–Continental Belt : Formed due to the convergence of the

Eurasian Plate with the African and the Indian plates.3. Mid–Atlantic Belt :- Formed due to divergence of North America and South America

in the west, and Africa and Eurasia in the east.4. Intra–plate Volcanoes :- This are caused by micro–plate activities and hot plums

coming form deep inside the earth. Hawaiian volcanoes are such volcanoes.* Volcanic Materials :- – Water Vapour

– Gases– Lava– Fragmental or pyroclastic materials

Important Volcanoes of the World

Volcano CountryOjos del Salado Chile

Cotopaxi EcuadorChimborajo EcuadorPopocatepetl MexicoMouna Loa Hawaii Islands

Mt. Cameroon CameroonMt. Kenya Kenya

Kilimanjaro TanzaniaMt. Popa MyanmarKrakatoa Indonesia

Mt. Mayon The PhilippinesMt. Pinatubo The Philippines

Fujiyama JapanKoh–Sultan IranDemband Iran

Barren Island IndiaNarcondam Island India

Mt. Erebrus AntarcticaHelkla Iceland

Mt. Pelee Martinique IslandLaaki Iceland

Vesuvius ItalyStromboli Italy

Etna ItalyKatmai Alaska (USA)

Mt. Rainier USAMt. Shasta USAMt. Taal The PhilippinesElbrus Georgia

Volcano Trivia

* Ojos del Salado is the highest active volcano of the world. * Mt. Erebrus (Antarctica) is the southernmost active volcano of the world.* Mt. Stromboli is called the Light House of the Mediterranean.* The Himalayan region does not have any volcano because here two continental plates are

converging.

EARTHQUAKES * Any motion or vibration of the crust of the earth is called earthquake.* The place of origin of earthquake is called focus. It is also referred as hypocentre.* The place on the ground perpendicular to the focus where the seismic waves strike first is

called epicentre.* Seismic waves are broadly divided into P-waves, S-waves and L-waves.* Causes of Earthquake :

(1) Vulcanicity(2) Faulting and Elastic Rebound Theory (3) Hydrostatic pressure

(4) Anthropogentric factors(5) Plate tectonics

* Measurement of Earthquake:(I) Magnitude :- It is the measure of the total energy released by an earthquake. It is

measured by the Richter Scale.– The Richter Scale was devised in 1935. Its measurement ranges between 1 to 9 but it

has no upper limit . it is a logarithonic scale.– Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in

magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude.(II) Intensity :- It is the measure of the effect and damage caused by an earthquake. There

are several scales to measure the intensity but the Mercalli Scale is most used.– Mercalli Scale :- It measures the intensity with numbers ranging from I to XII.– Other Scales :- – Rossi–Forel (RF)

– Medvedev Sponheuer Karnik (MSK)– Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

* Distribution of Earthquakes :-(1) Circum –Pacific Belt – 65%(2) Mid–Continental Belt – 21%

* Tsunamis are sea waves caused by earthquakes.* Seismic Zones of India :- Based on the intensity of earthquakes recorded on the Modified

Mercalli Scale, India has been divided into five seismic zones :

Zone 1 Intensity V or belowZone 2 Intensity VIZone 3 Intensity VIIZone 4 Intensity VIII

Zone 5 Intensity IX and above

MOUNTAINS

* Mountains are second order relief features. They are higher form the neighbouring region. They have steep slope and sharp pointed peaks. Mountains less than 1000 m height are called hills.

* Classification of Mountains :- On the basis of mode of origin(1) Original or Tectonic Mountains :- They are formed by tensional and compressional

endogenetic forces. They are divided into 4 types on the basis of orogenetic forces responsible for the origin of a portcular type of a mountain.

(i) Fold Mountains : Formed by compressive forces(ii) Block Mountains : Formed by tensional forces leading tothe formation of rift

valley. They are result of faulting. They arealso called as Horst Mountains.(iii) Dome Mountains : Formed by magmatic intrusion and upwarping of the

crustal surface(iv) Mountains of Accumulation : They are formed by the accumulation of

volcanic materials around a volcano opening. They are also called as volcanic mountains.

(2) Relict Mountains :- They are formed because of long erosion of original mountains. For example, Vindhyachal, Aravallis, Satpura, Eastern Ghats etc are relict mountains.

Highest Peaks of the Continents

1. Asia Mount Everest (8848 m)2. Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro (5895 m)3. North America Mt. McKinley (6194 m) 4. South America Mt. Aconcagua (6960 m)5. Antarctica Vinson Massif (5140 m)6. Europe Mt. Elbrus (5633 m)7. Australia Mt. Kosciusko (2228 m)

Major Mountains and Their Highest Peaks

1. Andes Aconcagua 2. Rockies Mt. Albert3. Himalayas Mt. Everest 4. Great Dividing Range Mt. Kosciusko5. Tien Shan Pike Poveda6. Altai Gora Velukha7. Ural Gora Norodnaya8. Atlas Mt. Toubkal9. Scandinavian Range Galdhopiggen10. Drakensberg Thabana Ntlenyana11. Caucasus Mt. Elbrus12. Appalachian Mt. Mitchel13. Alps Mt. Blanc

PLATEAUX

* Plateaux are second order relief features. They cover about 33 percent of the surface of the globe.

* Plateaux are uplands whose at least one side has very steep slope standing well above the neighboring regions and the upper surface is extensive and flat. Thus, they look like tables. That is why they are also called as table land.

* Types of Plateau : On the Basis of Mode of Origin –(1) Glacial Plateaux :- These are the product of the modification and transformation by

glaciers. The glaciers erode and smoothen the mountains into plateaus. Such plateaus are found in the polar regions. ‘Marg’ of Kashmir is supposed to be a glacial plateau.

(2) Fluvial Plateau :- They are formed because of the large scale deposition by the rivers and later on upliftment by the o forces. Kaimur Plateau is an example of such plateau formed in the central India.

(3) Aeolin Plateau :- ormed by the deposition of fine sediments by the winds. Potwar Plateau of Pakistan and Loess Plateau of china are acolian plateaux.

(4) Intermontane Plateau :- They are surrounded by hills and mountains almost from all sides. They originated along with the surrounding mountains. Generally they are formed due to upwarping of middle portion of the geosynclines known as median mass. Extensive and highest plateaue like the Tibetan Plateau, the Bolivian Plateau, the Mexican Plateau etc are intermontane plateaux.

(5) Piedmont Plateau :- They are formed at the foothills of extensive mountains. They are formed due to the upliftment during the origin of mountains. Appalachian escarpment region and Patagonian Plateau are its best examples.

(6) Dome Shaped Plateau :- These are formed due to the upliftment by the endogenetic forces during the volcanic activities. Batholithic and laccolithic intrusions of magma raise the crustal surface as extensive flat upland. The Chotanagpur Plateau, the Ozark Plateau etc are such plateau.

(7) Continental Plateau :- These are extensive plateaux and are generally away from mountainous regions but are surrounded by coastal plains. Deccan, Arabian, Australian and South African plateaux are continental plateaux.

(8) Volcanic Plateaux : They are formed due to the accumulation of thick–layers of basaltic lavas. The Deccan Plateau, the Columbian Plateau and the Antrim Plateau are examples of volcanic plateaux.

PLAINS

* These are second order relief features. They are flat as well as lower in height.* Plains are formed by erosion, lava deposition, loess, subsidence, emergence etc.* Types of Plains :

(1) Diastrophic Plains :- These are formed due the upliftment, subsidence, emergence or subsidence of an extensive area. Great Plains and Atlantic Coastal Plains of the USA Coromandal Coast etc are diastrophic plains

(2) Erosional Plains :- These can be formed by the erosional works of rivers, glaciers, wind and groundwater.

(3) Depositional Plains :- These can be formed by the depositional works of rivers, glaciers, lava, lake and wind. Alluvial plains, flood plains, delta plains, lacustrine plains, lava plains, loess plains, glacial plains and outwash plains are all depositional plains.

DESERTS

* Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation fo less than 25 cm per year, or areas where more water is lost by evaporation than that falls as precipitation.

* Deserts account for about 20% land surface of the earth.* Deserts are of two types – hot desert and cold desert.* Major Causes :

– Subtropical high pressure– Continentality – away from the sea coast – Cold ocean currents– Rain shadow effect

* On the basis of the nature of the surface materials deserts are of three types – rocky, stony and sandy.

* Deserts of the World :

1. Sahara Northern Africa2. Great Sandy, Gibson, Great Victoria,

Janami, Simpson, StuartAustralia

3. Thar India4. Nafud Saudi Arabia5. Rub–al–Khali Saudi Arabia6. Kyzyl kum Uzbekistan7. Kara Kum Turkmenistan8. Dashat-e-Kavir Iran9. Dasht-e-Lut Iran10. Gobi Mongolia and China11. Takla Makan China12. Sonoran USA and Mexico13. Mojave USA14. Atacama Chile15. Patagonia Argentina16. Kalahari Botswana17. Namib Namibia18. Libyan Desert Libya19. Eastern Desert Egypt20. Nubian Desert Sudan21. Ogaden Desert Ethiopia and Somalia22. Negev Desert Israel23. Syrian Desert Syria

LAKES

* 20 Largest Lakes of the World :

1. Caspian Sea 11. Great Slave Lake2. Superior Lake 12. Lake Erie3. Lake Victoria 13. Lake Winnipeg4. Aral Sea 14. Lake Ontario5. Lake Huron 15. Lake Balkhash6. Lake Michigan 16. Lake Ladoga7. Lake Tanganyika 17. Lake Chad8. Lake Baikal 18. Lake Maracaibo9. Great Bear Lake 19. Lake Onega10. Lake Nyasa (Malawi) 20. Lake Eyre

* Lake is a body of relatively still fresh or salt water of considerable size, localized in a basin that is surrounded by land.

* All lakes are temporary over geologic time scale, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them.

* Origin of Lakes : Causal Factors :– Tectonic movement– Glacial movement – Landslide– Cutting of river meander – Ox-bow lake– Filling of volcanic crater

* Types of Lakes :1. Seismic or Subsidence Lake – Lake Geneva (Switzerland ) 2. Fault Lake – Dead Sea, Baikal.3. Crater Lake – Titcaca Lake (Bolivia), Lonar Lake (Maharashtra)4. Glacial Lake – Superior, Huron, Great Bear etc.5. Lagoon – Chilka, Maracaibo, Pulicat, Vembanad.

Lake Trivia * Lake Tso Sekuru (the Tibetan Plateau) is the highest lake of the world.* Titicaca Lake is the highest navigable lake of the world.* Superior Lake is the largest freshwater lake of the world.* Baikal Lake is the deepest lake of the world.* Dead Sea is the lowest lake of the world.* Devtal is the highest lake of the India.* Lake Michigan is entirely in the USA.* Lake Assal(Djibouti) is the most saline lake of the world.

RIVERS* Ten Longest Rivers of the World :

1. Nile2. Amazon3. Yangtze4. Mississippi – Missouri5. Yenisei – Angara6. Huang He7. Ob-Irtysh 8. Parana – Rio de la Plata9. Congo – (Zaire)10. Amur

* Longest Rivers of the Continents:1. Asia – Yangtze2. Africa – Nile3. North America – Mississippi – Missouri4. South America – Amazon5. Europe – Volga6. Australia – Murray – Darling

* Rivers Making International Boundaries :1. Mekong – Laos – Myanmar2. Africa – Laos – Thailand3. North America – China – North Korea

4. South America – Tajikistan – Afghanistan– Uzbekistan – Afghanistan– Uzbekistan – Turkmenistan

5. Dneister – Ukraine – Moldova6. Prut – Romania – Moldova7. Vistula – Ukraine – Poland8. Oder – Germany – Poland9. Danube – Austria – Slovenia

– Hungary – Slovenia– Croatia – Serbia– Serbia – Romania– Romania – Bulgaria– Romania – Ukraine

10. Rhine – Germany – France11. Rio Grade – USA – Mexico12. Putamayo – Peru – Brazil13. Negro – Colombia – Venezuela14. Madeira – Brazil – Bolivia15. Paraguay – Brazil – Pasragay16. Pilcomayo – Argentina – Paraguay17. Parana – Brazil – Paraguay18. Uruguay – Brazil – Argentina

– Argentina – Uruguay19. Gambia – Senegal – Gambia20. Senegal – Senegal – Mauritania21. Zaire – Congo – DR of Congo22. Oubangui – Congo – DR of Congo

– Central Africa Republic – DR of Congo 23. Limpopo – S. Africa – Zimbabwe24. Orange – S. Africa – Namibia25. Zambezi – Zambia – Zimbabwe

– Zambia – Namibia26. Rovuma – Tanzania – Mozambique

* Rivers and Cities :

1. Alexandria Nile 21. Washington Potomac2. Bagdad Tigris 22. Yangon Irrawady3. Bangkok Menam / Chao

Phraya23. Khartoum Nile

4. Belgrade Danube 24. Brazzaville Zaire5. Bonn Rhine 25. Kinshasa Zaire6. Budapest Danube 26. Manaus Amazon7. Cairo Nile 27. Asuncion Paraguay8. Lahore Ravi 28. Pittsburgh Ohio9. Linz Danube 29. Edmonton Saskatchewan10. London Thames 30. Las Vegas Colorado11. Moscow Moskawa 31. Kiev Dnieper12. Montreal Ottawa 32. Lyons Rhone13. Karachi Indus 33. Hamburg Elbe14. New York Hudson 34. Warsaw Vistula15. Paris Seine 35. Vientiane Mekong

16. Quebec St. Lawrence 36. Phnom Penh Mekong17. Rome Tiber 37. Mandalay Irrawady18. Shanghai Huangpu 38. Chongqing Yangtze19. Tokyo Sunida 39. Wuhan Yangtze20. Vienna Danube 40. Guangzhou Si Kiang

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS

* Drainage System : Refers to the origin and development of streams through time.* Drainage Pattern : Means spatial arrangement and form of drainage system in terms of

geometrical shapes. * Controlling Factors of Drainage System :

(i) Nature of initial surface and slope(ii) Geological structure

* Drainage Systems Are of Two Types : (i) Sequent streams – those who follow the regional slope.(ii) Insequent streams – those who do not follow the regional slope.

* Sequent Streams : 1. Consequent Streams : These are first streams to originate in a particular region and

they follow the initial slope of land surface. 2. Subsequent Streams : These originate after the master consequent stream and follow

the axis of the anticlines. They generally meet the master stream at right angle.3. Obsequent Streams : These flow in opposite direction to the master consequent

streams.4. Resequent Streams : They flow in the direction of the master consequent streams but

are of recent origin.* Insequent Drainage Systems :

1. Antecedent Streams : Those which originate prior to the upliftment of land surface. For example, Indus and Brahmaputra.

2. Superimposed Streams : They are formed when the nature and characteristics of the valleys and flow direction of a consequent stream developed on the upper geological formation and structure are superimposed on the lower geological formation of entirely different characteristic. Most of the rivers of the Deccan Plateau and the Subanarekha have superimposed drainage system.

* Drainage Patterns :1. Trellis Patterns : It develops in an area of simple folds characterized by parallel

anticlinal ridges alternated by parallel synclinal valleys. 2. Dendritic Drainage Pattern : They resemble tree shape. They develop in areas of

homogenous lithologies, horizontal or very gently dipping strata, flat and rolling extensive topographic surface having extremely low reliefs.

3. Rectangular Drainage Pattern : Develops in regions where the rock joints form rectangular pattern. The tributary streams meet the master stream almost at right angle.

4. Radial Drainage Pattern : Also known as centrifugal pattern. This is formed by the streams which diverge from a central higher point in all directions.

5. Centripetal Drainage Pattern : Opposite to radial the streams converge at a point.6. Annular Drainage Pattern : Such pattern develops over a nature and dissected dome

mountain characterized by a series of alternate bands of hard and soft rock.7. Barbed Drainage Pattern : In this tributaries flow in opposite direction to the master

stream. This is generally happened because of river capture.

8. Pinnate Drainage Pattern : This develops in a narrow valley flanked by sleep ranges. Tributaries join at acute angles. The Narmada and the Son have such pattern. It resembles the veins of leaves.

9. Herringbone Drainage Pattern : Also known a rib pattern, develops in a broad valley flanked by parallel ridges. Tributaries join the master stream almost at right angle. Jhelam, Kosi, Rapti and Gandak have such pattern.

10. Parallel Drainage Pattern : Numerous rivers flow parallel to each other following the regional slope. The rivers of the western coast of India have developed parallel drainage pattern.

* River Capture : Diversion of a part of the course of a river by another riverCauses : – Headword erosion

– Lateral erosion– Intersection of meander

EXOGENETIC FORCES

* Major Exogenetic Forces : – Solar energy– Gravity – Anthropgenetic activities– Plants and animals

* Exogetic forces try to remove to the irregularities caused by the endogenetic forces. Different exogenetic processes are clubbed into a particular term called denudation.

* Denudation consists of all the processes of mass movement, weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition.

* Denudation performs its acts in two ways-degradation and aggradations. Degradation brings down the higher parts, whereas aggradation fills the low lying areas.

* Mass Movement : This is the process by which soil, regolith and rock move downslope under the force of gravity.

Types of Mass Movement :– Creep – Soil creep, rock creep– Landslide– Flows – Mudflow, debris flow, earth flow, lahor– Topples– Slump– Falls – Rock falls, debris falls, earth falls

* Weathering : Weathering is the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks, due to physical, chemical or biological factors in situ.

* Factors Controlling Weathering :– Composition and structure of rocks

– Climate– Slope of the ground– Flora and fauna

* Types of Weathering :1. Physical Weathering :– Block disintegration due to temperature change– Granular disintegration due to temperature change– Shattering due to rain shower and heat– Block disintegration due to frost action– Exfoliation due to temperature and wind– Disintegration and exfoliation due to unloading– Slaking – Dry-wet alternative– Salt weathering – growth of salt crystals from solution

2. Chemical Weathering :

– Solution– Oxidation– Carbonation– Hydration– Hydrolysis– Chelation 3. Biotic Weathering :– Faunal weathering – Floral weathering– Anthropogenetic weathering4. Biochemical Weathering :

* Erosion : The process by which the rocks are broken and transported from a place to anotherplace.

* Various Processes of Erosion :1. Abrasion / Corrasion : Erosion by the rock particles due to froction2. Attrition : Erosion of rocks due to mutual friction3. Corrosion : Separation of soluble rocks by water4. Hydraulic Action : Erosion by the fast action of flowing water5. Water Pressure : Erosion due to the pressure exerted by the water.6. Plucking : Dragging of rocks by glaciers7. Deflation : Blowing away of rock particles by the wind.

LANDFORMS DEVELOPED BY EXOGENETIC FORCES

1. Running Water (River) : Fluvial Landforms* Erosional Processes : – Abrasion / Corrasion

– Hydraulic Action– Corrosion– Attrition

* Erosional Landforms : – V-shaped Valleys– I-shaped Valleys (Gorge, Canyon)– Waterfalls– Rapids– Meanders– River Terraces– Structural Benches– Pot Holes– Poneplains

* Depositional Landforms : – Alluvial fans and cones– Natural levees – Flood plains– Sand banks– Sand bars– Deltas

2. Aeolian Landforms : * Erosional Processes :– – Deflation

– Abrasion– Attrition– Saltation

* Erosional Landforms : – Blow outs or deflation basins– Inselbergs– Mushroom rocks or pedestal rocks– Demoiselles

– Zuegens– Yardangs– Ventifacts– Stone lattices – Wind windows

* Depositional Landforms : – Sand dunes– Loess – Bajadas– Playas– Bolsons– Pediments– Ripple marks

3. Aeolian Landforms : * Erosional Processes : – Corrosion

– Abrasion– Attrition– Hydraulic Action

* Erosional Landforms – Lapies– Solution Holes– Sink Holes– Dolines– Uvalas– Poljes– Blind Valley– Ponores– Caves

* Depositional Landforms – Stalactites– Stalagmites– Curtains– Cave Pillars– Helictites– Heligmites– Globulites– Flowstones– Dripstones

4. Coastal Landforms (Sea Water) : * Erosional Processes – Hydraulic Action

– Abrasion– Attrition– Corrosion

* Erosional Landforms – Cliffs– Coves– Stacks– Chimneys– Arch– Inlets– Wave-cut Platform– Glaup or Blow-outs– Geo

* Depositional Landforms – Beaches– Bars and Barriers– Offshore and Langshore Bars– Spits

– Hooks– Loops– Connecting Bars– Looped Bars– Tombolo– Barrier Island– Wave-built platform

5. Glacial Landforms :* Erosional Processes – Abrasion

– Plucking– Polishing

* Erosional Landforms – U-shaped Valleys– Hanging Valley– Cirques– Arete– Horn– Nunataks– Rocks Mountonees– Tarn– Fiords– Crag and Tail– Whaleback– Glacial Stairways

* Depositonal Landforms – Moraines– Drumlins

* Glacio-Glurial Landforms – Eskers– Kames– Kame Terraces– Kettles and Hummocks– Outwash Plains / Sandar

IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER* Hot Spring : It is a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater

from the earth’s crust. * Geyser : It is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and

accompanied by a vapour phase. Geysers can eject water with regular interval or irregularly. The Old Faithful Geyser in the Yellowstone Notional Park of the USA ejects water at a regular interval.

* Aquifer : It refers to the storage pools of ground water lying below the ground surface.* Artesian Wells : An artificial hole through which water comes out on the surface naturally

due to hydrostatic pressure. Australia has the largest artesian basin of the world called the Great Artesian Basin.

CLIMATOLOGY

Climate: Climate encompasses the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elements in a region over a long period of time (30 years). It is generally compared with weather, which is a short time phenomenon of the same elements.

Weather: It refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric condition over longer periods of time. Most of the weather phenomena occur in the troposphere.

ATMOSPHERE

*Atmosphere is a thick envelope of gases around the earth held by the force of gravity.*It works as a great protective cover and maintains ideal condition for life to survive.

Composition of Atmosphere:-Atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and various particulate matters.-In a dry air gases are found in following proportion:

1. Nitrogen - 78%2. Oxygen - 21%3. Argon - 0.93%4. Carbon Dioxide - 0.003%5. Neon - 0.0018%6 Helium - 0.0005%7. Ozone - 0.00006%8. Hydrogen - 0.00005%9. Krypton - Trace10. Xenon - Trace11. Methane - Trace

*The vapour content in the atmosphere ranges between zero to five per cent by volume.*Water vapour depends upon the temperature. It decreases with the decrease in temperature. That is why it decreases polewards.*More than 90% of the total atmospheric vapour is found up to the height of 5km. *It is almost transparent to incoming solar radiations but is opaque to outgoing solar radiations. Thus, it helps in heating the atmosphere from below.*Particulate Matters: These include dusts, salts, pollens, smokes, soot, volcanic ashes etc.*They help in scattering solar radiation.*The sky looks blue because of the selective scattering by the particulate matters.*They also work as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapours are stored, and help in formation of clouds and rains.

*Structure of Atmosphere: The upper limit of the atmosphere is generally considered to be 10,000km from the sea level. But 97 per cent of atmospheric components are confined up to the height of only 29 km. *On the basis of characteristics of temperature and air pressure the atmosphere is divided into 5 layers.

Troposphere: Its average height is about 16 to 18 km over the equator and decreases down towards the poles and is only 6 to 8 km over the poles.

*Almost all the weather phenomena occur here*In this layer the temperature decreases with increasing height at an average rate of 6.5

C/1000m. This rate is called normal lapse rate (NLR) .Stratosphere: It is separated from the stratosphere by the tropopause, whereas its upper limit goes up to stratopause at the height of 50km. *Its lower part is filled with higher concentration of ozone which absorbs the ultra-violet rays. The ozonosphere occupies the height between 15km to 35km. *Due to the presence of ozone, the temperature increases with increasing height in the stratosphere.

Mesosphere: It extends between 50km to 80km.*The temperature again decreases with the increasing height and reaches up to -100 C, the lowest temperature of the atmosphere. *It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere.*Due to the cold condition water vapour is frozen forming ice clouds (Noctilucent cloud).

Ionosphere: It extends from 80km to 640km.*Electrically charged particles are found. They are, in fact, ionised particles.*In this layer temperature increases with height but air molecules are found far away each other that the heat is not felt.*Radio waves are reflected by this layer.*It has a number of ionic layers:

1. D - Layer 60-99 km2. E - Layer (Kennelly-Heaviside Layer) 99-150 km3. F - Layer (Appleton Layer) 150-380 km4. G - Layer 380 km and above

*Aurora phenomena occur in this layer.Exosphere: It extends beyond 640km.

*The density becomes very low and the atmosphere resembles a nebula because it is highly rarefied. *The temperature becomes 5568c at its upper limit but is not felt.*On the basis of chemical composition the atmosphere is divided in to homosphere and heterosphere.*Homsphere extends from the surface up to 90km. Here various gases are found in homogeneous proportion.*Heterosphere extends from 90km to 10,000km. Here gases are not found in homogeneous proportion but in layers. 4 layers are-

1. Molecular nitrogen layer - 90 to 200 km2. Atomic oxygen layer - 200 to 1100 km3. Helium layer - 1100 to 3500 km4. Hydrogen layer - Above 3500 km

INSOLATION

*The word ‘insolation’ is an acronym for INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION.*The solar radiations are received in the form of short waves.*The earth receives only 0.0005% i.e. 2 billionth part of what is emitted by the sun.*The sun emits energy constantly and the earth receives it almost at a constant rate of 2 cal/cm2/min (2 langley), which is called solar constant.

*Distribution of Insolation: On an average the amount of insolation received at the earth’s surface decreases from the equator towards the poles, but there can be temporal and seasonal variation at different latitudes.*Factors Affecting the Distribution of Insolation:

1. Angle of the sun’s rays2. Length of day3. Distance between the earth and the sun4. Sunspots5. Effects of the atmosphere

(a) Absorption(b) Scattering

(c) Reflection

*Albedo: The portion of incident radiation energy reflected back from the surface without any heating is called albedo.*Albedo of Planets:

Moon - 7%Mercury - 6%Mars - 16%Earth - 35%Venus - 76%Other Planets - 73 – 94%

*Albedo of Different Kinds of Surfaces: (In %)

Water 3-5Fresh Asphalt 4Forest 5-10Coniferous Forest 8-15Black Soils 8-14Wet Ground 10Worn Asphalt 12Grass 14-37Deciduous trees 15-18Dry Ground 15-25Base Soil 17Sand 20-30Thin Cloud 25-50Desert sand 40New Concrete 55Thick Cloud 70-80Snow Cover 70-90Fresh Snow 80-90

HEAT BUDGET*The state of balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation is called heat budget.*There must be an equilibrium between the incoming and outgoing radiations, otherwise the earth will either become extremely cold or extremely hot.*Out of 100 units received at the outer atmosphere 35 are reflected back as albedo (27 by clouds, 6 by upper atmosphere through reflection and scattering, 2 by the ground surface)*Of remaining 65 units 14 are surface receives only 51 units.

*Out of 51 units 17 units are directly radiated to the space. 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere.*Thus, the atmosphere has total 48 units, 14 units from the incoming solar radiation and 34 units from the earth surface.*Finally the atmosphere releases the 48 units into the space. Thus a balance is achieved.*But the heat budget is very complex and it takes time to achieve equilibrium.*Today because of global warming, the atmosphere is trapping more energy and the time lag is increasing.

TEMPERATURE

*Heat is a form of energy whereas the temperature denotes the intensity of hotness or coldness of a substance.*Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere:

- Incoming solar radiation - Conduction - Transfer of heat through the molecules of matter in a body. - Terrestrial Radiation - No help of any medium. - Convection - Transfer of heat through the movement of a mass of substances from

one place to another place. *The earth’s surface receives maximum energy at 12 noon but the maximum temperature never occurs at 12 noon because the transformation of solar energy in to heat requires time.*The highest temperature is recorded between 2 to 4 pm, whereas the lowest temperature is recorded between 4 to 5 am.*The highest temperature recorded within 24 hours is called maximum daily temperature.*The lowest temperature within 24 hours is called minimum daily temperature.*The average of maximum and minimum temperature within 24 hours is called mean daily temperature.*The difference of the maximum and minimum temperature within 24 hours is called diurnal range of temperature.*Means of daily maximum and minimum temperature of a month are called mean monthly maximum temperature and mean monthly minimum temperature.*Means of maximum and minimum temperature of 12 months are called mean annual maximum temperature and mean annual minimum temperature.*The difference between the annual maximum and minimum temperature is called annual range of temperature.

*Distribution of Temperature: Controlling Factors:

1. Latitudes 2. Altitude 3. Distance from the coast 4. Nature of ground surface- albedo 5. Nature of ground slope - sun facing 6. Prevailing winds 7. Ocean currents

Vertical Distribution of Temperature:*The temperature decreases with increasing height in the troposphere at the rate of 6.5c per 1000 meters. This is called normal lapse rate (NLR).*Vertical gradient of temperature is 1000 times greater than horizontal temperature gradient.

*Reasons for Decrease in Temperature with Height:1. Heating from below2. Density of air3. Higher concentration of vapour and particulate matters in the lower atmosphere.

Temperature Inversion: In general the temperature decreases with increasing height but in certain occasions the higher temperature is found at higher temperatures is found at higher atmosphere than its lower segment. This phenomenon is called the inversion of temperature.

*There are various types of inversion of temperature but it is most commonly felt in the winter nights. Inversion occurs when following conditions are present:

1. Long winter night2. Cloudless and clear sky3. Presence of dry air near the ground4. Slow movement of air5. Snow covered ground surface

*Significance of Temperature Inversion:1. Formation of fog and urban smog2. Frost3. Atmospheric stability and discourages rainfall

Horizontal Distribution of Temperature:*On an average temperature decreases from the equator towards the poles.*The highest temperatures are not found near the equator but at the tropics because a sizeable portion of incoming solar radiation is reflected by clouds and a large part of heat is spent in the process of evaporation at the equator.*The change of temperature from the equator towards the poles is called temperature gradient.*Horizontal temperature distribution is represented through isotherms. Isotherms are lines joining places of equal temperature reduced to sea level.*The closely spaced isotherms denotes rapid rate of change of temperature and steep temperature gradients.*Isotherms are more irregular and closely spaced in the northern hemisphere.*The difference of observed temperature of a place and the mean temperature of the latitude passing through that place is called thermal anomaly.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE*Because of weight the air exerts pressure. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of a mass of column of air above per unit area at sea level.*The air pressure is measured by Barometer. Its unit is milibar.*1 milibar = 1 gram of weight over 1 cm2 area.*The standard air pressure at sea level is 1013.25 mb.*The highest sea level pressure recorded till date is 1075.2 mb at Irkutsk in Siberia on 14 January 1893.*The lowest sea level pressure recorded so far is 877 mb in the Marina Islands.*Other instruments of measuring air pressure: Aneroid Barometer, Altimeter, Barograph, Microbarograph etc.*The lines joining the places of equal pressure at sea level are called isobars.*The atmospheric pressure decreases with height.*Half of total atmospheric pressure lies to the altitude of 1800 feet.*There is an inverse relationship between temperature and pressure.*Factors Controlling Distribution of Air Pressure:

- Altitude- Temperature- Air circulation- Rotation of the earth- Water vapour

*The rate of change of pressure per unit horizontal distance is called pressure gradient or barometric slope. *Steep pressure gradient is represented by closely spaced bars.*Since the distribution of temperature over the globe in uneven, so the distribution of atmospheric pressure over the globe is uneven, because temperature directly affects the density of air.

Distribution of Atmospheric Pressure

*Vertical Distribution:- Decreases with height - General trend- 34 mb/300 m

*Horizontal Distribution:-If the globe had been homogeneous (either of land or water), there would have been regular and systematic zonal distribution. But due to uneven distribution of land and water it has become complicated. *Pressure belts are irregular and discontinuous in the northern hemisphere, while in the southern hemisphere, it has more or less regular pattern.*If the air pressure would have been the function of air temperature alone there should have been regular increase of pressure pole ward. But we have 7 belts of pressure with irregularities.

Pressure Belts:1. Equatorial Low Pressure Belt(5N to 5S): This is thermally induced pressure belt. There is

almost no horizontal movement of air. Because of frequent calm conditions, this is called as ‘doldrums’.

2. Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt:- It extends between 25 to 35 in both the hemispheres. It owes its origin to rotation of the earth and sinking and settling down of winds.

- This zone is characterized by aticyclonic conditions, which causes stability and aridity. That is why most of the hot tropical deserts are found in this belt. - This zone is also called as horse latitudes because in ancient times merchant had to throw horses to lighten their ships while passing through this belt.

3. Sub-polar Low Pressure Belt: It is found between 60 to 65 degree in both the hemispheres. This is dynamically induced belt. The surface air spreads outwards from this zone due to the rotation of the earth.

4. Polar High Pressure Belt: High pressure is caused both because of very low temperature and earth’s dynamism.

*Pressure belts are not stationary. They move north and south with the movement of the sun.

WINDS*The horizontal movement of the air is called wind. In fact, blowing winds help in balancing pressure difference on the globe.*The air blowing almost vertically is called air current.*The air moves from high pressure to low pressure. Thus, it follows the barometric slope i.e. right angle to the isobars. But the direction of wind is modified by the force of rotation of the earth.

*Coriolis Force is caused by the rotation of the earth. It deflects wind in right hand side in the northern hemisphere and towards the left hand side in the southern hemisphere (Since it was firstly proved by Ferrel, it is called Ferrell’s Law).*Coriolis force increases with increasing velocity. It is almost zero at the Equator and goes on increasing towards the poles.

Classification of Winds: Winds are divided into 3 categories-

Permanent/Planetary/Prevailing Winds: The direction of such winds remains more or less the same throughout of the year though their areas change seasonally. That is why they are called permanent winds.*Since they are found all over the globe and are related to pressure belts they are called planetary winds.*Planetary winds include trades, westerlies and polar easterlies.Trade Winds: These winds blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the Equator.*The word ‘trade’ means ‘a fixed path’ or ‘track’ in German. Thus these winds have fixed path.*They flow in the north-easterly direction in the northern hemisphere, so they are called the North-east Trades. On the other hand, they flow in south-easterly direction in the southern hemisphere, so they are called the South-east Trades.*These two trades converge at the Equator and rise up. This converging zone is called Inter-Tropical Converging Zone (ITCZ). Within this zone the Equatorial Westerly Winds blow.

Westerlies: These winds blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belts to sub-polar low pressure belts in both the hemispheres.*These winds are best developed between 40to 65 latitudes.*In this zone in the southern hemisphere because of predominance of water bodies their velocity becomes much higher.*They are called Roaring Forties between 40S to 50S, Furious Fifties at 50S and Shrieking Sixties at 60S latitudes.*Sometimes they almost become parallel to the latitudes.

3. Polar Winds: These blows from the polar high pressure belts to the sub-polar low pressure belts in both the hemisphere. They are also called as polar easterlies as they blow in north-easterly and south-easterly in the north and south hemisphere, respectively.*These winds meet the westerlies at the sub-polar low pressure belts and help in the formation of fronts and temperate cyclones.

Seasonal Winds:*The winds which change their direction of flow with the changing seasons are called seasonal winds.They are also called temporary winds.*Monsoons, sea and land breezes and mountain and valley breezes are examples of seasonal winds.

Monsoon Winds: These winds reverse their direction with seasons. Generally they flow from land to sea in the winters and sea to land in the summers. The monsoon winds originate because of differential heating of land and water.

Land and Sea Breezes:- During day time land is heated faster than water and the air rises up. To fill that gap the air from the adjacent sea flows towards the land as sea breeze.-After the sunset the land releases heat faster than the water. Thus, the air blows from relatively cooler land towards the sea as land breeze, in the night.

Mountain and Valley Breezes:- During the day time the slopes and valley floors are heated more and the air moves up as valley breeze. Such winds are also called as anabatic winds.

-During the night time the upper parts of the mountains are cooled faster and the heavy and cold air settles down in the valleys. These downward winds are called mountain breezes or katabaltic winds.

Local Winds: These winds blow due to variation in local weather conditions. The local winds can be warm or cold.

*Warm Local Winds:1. Chinook (Rockies, USA)2. Fohn (Northern slopes of the Alps)3. Sirocco (Italy)4. Khamsin (Egypt)5. Gibli (Libya)6. Chilli (Tunisia) 7. Leveche and Leste (Spain, Canary, Madeira) 8. Black Roller (N. America) 9. Santa Ana (California, USA)

10. Yoma (Japan) 11. Simoom (Arabian Desert)

12. Samoon (Iran, Iraq)13. Shamal (Iran, Iraq, UAE)14. Seistan (Iran)15. Haboob (Sudan)16. Karaburan (Tarim Basin, China)17. Harmatttan (W. Africa)18. Brick Fielder (Victoria, Australia)19. Norwester (New Zealand)20. Loo (N.W and N. India)21. Zonda (Argentina, Uruguay)

*Cold Local Winds:

1. Mistral (Rhone Valley, France)2. Bora (Adriatic Sea)3. Blizzard (Canada, USA)4. Purga (Tundra Region, Russia)5. Burran (Siberia, Russia)6. Norte (Mexico)7. Norther (Southern USA)8. Pampero (Pampas Region, S. America)9. Gregale (Central Mediterranean Sea)10. Juran (Jura Mt., Switzerland)11. Papagayo (Mexico)12. Southerly Buster (S. Australia)13. Bise (France)14. Levanter (S. Spain)

*Chinook is called ‘snow eater’.*Sirocco causes blood rain because it picks redish sands from the Sahara Desert.*Harmattan is called doctor because its arrival brings sudden dryness and pleasant weather.

JET STREAMS*The strong and fast moving circumpolar westerly air circulation in a narrow belt of a few hundred kilometres width in the upper limit of troposphere is called jet stream. *Jet streams are found between the poles and 20 latitudes in both the hemispheres at the height of 7.5 to 14 km.*Jet stream was discovered during the World War -II when the American jet bomber fighter planes discovered reduction in speed while going towards Japan and increase in speed while returning the USA.*Types of Jet Streams:

1. Polar Front Jet Streams:- Between 40 to 60 latitudes.2. Sub-tropical Westerly Jet Streams: 30-35 latitudes.3. Tropical Easterly Jet Streams:- Tibet Plateau towards the Indian Ocean.4. Polar Night Jet Streams:- In the stratosphere around the poles at the height of 30

km.5. Local Jet Streams

*Jet streams move towards the poles in the summer and towards the Equator in the winter because of the shift in pressure gradient. *Significance of Jet Streams:1. Accelerate cyclonic condition and increase precipitation.2. Fluctuation in local weather.3. Form upper air cyclones and anticyclones.4. Transport of the Ozone Depleting Substance in to the stratosphere.5. Influence the monsoon of South Asia.

WALKER CIRCULATION AND EL NINO - SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO)

*The Walker Circulation is a convective cell of air circulation which is formed due to the development of pressure gradient from east to west in the equatorial Pacific region.*After two-three years this circulation is reversed so there is an oscillation of pressure gradient and air circulation. Gilbert Walker called it Southern Oscillation.*During normal time the high pressure is developed in the eastern Pacific region due to subsidence of air and cold Peru Current. On the other hand, the western Pacific region has low pressure. Thus near the surface air blows from east to west, and from west to east in the upper air completing a convective cycle.*When El Nino warm current develops in the eastern Pacific region, the air pressure here decreases, and the air rises up and settles down in the western Pacific region, increasing air pressure there. The equatorial westerlies blow from the western Pacific region towards the eastern Pacific region. Thus, it totally reverses the situation. This phenomenon of oscillation caused by El Nino is called ENSO Event.

HUMIDITY

* Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in a parcel of air at a particular time and place.

* Humidity capacity means the maximum amount of moisture that an air of certain temperature and volume can retain.

* The air which has moistre equal to its humidity capacity is called the saturated air.* The temperature at which an air becomes saturated is called dew point.* Humidity capacity of an air increases with the increase in temperature.* Forms of Expressing Humidity:* Absolute Humidity:

– This is the total weight of moisture present per volume of air at a definite temperature.– It does not change with temperature change

– It is expressed in gm/m3

– The possibility of precipitation largely depends upon it.* Specific Humidity:

– It is the mass of water vapour in grams contained in a kilogram of air.– It represents the actual quantity of moisture present in a definite air.– It is seldom affected by change in temperature or air pressure, but certainly directly

proportional to vapour pressure, which is the partial pressure exerted by water

vapour in the air.– Specific humidity decreases from the Equator towards the poles.– It is expressed in gm/kg.

* Relative Humidity: – It is the ratio of absolute humidity and humidity capacity

* R. H. =

AbsoluteHumidityHumiditycapacity

× 100

* Generally expressed in percentage.* There is inverse relationship between relative humidity and temperature. Relative humidity

increases either when the absolute humidity increases or when the temperature decreases.* Relative Humidity Evaporation * Relative humidity affects human health and comfort. * R.H. is important for precipitation as the condensation occurs only when RH is 100%.

FORMS OF CONDENSATION* The transformation of gaseous form of water into liquid is called condensation.* When an unsaturated air achieves 100% relative humidity at dew point it becomes saturated.

The saturated air further picks some vapour to become supersaturated. Then really the condensation starts.

* Forms of Condensation: – Frost, dew, fog, mist, clouds. * When the dew point is achieved below freezing point, it turns into frost, snow, cirrous clouds

etc.* When the dew point is achieved above freezing point, it turns into dew, fog, mist and clouds.* Dew: It is formed on the solid surfaces when the dew point is above the freezing point. They

are easily visible as tiny water droplets on leaves, grasses etc.* Dew and frost are not formed around hygroscopic nuclie.* Frost : When the dew point is below freezing point and the vapour changes into solid forms,

they are deposited as frost on solid surfaces.* Frost is dangerous for crops and human.* Fog : It is like cloud but is found near the surface of the earth. It has small microscopic water

droplets. * Fog is formed when the vapour is condensed and the dew point is above freezing point. The

vapour particles are deposited around the hygroscopic nuclei.* Mist : It is a type of fog. The only difference between mist and fog is visibility. In fog the

visibility is 1 km or less. Otherwise it is known as mist.* Clouds : Clouds are defined as aggregates of innumerable tiny water droplets, ice particles or

mixture of both in the air generally much above the ground surface. They are formed due to condensation of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclie.

CLOUDS* Clouds are defined as aggregates of innumerable water droplets, ice particles or mixture of

both in the air generally above the ground surface.* They are formed due to condensation of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclie caused by

cooling due to lifting of air generally known as adiabetic cooling.* Clouds are important because all forms of precipitation depend upon them. And they play

major role in the heat budget of the earth.

* Classification of Clouds : Based on the height clouds are divides into high, middle and low clouds.A. High Clouds (6 to 20 km):(1) Cirrous Clouds : – These have fibrous (hair like) or silky appearance.

* They are composed of tiny ice crystals and are transparent and white in colour.

* They show brilliant colours at sunset and sunrise. * They are called ‘harbinger of stormy weather’

(2) Cirro-cumulus Clouds : – These are white-coloured clouds with cirriform layers orpatches of small white flakes or small globules which are arranged in waves.

* They appear as sand ripples and look like mackerels.(3) Cirro-stratus Clouds : – They are white in colour and spread like milky thin sheets.

* They are formed of ice-crystals.* They form ‘halo’ by refracting lights of the sun and the moon.

B. Middle Clouds (2.5 to 6 km):(4) Alto-stratus Clouds : – They are thin sheets of grey and blue colours having fibrous or uniform appearance.

* They do not form halo.* They are distributed all over the sky.* They give widespread continuous precipitation in the form of drizzle or

snow.(5) Alto-cumulus Clouds : – They have wavy layers of globular form.

* They are known for forming geometrical patterns.* High globular groups of alto–cumulus are some times called as sheep clouds or wool pack clouds.

(6) Nimbo–stratus Clouds : – They are so compact and thick that it becomes highly dark and they yield copious rain.* The Latin word ‘nimbus’ means rainstorm.* They are generally not accompanied by lightning, thunder or hailstorm.

C. Low Clouds (Up to 2000 m):(7) Strato–cumulus Clouds : – They are found in rounded patches. They are composed

of globular masses or rolls which are generally arranged in lines, wages or groups.* They are associated with fair weather but occasional rain may occur.

(8) Stratus Clouds : – These are dense, low-lying fog-like clouds of dark grey colour. They are composed of several uniform layers.* When they give rainfall they are called nimbostratus.

(9) Cumulus Clouds: – These are very dense widespread and dome-shaped but have flat bases.* These white woolpack cloud masses are associated with fair weather.

(10) Cumulo–nimbus Clouds: – These are thunder–storm clouds.* They are of great heights and produce heavy rains, snow or hailstorm

accompanied by lightning, thunder and gusty winds.

PRECIPITATION* Precipitation is the process of falling down of various forms of water from the upper

atmosphere to the ground surface, under the force of gravity.* Precipitation occurs only when cloud droplets become so large due coalescence that the air

becomes unable to hold them in suspension.* Forms of Precipitation:

(1) Rain – Water droplets (2) Snowfall – Larger snowflakes(3) Sleet – Mixture of snow and rain(4) Hail – Large pellets of ice

(5) Drizzle – Minute water droplets with less than 0.5 mm diameter.* Types of Rainfall: The upward movement of air is one of the most prerequisite of cloud

formation and rainfall.* Rainfalls are classified on the basis of conditions and mechanisms of upward movement of

air. There are three ways in which the air can rise up –(1) Thermal convection (2) Ascent due to orographic barrier(3) Uplift due to low pressure systems (cyclonic)

* Thus, we have three types of rainfall–convectional, orographic and cyclonic.(1) Convectional Rainfall: During daytime when the ground is excessively heated by the solar

insolation the air coming in its contact also gets heated up , becomes warm, expands and rises upward.* The ascending air cools and a height is reached when its relative humidity becomes

100%. The air gets saturated and through condensation clouds are formed.* Since the air rises suddenly for a great height cumulo-nimbus type of clouds are

formed, which give heavy rain with light and thunder.* Convectional rain generally occurs in the equatorial region and it can occur daily

there in the late afternoon (2-4 pm). But such rainfall may occur in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions in the summer hot days.

(2) Orographic Rainfall: The mountain coming in the way of air, uplifts the latter to a great height. The rising air achieves saturation and condensation, and gives rain on the windward slope.* But when the air crosses the mountains it descends and becomes warmer. Thus, the

relative humidity is decreased, reducing the chances of rainfall. So it leads to ‘the rain shadow effect’ in the leeward slope. The rainfall in the Western Ghats region is orographic in nature and the Telangana region suffers rain shadow effect.

(3) Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall: – The cyclonic rainfall is associated with two types of cyclones – temperate and tropical.* In the temperate cyclone, the two contrasting air masses (warm and cold) meet and

the warm air mass is lifted upward along the front. Thus, the rising air parcel is cooled and ultimately it causes rainfall.

* In the tropical cyclone, airs from all sides converge at a highly low pressure region and rise up almost vertically. Thus, it gives heavy rainfall with thunder and light.

* Tropical cyclonic rainfall is more intense, shorter duration and spread over smaller region in comparison to temperate cyclonic rainfall which is gradual but for longer duration and is widespread.

→ Artificial Rainfall/Cloud Seeding: Methods– Spraying of dry ice (solid CO2)– Spraying of silver iodide

AIR MASSES* An air mass is a large body of air whose physical features like temperature, moisture, lapse rate etc are more or less uniform horizontally for hundreds of kilometers.

* Ideal Conditions of Source Regions:1. Extensive and homogenous region2. Divergence of air3. Long stable atmospheric condition

* 6 Major Source Regions:1. Polar oceanic region2. Polar and arctic continental areas3. Tropical oceanic areas

4. Tropical continental areas5. Equatorial regions6. Monsoon lands

* Classification of Air Masses: There are two approaches of classification of air masses-geographical and thermodynamic.

(i) Geographical Classification:

Polar (P) Tropical (T)

Continental Maritime Continental MaritimePolar (cP) Polar (mP) Tropical (cT) Tropical (mT)

(ii) Thermodynamic Modification and Classification;* Modification of air masses depends on 4 factors:

(i) Initial character of air mass(ii) Nature of surface over which an air mass reaches(iii) Path followed by the air mass(iv) Time taken to reach its destination

* An air mass is named cold air mass when it is cooler than the surface to which it has moved. It is said to be a warm air mass when it is warmer than the visited surface.

* A warm air mass is cooled from below and becomes stable, whereas a cold air mass is heated from below and becomes unstable.

* Cyclones, antcyclones and some other factors cause mechanical modifications.* Based on thermodynamic and mechanical modifications air masses are divided first into cold

and warm air masses, and then into stable and unstable air masses.* Air masses are very important for the formation of fronts and temperate cyclones.

FRONTS* Front is a sloping boundary between two air masses which have contrasting properties in

terms of air temperature, humidity, density, pressure and wind direction.* The process of formation of new fronts or regeneration of decaying fronts already in

existence is called fronogenesis.* Frontolysis is the process of dying of fronts.* Conditions for Frontogenesis:

(i) Two opposing air masses(ii) Opposite direction of air masses with deformatory circulation.

=> Types of Fronts: Based on their characteristic feature:-(i) Warm Front:- It’s a gently sloping frontal surface along which warm and light air becomes

active and aggressive, and slowly rises over cold dense air.* In a warm front precipitation occurs over a relatively large area for several hours in the form

of moderate to gentle precipitation.(ii) Cold Front:- This is the sloping surface along which cold air becomes active and aggressive

and invades the warm air and raises the latter.* Cold front is much steeper than warm front, as the cold air forcefully uplifts the warms air.* The cold front heralds bad weather with thick clouds, heavy rainfall, thunder, and lighting. It

may also bring snowfall and hailstones.* The cold front brings more intense but shorter duration rainfall in comparison to the warm

front.

(iii) Occluded Front: It is formed when the cold front overtakes the warm front and the warm air is completely displaced from the ground surface.

(iv) Stationary Front: This is formed when two contrasting air masses converge in such a way that they become parallel to each other and there is no ascent of air.

* Significance of Fronts: Formation of temperature cyclones

CYCLONES* Cyclones are centres of low pressure surrounded by closed isobars and having increasing

pressure outwards.* The air blows from outside towards a common centre but in anticlockwise in the northern

hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. This is due to the Coriolis Force.* Shapes: Tropical cyclones are generally circular but temperate cyclones can be of any shape

like V-shape, elliptical, circular etc.

=> Temperate Cyclones: These are also called as extra-tropical cyclones, wave cyclones, depressions and troughs.

* They are formed between 30 0 to 650 latitudes in both the hemisphere due to the convergence of cold polar and warm tropical air masses.

* After the formation they move towards the east due to the influence of the westerlies.* Shape: Circular, semi-circular, elliptical, elongated or V-shaped.* Average diameter of an ideal temperate cyclone is about 1900 km., but it ranges between

150 km. to 3000 km.* Average Velocity: - Summer – 32 km/hour

- Winter – 48 km/hour* Segment of Temperate Cyclones:

- Warm front- Warm sector- Cold front- Cold sector

* Weather Conditions Associated with Temperate Cyclones:(i) Arrival of Cyclone – When it reaches nearer an observation point wind velocity slows down

considerably, air pressure decreases, halos are formed around the moon and the sun. They are formed because of cirrus and cirrostratus clouds.

* When it comes very close to the observation point the temperature suddenly increases, wind direction becomes south-easterly from easterly, the sky becomes overcast with dark, thick and low clouds.

(ii) Warm Front: Very dark and thick clouds.- Heavy rainfalls from nimbostratus clouds.- Since the warm air rises slowly along the warm front the precipitation is slower but it

occurs for longer duration.(iii) Warm Sector: Winds becomes southerly.

- The sky becomes clear with some patches of clouds.- There is sudden increase in temperature and the air pressure decreases remarkably.- It has clear and pleasant weather, with only occasional drizzles.

(iv) Cold Front: Temperature registers marked decrease.* Wind becomes south-western and westerly.* The sky becomes overcast with cumulonimbus clouds and gives heavy rain

for shorter duration with thunder and lighting. The rainfall is less widespread.(v) Cold Sector: Sky becomes clear after the passage of cold front.* The temperature falls sharply and the air pressure increases.* Winds become true westerly.* After the occlusion of cyclone the weather conditions of pre-cyclone period are set in.

=> Tropical Cyclones: The cyclones which develop between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn are called tropical cyclones.

* Various Names: USA - Hurricane China - Typhoon Japan - Taifu Philippines - Baguio Australia - Willy Willy S. Asia - Cyclone

* Tropical cyclones are ‘heat engines’ energised by the latent heat of condensation. They are formed due to the development of extreme thermal low pressure over the ocean surface.

* Basic Conditions for the Origin of Tropical Cyclones:1. Continuous supply of abundant warm and moist air.2. Heating of ocean surface temperature by 270 C.3. Higher value of the Coriolis Force as cyclonic air circulation is caused due to wind

deflection.4. Within the ITCZ.5. Pre-existing weak tropical disturbance.6. Upper air anticyclonic condition to suck air from below.7. Western parts of the oceans as the eastern parts have cold ocean currents.

* Structure of Tropical Cyclones:1. Eye: Centre of the cyclone, diameter 5-50 km.* Characterised by highest temperature, lowest pressure and clear sky.* Sinking of air from above discourages cloud formation.2. Eyewall: Wall of cumulonimbus cloud, 10-20 km. wide.* Characterised by violent vertical motion, intense thunderstorm and intense rainfall.3. Spiral Bands: Also called as rainfall feeder or bands.* It gives cyclones the galaxy type appearance.* It has many individual thunderstorms, and gives heavy rainfall. It rotates with the storm.4. Annular Zone: It is characterised by suppressed cloudiness, high temperature, low humidity,

because of subsidence of air from above at the outer limit of the cyclone.5. Outer Convective Band: This is found at the edge of the main cloud mass and consists of an

outer fringe of deep convective clouds produced as a result of instability.* Weather Conditions Associated with Tropical Cyclones:1. Arrival of Cyclone: Sudden increase in air temperature and wind velocity.

* Marked decrease in air pressure* Appearance of cirrus and cirrostratus clouds* High waves in the oceans

2. Main Body: Clouds are thickened and becomes cumulonimbus, which give heavy rains with thunder and lighting.* A single storm may yield 10 cm to 25 cm. of rainfall but if obstructed by relief barrier

it may give 75 cm to 100 cm.* The visibility becomes zero for few hours due to dark clouds.

3. Eye: - Calm breezes and low pressure- Clear sky and fine weather- It lasts for half an hour

4. Rear Part of the Cyclone: Sky is again overcasted.* Change in wind direction* Sharp increase in pressure* Heavy downpours with severe thunder and lighting for several hours.

5. Passage of Cyclone: Gradually the rainfall slows down and the weather becomes fine and clear.

* But a major cyclone can be soon followed another minor cyclone which is called secondary cyclone.

=> Differences between Tropical and Temperate Cyclones:

S.No.

Temperate Cyclones Tropical Cyclones

1. Much larger in size Relatively smaller2. Form in temperate zones Form in tropical regions3. Form over both land and water Form only over sea4. Produced mainly in winter Produced in late summer and autumn5. More regular annually Vary greatly from year to year6. Derive their energy from air mass contrast Derive energy from latent heat of condensation7. Isobars are of different shapes Isobars are circular8. Have low temperature gradient Have steep temperature gradient9. Wind speed is 10-20 ms-1 Wind speed is over 33 ms-1

10. Continuous rain for many days Violent and torrential rainfall for few hours to few days.

11. Rate of movement is faster Slower movement.

ANTICYCLONES* Surrounded by circular isobars anticyclone is such a wind system which has highest pressure at

the centre and lowest pressure at the outer margin.* The winds blow from the centre towards the margin in clockwise direction in the northern

hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. * They are generally absent in tropical regions and are generally associated with rainless fair

weather.* They are usually circular.* They can be larger than temperate cyclone* Types of Anticyclones:

1. Cold Anticyclones: They originate in the arctic regions.* They move in easterly and south-easterly directions.* They are smaller than warm anticyclones but move faster than the latter.2. Warm Anticyclones: They originate in the sub-tropical high pressure belts, where winds diverge in opposite directions.

3. Blocking Anticyclones: These originate in the upper troposphere due to obstruction in air circulation. *They develop over N.W Europe and adjoining Atlantic Ocean and the western part of the N. Pacific Ocean between 140o W and 170oW longitudes.

TORNADOES* Tornadoes are funnel-shaped storms which are smallest but most violent and disastrous of all the

storms.* The diameter of the funnel increases from 90m in the lower portion to 460m in the upper portion.* Very dark due to dusts, sands, debris and condensed moisture.* Pressure gradient around 100mb from the centre to the margin.* Velocity – 600 to 800 km per hour.* They are always associated with thunderstorms.* When tornadoes develop in group they are called Tornado Family.* Origin :1.Violent convection

2.Fronts

* They can develop any time but are more common in spring and summer.* Southern USA is known for tornadoes, where it is also named as ‘Twister’.* The deadliest parts of tornadoes are called tornado missiles (Consisting of uprooted trees, roofs of building etc.)

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD1. Equatorial or Tropical Rainforest Climate:

*Regions : 1. Amazon Basin in S. America2. Congo Basin in Africa3. Guinea Coast in Africa4. Indo-Malaysian Region5. The Philippine Islands6. Eastern Central America7. Caribbean Islands8. Western Columbia9. Eastern Madagascar

* High temperature throughout the year and the absence of winter season. Average monthly temperature always above 18oC.* Very low range of temperature. Daily range of temperature is greater than the annual range of temperature.* Nights of the equatorial regions are called the winter of the tropics.* The relative humidity remains around 80% or more.* The annual rainfall is above 200cm and distributed through out the year.* The rainfall is mainly convectional.

2. Monsoon Climate:* Regions: Between 5o and 30o latitudes on either side of the Equator.

- S. Asia- S. East Asia and Southern China- Northern Australia- Eastern Africa- Western Madagascar- North and Northeast Latin America- Southern USA

* Two distinct season - summer and winter.* Distinct rainy and dry seasons.* Summer temperature is always more than 27oC, whereas it drops down to 10oC in the winter.* Annual range of temperature varies between 2oC to 11oC.* Variable rainfall varying between 40cm to 200cm.

3. Sudan and Savanna Types of Climate:* Regions : - Between 10o and 30olatitudes on either side of the Equator.

- Llanos, Guiana Highlands and Campos Regions of Brazil.- Surrounding the Zaire Basin in Africa- Northern Australia- India (Developed due to human activities)

* High temperature throughout the year, always above 20oC.* Annual range of temperature -3oC to 8oC* 3 Seasons : - Cold Dry Season

- Warm Dry Season- Warm Wet Season

* Average annual rainfall - 25cm to 100cm* The rainfall is received in the summer season.

4. Tropical Desert or Sahara Type Climate :* Regions : - Between 15o and 30o latitudes in both the hemispheres.

- Sahara Desert- Kalahari and Namib Desert- Thar Desert- Arabian and Iranian Deserts - West Australian Deserts- Atacama Desert- Mojave and Arizona Deserts

* Average Temperature – Summer -30oC- Winter-100C

* Days are hot but nights become quite cold.* The annual range of temperature is about 20oC.* The annual average rainfall is between 25cm and 37.5cm but various places do not receive rainfall for several years.* Most of the rainfall is of convectional type due to local heating.* Some time flash floods occur due to sudden downpours.

5. Mediterranean Type Climate :* Regions : 35o and 45o latitudes in both the hemispheres in the western parts of the continents.

- European, Asian and African lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea.- Central and Southern California, USA- Central Chile (Best development of this climate)- S.W South Africa around Cape Town- Coastal zones of the South-Western and Southern Australia around

Perth and Adelaide* The summer season has temperature ranging between 20oC and 26oC but due to the prevalence

of sub–tropical high pressure, rainfall is very rare.* The winter temperature ranges between 5oC to 15oC and the region receives much of its rain

from westerlies as the sub-tropical high pressure belt is shifted equatorward.

6. Temperate Desert Climate :* Regions : - Between 30o and 45o latitudes in the interior parts of the continents.

- Turanian Desert- Gobi and Takla Makan Deserts

* Temperature reaches up to 18oC in the summers.* High daily range of temperature (about 50oC) as the day temperature can rise up to 38oC and drops below freezing point in the night.* Annual range of temperature - 40oC.* Low annual rainfall with summer maxima.* As they are located in the interior parts, the air loses much of moisture when it reaches there (continentality effect)

7. Sub-tropical Monsoon or China Type of Climate:* Regions : Between 30o and 45o latitudes on the either side of the Equator.

- Southeast and South China. - Po Basin- Danube Basin- South-Eastern USA- South-Eastern S. America- South Eastern Africa

- Eastern Coast of Australia* Extremely hot summers and very cold winters* Average temperature : 20 - 220C* Annual range of temperature : 12-18oC* Rainfall occurs throughout the year but larger part in the summer season.* Average annual rainfall : 75–100 cm

8. Temperate Grasslands or Steppe Climate:* Regions: Between 40º to 60º latitudes in the interior parts of the continents

– Prairie Region of N. America – Steppe Region of Eurasia – Pustaz (Hungary)– Veld Region of South Africa– Pampas Region of S. America– Downs of Australia – Canterbury Plains of New Zealand– Manchurian Plains of China

* Temperature – Summer – 20ºC – Winter – Below freezing point

* Annual range of temperature is higher in the northern hemisphere because the continents are broader here.

* Average annual rainfall of 40–70 cm, distributed throughout the year but more rainfall during the early summer.

* The rainfall is convectional in the summer and cyclonic in the winter.

9. West European Type of Climate: – Also known as the British Type of Climate.* Regions : Between 45º to 60º latitudes in the western parts of the continents.

– North – Western Europe– British Columbia of Canada– Washington and Oregon States of the USA– South – West Chile– South – East Australia, Tasmania– New Zealand

* The summer is not very hot and the winter is not very cold because of maritime effect.* Average temperature – Summer – 16ºC

– Winter – 4ºC* Low annual range of temperature : 8–12ºC* Average annual rainfall of 60–100 cm, distributed throughout the year with winter maxima

because of the temperate cyclones. * Rainfall is both orographic and cyclonic.

10. St. Lawrencian Type of Climate:* Regions: Between 40º–60º latitudes in the eastern parts of the continents.

– N.E. Asia– Eastern Canada

* Temperature – Summer – 20ºC– Winter - Below freezing point

* Annual range of temperature : 20–40ºC * Average annual rainfall is 75–100 cm, distributed through out the year but with summer

maxima.

11. Siberian Type or Taiga or Boreal Climate:

* Regions: Between 50ºN to 70ºN in the interior parts of the continents. Not found in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness of the continents there.– Sub-arctic regions of N. America and Eurasia– Some other parts of central Europe, upper reaches of the Rockies.

* Long winter (7–8 months) with temperature below 0ºC.* The coldest place of the world Verkhoyansk is situated in eastern Siberia* Maximum annual range of temperature (50–55ºC).* Average annual rainfall is 25–50 cm, distributed throughout the year but with summer

maxima.* The rainfall is both convectional and cyclonic.

12. Tundra Climate or Cold Deserts :* Regions: – Around the poles

– Regions surrounding the Arctic Ocean in Alaska (USA), Canada, Greenland and Russia.

* Minimum temperature of the world (–12ºC) * Land surface remains snow– covered almost throughout the year.* In the summer some snow melt and scarce rainfall occurs.* The ground is permanently frozen (permafrost).* Known for blizzards.

CLIMATE CHANGE* Climate change is a long–term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over

periods of time that range from decades to millions of years.* It may be limited to a specific region or may occur across the whole earth.* The climate change is a natural process, but in the recent times due to excessive burning of

fossil fuels and other human activities the greenhouse gases are increasing fast, which is causing gradual global warming causing change in the global climate.

12. Evidences in Support of the Climate Change:1. Temperature records 2. Melting of mountains and valley glaciers 3. Warming of ocean water at global level 4. Rise in sea level5. Upward shifting of snow lines of the tropical and sub-tropical mountains6. Thawing of permafrost areas7. Shifting of seasonal weather phenomena and change in precipitation patterns8. Spread of tropical disease towards the temperate and polar regions 9. Appearance of grasses on some slopes of Antarctica

10. Occurrence of snowfall in the Gulf Countries.* Theories of Climate Change :

1. Plate Tectonics : The plates move continuously and affects the horizontal distribution of continents and oceans. It affects the size of ocean basin and pattern of ocean current flow. A plate today in tropical region may shift to polar region. Thus, experiences climate change.

2. Astronomical Factors/Orbital Theory :* The revolution of the earth around the sun and the former’s various positions cause

climate change. * The three types of orbital variations – eccentricity of the earth, tilt angle of the earth’s

axis of rotation and precession of earth’s axis – produce Milankovitch Cycles.* Eccentricity of Earth’s Orbit : The earth’s orbit undergoes a change of shape during

a cycle of 90,000 to 100,000 years. It changes from a longer ellipse to a more circular shape. The various orbital shapes have different solar constant.

* Tilt Angle of Earth’s Axis of Rotation/ Obliquity : It changes from 22º to 24.5º during the cycle of 41,000 years. At present it is 23.5 degree. Due to change in it the positions of the Equator, Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn also change.

* Precession of Earth’s Axis : Precession is a change in orientation of the rotation axis of a rotating body

* Earth’s precession is called precession of equinoxes, which was discovered by Hipparcus.

* Effects of Precession :(i) Change in position of North Star. Today it is Polaries.(ii) The position of the earth in its orbit around the sun at the solstice, equinoxes

or other time slowly changes. 3 Sunspot Theory : The sunspot cycle takes 11 years to complete.* During higher sunspots activities the amount of heat reaching the earth increases.

Thus, causes global increase in temperature.4 Volcanism : When a large scale volcanic activity takes place the volcanic dusts are

spread in the sky. These dust particles reflect the short waves incoming from the sun. On the other hand, long wave terrestrial radiation can pass through them easily. Thus, lowering the temperature of the atmosphere.

* Little Ice Age (16th to 19th century): Is thought to be caused by volcanic dusts.5 Composition of the Atmosphere : Proportion of GHGs :* Greenhouse gases are known for greenhouse gas effect in which they allow insulation

to pass through them but trap the terrestrial radiation. Thus, increase in the temperature.

* Major GHGs are– Carbon dioxide– Nitrous oxide– Methane– Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

* The quantity of GHGs can increase due to natural causes but in recent time it isincreasing due to the man-made factors.

* Consequences of Climate Change :1. Sea level change2. Change in weather patterns3. Change in oceanic dynamism4. Poleward shift in the ITCZ.5. Increase in tropical cyclones, cloud cover and storms 6. Change in groundwater level7. Reduction in soil moisture 8. Alteration natural vegetation and soil belts9. Change in cropping pattern and crop yields10. Expansion of deserts11. Effect on food supply12. Effect on organism and human health13. Impact on international trade14. Change in geo-polities of the world

ISOPLETHS1. Isoseismal Line Intensity of

earthquake11. Isothere Mean summer

temperature

2. Homoseismal Line

Affected by an earthquake at a same time

12. Isocheim Mean winter temperature

3. Isogeotherm Temperature of the earth’s interior

13. Isohel Sunshine duration

4. Isobath Depth below sea level

14. Isoneph Degree of cloudiness

5. Isothermobath Sea water temperature at a given depth

15. Isohyet Rainfall amount

6. Isobar Atmospheric pressure

16. Isonif Amount of snowfall

7. Isallobar Change in atmospheric pressure

17. Isoryme Frost intensity

8. Isotach Wind speed 18. Isobront Thunderstorm at a same time

9. Isobathytherm Temperature at a given depth

19. Isohypse Height above sea level

10. Isotherm Temperature at the sea level

WEATHER INSTRUMENTS* Pressure Measuring Instruments :

1. Mercurial Barometer (Fortin’s Barometer)2. Aneroid Barometer 3. Altimeter4. Barograph – Continuous recording of air pressure5. Microbarometer6. Microbarovatigraph7. Manometer

* Wind Measuring Instruments : 1. Wind vane or weather cock – Wind direction2. Anemometer – Wind velocity

* Relative Humidity Measuring Instruments : 1. Hygrometer2. Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer3. Psychrometer

* Other Instruments : 1. Rainguage – Precipitation2. Evaporimeter – Rate of Evaporation3. Hydrometer – Specific gravity of liquids4. Hypsometer – Absolute height above sea level5. Solorimeter – Intensity of solar radiation6. Cathetometer – Height7. Pyrometer – Very high temperature8. Cryometer – Very low temperature9. Fathometer – Ocean depth10. Photometer – Luminous intensity of the source of light11. Radio Micrometer – Heat radiation12. Salinometer – Salinity of solutions13. Actinometer – Solar radiation

14. Atmometer – Rate of evaporation15. Nephoscope – Height, movement and velocity of clouds16. Pyronometer – Scattered radiation on a surface17. Thermostat – Regulates temperature to a particular point

SPECIAL PHENOMENA : CAUSES1. Rainbow – Dispersion2. Halo – Refraction3. Mirage / Diamond – Total internal reflection4. Corona – Diffraction5. Twinkling of Stars – Refraction6. Sunrise / Twilight – Refraction

VISIBILITY TABLE1. Haze > 2 km2. Mist 1 – 2 km3. Fog < 1 km4. Smog Near zero visibility

OCEANOGRAPHY

RELIEF OF THE OCEAN BASIN* Oceanic basin is no less diversified than the continents.* Tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes have produced varied major and

minor relief features.* The different height and depth zones of the lithosphere and the hydrosphere are represented

by hypsographic or hypsometric curve.* Oceanic basins have four major relief zones – continental shelves, continental slopes, deep

sea plains and trenches.* Continental Shelves : The parts of continental margin submerged under the oceanic water

with an average depth of 100 fathoms are called continental shelves. * Their slope should be gentle (1º to 3º). * Average width of continental shelves is 48 km but it varies at different places. For example,

the eastern and the western coastal shelves of India are 50 km and 150 km wide, respectively. * Continental shelves host major fishing ground and petroleum and gas reserves.* Continental Slopes : The zone of steep slope extending from the shelf to the abyssal plain. * Slope : 5º to more than 60º. * Depth : 200m to 2000m. * 8.5% of the total oceanic basin. * The most significant reliefs on the continental slope are submarine canyons and trenches. * Deep Sea Plains : Most extensive relief zone with flat and rolling topography. * Average depth – 3000 m to 6000 m * 75.9% of the total oceanic basins. * It can have few irregularities like ridges, hills, guyots etc.* Continental Rise : This is found between the continental slope and deep sea plain. * Gentle slope : 0.5º – 1º * Not part of continental margin. * Generally formed due to accumulation of debris from the continental margin.* Oceanic Deeps and Trenches : Very deep but less extensive depression are called deeps,

while long and narrow linear depression are called trenches. * They are deepest zones of the oceanic basins * They are generally parallel to the coasts facing mountains and islands. * Major Ocean Deeps and Trenches :

1. Challenger or Marina Trench (P) – 11022 m2. Tonga Trench (P) – 10882 m3. Swire or Philippine Trench (P) – 10540 m4. Kurile Trench (P) – 10500 m5. Kermadec Trench (P) – 10047 m6. Izu Ogasawara Trench (P) – 9780 m 7. Japan Trench (P) – 9000 m8. Nares or Puerto Rico Trenchs (A) – 8605 m9. Yap Trench (P) – 8527 m10. South Sandurich Trench (A) – 8428 m11. Richard Deep peru-Chile Trench (P) – 8065 m12. Dianiantina Deep (I) – 8047 m13. Aleutian Trench (P) – 1679 m14. Java Trench (I) – 7455 m15. Calypso Deep (Mediterranean Sea) – 5267 m

* Oceanic Ridges : A few kilometers wide and thousands of kilometers long mountain in theocean basin.

* These are the most extensive mountain system on the earth. * Combined length of all the oceanic mountains – 75000 km. * These are mostly found at the mid – oceanic regions, generally over the divergent boundaries

of the tectonic plates.

* Sometimes they emerge out of the oceanic water as islands. Examples – Azores, Iceland, St.Helena etc.

* Abyssal Hills : Isolated hills are found in the deep sea plains. * Those hills whose peaks are more than 1000 m high are called abyssal mountains. * Mountains or hills with flat top are called guyots.* Submarine Canyons : Long narrow and very deep valleys located on the continental

shelves and slopes resembling the continental canyons. * These are generally transverse to the coasts and are found near the mouths of major rivers.

SALINITY * Salinity is the total amount of solid materials in grams contained in one kilogram of sea water.* It is expressed in part per thousand (%o)

* Salinity Density increasesBoiling Point increasesFreezing Point increasesEvaporation

* The imaginary lines joining the places of same salinity is called isohaline.* Salino nactor measures the salinity of sea water* Composition of Sea Water : The total amount of salt in the seawater is gradually increasing

because of the regular addition from the lands.* There are around 50 types of salts in the seawater, but 7 of them are more important.* Significant Salts of the Oceans :

1. Sodium Chloride 77.8%2. Magnesium Chloride 10.9%3. Magnesium Sulphate 4.7%4. Calcium Sulphate 3.6%5. Potassium Sulphate 2.5%6. Calcium Carbonate 0.3%7. Magnesium Bromide 0.2%

* The proportion of various elements remains constant in seawater every where though the totalsalinity may vary form place to place.

* Sources of Oceanic Salinity : – Lands– Volcanic ashes

* Controlling Factors of Salinity : – Evaporation Salinity

– Precipitation Salinity– Influx of river water Salinity– Atmospheric pressure Salinity– Wind – Upwelling Salinity

– Piling up Salinity– Circulation of oceanic water.

* Distribution of Salinity : * Average salinity – 35%o

* Horizontal Distribution of Salinity :– Highest salinity is observed between 20º – 40º N because this zone has high

temperature, high evaporation but low rainfall.– The northern and southern hemispheres record average salinity of 34 %o and 35%o,

respectively.– 4 Zones of Oceanic Salinity –

(i) Equatorial zone of relatively low salinity

(ii) Tropical zone of maximum salinity (iii) Temperate zone of low salinity(iv) Sub-polar and polar zone of minimum salinity.

– Salinity of partially enclosed seas is higher than their latitudes in the lower latitudesand have lower salinity in the higher latitudes.

* Salinity of Some Important Seas :1. Red Sea 34–41%o

2. Persian Gulf 37–38%o

3. Mediterranean Sea 37–39%4. Baltic Sea 3–15%o

5. Hudson Bay 3–15%o

* Highest Salinity :– Lake Van – 330%o

– Dead Sea – 238%o

– Great Salt Lake – 220%o

* Vertical Distribution of Salinity :– General Trend – Maximum Salinity Zone

– Thermohaline Zone– Minimum Salinity Zone

Equator Mid Latitudes High LatitudesLow Low Low

High High (Upto 200 fathoms) High

Low Low Higher

TEMPERATURE OF THE OCEANS* Temperature of oceanic water has significant impact on marine organisms, climate of the

coastal region, ocean circulation etc.* With respect to temperature the tropical regions have three layers, whereas the polar regions

have only one layer with cold water from the surface to the bottom.* Sources of Oceanic Temperature :

– The Sun– Compression of water– Inside the earth

* The daily range of temperature of surface water of the oceans is around 1º C only.* The average annual range of temperature of the oceans is 10º F.* Bigger water body has lower range of temperature.* Factors Affecting Distribution of Temperature :

(1) Latitudes (2) Unequal distribution of land and water(3) Prevailing winds(4) Ocean currents (5) Minor factors

– Submarine ridge – Local weather

* Horizontal Distribution of Temperature :* On an average the surface temperature of the ocean is is 26.7ºC.* Temperature gradually decreases poleward, generally at the rate of 0.5ºF per lalitude.* The oceans n the northern hemisphere record relatively higher average temperature because

of the higher percentage of lands.* Highest temperature is recorded a bit north of the Equator.

* The average annual temperature of all the oceans is 17.2ºC.* The enclosed seas in the lower latitudes record relatively higher temperature than the open

scas, whereas in the higher latitudes they record less temperature than the open seas.* Vertical Distribution of Temperature :* Maximum temperature of the oceans is always found near the surface as it directly receives

the sunlight.* Overall the temperature increases with the depth but the rate of decrease varies from place to

place.* The ocean bottom from the Equator to the poles has uniform temperature.* The enclosed seas of higher latitudes experience inversion of temperature i.e. the surface

water has lower temperature than the water below it.

OCEANIC DEPOSITS

* The unconsolidated sediments derived from various sources deposited at sea floors are calledoceanic deposits.

* Sources of Deposits : Continents, volcanoes, marine organism, extra-terrestrial.* Types of Marine Deposits : On the Basis of Sources –

(1) Terrigenous Deposits : These are derived from the continents by rivers and otheragents.* Terrigenous deposits are sorted out when they are deposited in the seawater.

The coarser materials are deposited near the coast and smaller sediments are deposited away.

* On the basis of size, composition and chemical characteristic the terrigenous deposits are divided into –– Gravels – Boulders

– Cobbles– Pebbles– Granules

– Sands– Silt– Clay– Mud – Blue mud

– Red mud– Green mud

* Blue mud is rich in iron sulphide and organic elements* Red mud is rich in iron oxides (FeO).* Green mud contains green silicates of potassium and glauconite.

(2) Valconic Deposits : These are derived from two sources -(i) Volcanic materials deposited on the lands(ii) Volcanic eruptions in the ocean basins themselves

(3) Organic Deposits : These come form the sea itself. They consist of skeletons of organisms and plant residues. * Organic deposits are of two types – neretic and pelagic* Neretic deposits include skeletons of marine organisms and plant

residues. These are generally deposited on the continental shelves and are covered with terrigenous deposits.* Pelagic deposits consist of matter derived from algae and are mostly found in

the form of liquid mud, known as ooze.Oozes are divided into two groups on the basis of lime and silica contents :

(1) Calcareous Oozes : They contain larger amount of lime– They are deposited at lower depths (1000 fathoms to 2000

fathoms) because of high solubility.

– Types : (a) Pteropod Ooze (b) Globigerina Ooze(2) Siliceous Oozes : These have high silica content and less soluble dueto

less lime content. Thus, they can be deposited at a greater depth.– Types : (a) Radiolarian Ooze (b) Diatom Ooze

(4) Inorganic Deposits : These are precipitates, which fall from above * Some inorganic precipitates include dolomite, amorphous silica, iron,

manganese, phosphate, barite, glauconite etc.* Red Clay : Previously thought to be organic deposits, is the most significant

inorganic material.– It covers the largest area of deep sea deposits.– Its chief constituents are silicates of alumina (83.35%) and oxides of iron.– It contains more radioactive substances than any other marine deposit.

OCEAN TIDES* The rise and fall of seawater due to gravitations pull of the sun and the moon are called tides.* Tides are most important of all the oceanic movements because tidal currents affect the whole

water mass from the sea surface to the bottom.* Sea wave generated by tides are called tidal waves.* The rise of seawater and its movement towards the coast is called tide and resultant high

water level is called high tide water.* The fall of seawater and its movement towards the sea is called ebb and resultant low water

level is called low tide water.* Tidal Range : The difference between high tide water and low tide water.* Origin of Tides : The gravitation force of the moon will be maximum at the earth’s surface

facing the moon, whereas it will be minimum at the side of the earth.* The high tides occur on both the sides because the moon facing side is pulled highest by the

moon’s gravity (centripetal forces), while on the opposite side will try to bulge away (centrifugal force).

* The two places just 90º from these two places will also experience low tides simultaneously. Thus, two tides and two ebbs are experienced at every place on the earth’s surface within 24 hours.

* Timing of Tides : Every place experience two tides in a day but not with the interval of 12 hours, but with the delay of 26 minutes because the moon also revolves around the earth. So , a place needs some extra time to come under the moon.

* Types of Tides :1. Spring Tide : Very high tide caused when the sun, the moon and the earth are in thetraight line, is called spring tide.

* When the sun, the moon and the Earth are in straight line, the position is calledSyzgy.

* When the sun and the moon lie on the same side of the earth (situation of solareclipse) the position is called conjunction. It happens during the new moon.

* When the earth lies between the sun and the moon the position is calledopposition (situation of lunar eclipse). It happens during the full moon.

* The height of spring tide is 20% more than normal tides. It happens twice in amonth during the new and full moons.

2. Neap Tide : The position of the sun, due moon and the earth in right angle is calledquadrature, which happens on 7th or 8th day of every fortnight of a month. * During such position the tide is generally 20% lower than the normal tide. It

happen twice in a month.3. Tropical and Equatorial Tides : The moon also moves north and south between the

two tropics, just as the sun, in a synodic month. * The spring tides are caused when the moon is overhead near the Tropic of

cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn are called tropical tides.

* The spring tides caused when the moon is directly overhead of the Equator are called equatorial tides

* Tropical and equatorial tides happen twice in a month.4. Apogean and Perigean Tides : The high tides and low tides caused during the

perigee and apogee are called perigean and apogean tides, respectively. * The perigean tides are 15–20% higher than the normal tides, while the

apogean tides are 20% lower than the normal tides.5. Daily/Diurnal Tides : With the interval of 24 hours 52 minutes6. Semi-diurnal Tides : With the interval of 12 hours 26 minutes 7. Equinoctical Spring Tides : Once in 6 months due to the revolution of the earth

around the the sun.

OCEAN CURRENTS* Ocean current is a general movement of oceanic water in a definite direction.* These are the most powerful all oceanic dynamism * Types of Ocean Currents :

(i) On the basis of temperature – (1) warm (2) cold(ii) On the basis of velocity – (1) drift (2) current (3) stream

* Origin of Currents : Currents originate due to the combined effects of several factors –(1) Factors Related to the Rotation of the Earth : Coriolis Force (2) Oceanic Factors :

(i) Temperature difference(ii) Salinity difference(iii) Density difference – Main cause of origin

(3) Atmospheric Factors :(i) Air pressure(ii) Prevailing winds(iii) Rainfall(iv) Evaporation

(4) Factors Modifying Ocean Currents :(i) Direction, shape and configuration of coastlines(ii) Bottom relief(iii) Seasonal variations

Currents of the Atlantic Ocean :(1) Warm Currents :

(a) North Equatorial Current(b) South Equatorial Current(c) Counter-equatorial Current (d) Antilles Current(e) Caribbean Current(f) Florida Current(g) Gulf Stream(h) North Atlantic Drift(i) Rennel Current(Bay of Biscay)(j) Irminger Current(towards Iceland)(k) Brazil Current

2. Cold Currents : (a) Labrador Current(b) East Greenland Current(c) Canary Current(d) Benguela Current(e) West Wind Drift(f) Falkland Current

Currents of the Pacific Ocean :(a) North Equatorial Current(b) South Equatorial Current(c) Counter-equatorial Current(d) Kuroshio Current(e) North Pacific Drift(f) Tsushima Current(g) El Nino and La Nina (h) East Australian Current

(2) Cold Currents :(a) Oyashio Current / Kurile Current(b) California Current(c) Alaska Current(d) Peru (Humbolt) Current(e) West Wind Drift

Currents of the Indian Ocean :(1) Warm Currents :

(a) North-East Monsoon Current (Winter)(b) Indian Counter Current (Winter)(c) S.W. Monsoon Current (Summer)(d) Indian Equatorial Current(e) Mozambique Current(f) Agulhas Current

(2) Cold Currents :(a) West Australia Current(b) West Wind Drift

* Effects of Ocean Currents :1. Modification of coastal climate2. Fishing3. Trade and navigation

CORAL REEFS* Coral reefs are formed due to the accumulation and compaction of skeletons of lime

secreting organisms known as coral polyps. * Since coral polyps cannot survive above water level the coral reefs are always found either up

to sea level or below it.* Coral reefs are often called as the rainforests of the oceans because of their large

biodiversity. * They occupy less than one-tenth of one per cent of the world ocean surface, about half the

area of France, yet they provide shelter to 25% of all marine species.* Conditions for the Growth of Coral Polyps :

(1) They are found mainly in the tropical oceans as they need high mean annual temperature (20ºC – 21º C). But very high and very low temperature both are harmful.

(2) Depth – up to 250 feet.(3) Clean sediment free water so that their mouths are not closed by sediments.(4) Complete freshwater is also injurious for their growth. That is why they are not found

near the mouths of rivers.(5) Oceanic salinity ranging between 27º/00 and 30º/00 because high saline water contains

less calcium carbonates. (6) Ocean currents and waves are favorable because they bring foods for polyps.(7) The platform should not be more than 50 fathoms.

* Types of Coral Reefs : On the Basis of Nature, hape and Mode of Occurence(1) Fringing Reefs : Developed along the continental margins or along the islands

* Seaward slope is steeper, whereas the land-ward slope is gentle.* Generally absence of lagoon but sometimes it can be there in the forms of beat

channel. * Fringing reefs are generally long and narrow.

* Examples : Sakau Island, Florida, Society Islands.(2) Barier Reefs : These are the largest, most extensive, highest and widest reefs of all

types of coral reefs.* Extensive but shallow lagoon is found between the coastal land and the coral

reef.* These are generally broken at many places, through which regular contact with

the open sea takes place.* Great Barrier Reef (Eastern Coast of Australia) :

– Largest barrier reefs of the world– 9º S – 22º S (1920 km long)

(3) Atoll : A ring of narrow growing corals of horse-shoe shape and crowned with palmtrees is called atoll.* A lagoon is found in the middle, which may have an island or may be without

any island.* Examples : Antilles Sea, Red Sea, China Sea, Arabian Sea etc.

– Funafutti Atoll of the Ellice Island is very famous.– Lakshadweep and Maldives have many atolls.

* Coral Bleaching : It is the whitening of corals, due to stress-induced expulsion or death of their symbiotic protozoa, zooxanthellae, or due to the less of pigmentation within the protozoa.

* Under stress, corals may expel their zooxanthellae, which live within their tissues that give corals their colours. This expulsion of zooxanthellae leads to a lighter or completely white appearance, hence the term ‘bleached’.

* Causes of Coral Bleaching : (1) Temperature change(2) Acidification of water (3) Decline in zooplankton (4) Increased sedimentation (5) Pathogen infection(6) Change in salinity(7) Pollution(8) Low tide air exposure

OCEANIC RESOURCES* The biotic and abiotic resources found in the oceanic water and basins are called marine

resources.* Maritime Zones :

(1) Internal Water : Sea water lying between coastland and base line.(2) Base Line : The imaginary line joining the land projecting towards the sea.(3) Territorial Sea : The seaward water from the coastland which is measured up to 12

nautical miles from the base line .* A nation has sovereign rights over its territorial sea and has exclusive right of its use.(4) Contiguous Zone : The sea beyond the seaward limit of territorial sea up to a

distance of 12 nautical miles. * The concerned nation has limited exclusive rights regarding preventing or punishing

infringements of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations.(5) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) : It extends for 200 nautical miles from the base

lines towards the sea.

* A coastal nation has control over all economic resources within its EEZ including fishing, mining, oil exploration etc.

(6) High Sea : Extends beyond the seaward limit of the EEZ. * All countries have equal rights of navigation, aviation, fishing, mining, laying down

of submarine cables, scientific researches, exploration etc.* The above mentioned oceanic zones and many other marine related issue are

governed by the United Nations Convention on the Low of the Sea (UNCLOS-III) accepted in 1982.

* Classification of Marine Resources :(1) Marine Biological Resources :A. Plankton Communities – Floaters and drifters

(i) Phyto planktons(ii) Zoo planktons

B. Nekton Communities – Swimming animals(i) Pelagic fish – upper water body(ii) Demersal fish – Near the ocean basin

C. Benthos Communities – Plants and animals living on the sea bottoms (i) Epiflara and epifauna – Live on the surface of the sea bottoms(ii) Inflora and infauna – Live in the detritus and are generally buried

partially or completely (2) Marine Mineral Resources :(i) Metallic Minerals(ii) Fuel minerals (petroleum, gas, coal)(iii) Building materials (gravels, sands, corals)(iv) Precious metals (v) Salts (3) Energy Resources :

(i) Conventional Energy – Petroleum, gas(ii) Non-conventional Energy–Tidal, wave, OTEC, biomass

(4) Freshwater

LONGEST BEACHES OF THE WORD1. Praia do Cassino Beach : Brazil* Over 150 miles in length this is the longest beach in the world2. Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh :* About 150 miles, is the world’s longest natural sand beach3. Padre Island, Texas (USA) : 130 miles long 4. Ninety Miles Beach, Australia : 90 miles long5. Ninety Mile Beach, New Zealand : 88 miles long 6. Playa Nivillero, Mexico : About 50 miles long7. Virginia Beach, Virginia (USA) : 35 miles long* It is the World’s Longest Pleasure Beach recorded by the Guinness Book of World

Records. 8. Long Beach, Washington : 30 miles long. The longest beach in the west coast of the USA.9. Stickton Beach, Australia : 20 miles long but very wide.10. Muizenberg, South Africa : About 12 miles long11. Colva Beach (Goa) : 12 miles long, longest beach of Goa12. Clifton Beach, Pakistan : 10 miles long 13. Wasaga Beach, Canada : 8 and half miles on the Ontario Lake is the longest freshwater

beach in the world.14. Sauble Beach : 7 miles long beach on the Ontario Lake is the second longest freshwater

beach after the Wasaga Beach.

15. Marina Beach, Chennai : Only 8 miles long but wrongly marketed as the longest beach.16. Miami Beach, Florida (USA) : 17. Copacabana Beach (Rio de Janeiro) : 4 km long

BEACHES OF INDIA1. Gujarat : Ahmedpur, Mandvi, Chorwad, Diu, Gopnath, Umbegam, Tithal2. Maharashtra : Ganpatipule (Ratnagiri), Tarkali (Malvan), Mumbai (Manari, Gorai, Madh

Island, Aksa, Varsova, Juhu, Alibaug, Choupatty, Girgaum etc)3. Goa : Arambol, Palolem, Calangute, Colva, Benaulim, Candolim, Dona Paula, Chapora,

Anjuna, Varca etc4. Karnataka : Karwar, Murudeshwara (Bhatkal), Malpe (Udupi), St. Mary’s Island5. Kerala : Alappuzha, Cherai, Kovalam, Kappad, Marari, Varkala, Meenkunnu, Payyambalam6. Tamil Nadu : Marina Beach (Chennai), Golden (Chennai), Silver (Cuddalore), Dhanushkodi7. Andhra Pradesh : Srikakulam (Bhavanapadu, Kalingpatnam, Kallepalli, Magadalapadu),

Suryalaka (in Baptla), Dolphin Nose (in Vizag)8. Orissa : Chandipur, Gopalpur, Gahirmatha, Puri9. West Bengal : Digha

ISLANDS* An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small

islands can be called islets, cays or keys. * An island in a river or lake may be called on eyot or helm.* Broadly islands can be grouped into two categories according to their location – continental

islands and oceanic islands.* Continental islands lie on the continental shelf of a continent, while the oceanic islands are

ones those do not sit on the oceanic shelves.* Classification of Islands on the Basis of Their Origin :

1. Tectonic Islands : These are formed due to any type of tectonic activities. West Indian islands are tectonic islands.

2. Volcanic Islands : These are formed because of deposition of lava in the seawater. The Hawaiian Islands are volcanic islands.

3. Erosional Islands : Soft rocks are easily eroded and a piece of land loses connection with the mainland. Greenland is an example of erosional island.

4. Depositional Island : These are formed due to the deposition of sediments brought by river, glaciers and sea waves .

5. Coral Islands : These are formed due to accumulation of coral polyps on suitable marine platforms mostly in tropical regions. Lakshadweep, Maldives, Ellice Island etc have coral islands.

* Ten Largest Island of the World :1. Greenland2. New Guinea 3. Borneo4. Madagascar 5. Baffin6. Sumatra 7. Honshu8. Great Britain9. Victoria10. Ellesmere

STRAITS* A straits is a narrow, navigable channel of water that connects two larger water bodies and separates two land masses.

* Straits are important for trade and defence. Today they have become hotbeds of crime, smuggling and piracy.

* Major Straits of the World :1. Berring Strait - Berring Sea to Chukchi Sea2. Soya/ Le Perouse - Sea of Okhotsk to Sea of Japan3. Nemuro Strait - Sea of Okhotsk to Pacific Ocean4. Tsugaro Strait - Sea of Japan to Pacific Ocean5. Korea Strait - Sea of Japan to Yellow Sea6. Tsushima Strait - Sea of Japan to Yellow Sea7. Taiwan Strait - East china to South China Sea8. Hainan Strait - Gulf of Tonkin to South China Sea9. Luzon Strait - South China Sea to Philippine Sea10. Balabak Strait - South China Sea to Sulu Sea11. Makasar Strait - Celebes Sea to Java Sea12. Karimata Strait - Java Sea to South China Sea13. Sunda Strait - Java Sea to India Ocean14. Strait of Malacca - Andaman Sea to South China Sea15. Torres Strait - Arafura Sea to Gulf of Papua16. Bass Strait - Indian Ocean to Tasman Sea17. Cook Strait - Tasman Sea to Pacific Ocean 18. Foveaux - Tasman Sea to Pacific Ocean19. Strait of Hormuz - Persian Gulf to Gulf of Oman20. Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb - Gulf of Aden to Red Sea21. Bosporus Strait - Sea of Marmara to Black Sea22. Dardanelles Strait - Sea of Marmara to Aegean Sea23. Strait of Kerch - Black Sea to Azov Sea24. Strait of Otranto - Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea25. Strait of Messina - Tyrrhenian Sea to Ionian Sea26. Strait of Bonifacio - Tyrrhenian Sea to Mediterranean Sea27. Strait of Gibraltar - Mediterranean Sea to Atlantic Ocean28. Strait of Dover - North Sea to English Channel29. St. George’s Channel - Irish Sea to Celtic Sea30. North Channel - Irish Sea to Atlantic Ocean31. Strait of Florida - Gulf of Mexico to Sargasso Sea32. Yucatan Channel - Caribbean Sea to Gulf of Mexico33. Nares Strait - Baffin Bay to Arctic Ocean 34. Davis Strait - Baffin Bay to Labrador Sea35. Hudson Strait - Hudson Bay to Labrador Sea36. Strait of Belle Isle - Gulf of St Lawrence to Labrador Sea37. Magellan Strait - Atlantic Ocean to Pacific Ocean38. Beagle Channel - Atlantic Ocean to Pacific Ocean39. Drake Passage - Atlantic Ocean to Pacific Ocean

BIOGEOGRAPHY

SOILS OF THE WORLD* Soil is the thin topmost layer of the Earth, consisted of unconsolidated organic and inorganic

materials, which has ability to support life and plant growth.* Scientific study of soils is known as Pedology.* The process of soil formation is known as pedogenesis.* Soil Forming Factors :

1. Parent material2. Topography3. Climate4. Biotic factors5. Time

* Parent material and climate are most important factors is soil formation. On the other hand, climate and biotic factors are called active factors and the other three are passive factors.

* Soil Profile : It is the arrangement of all the soil layers (horizon) from the top to the bottom (A-Layer to D-Layer)

* Soil Horizon : It is a specific layer of soil which has distinct characteristics from the layers above and below it.

* A mature soil has four major horizons :(1) A – Horizon (Zone of leaching)(2) B – Horizon (Zone of accumulation)(3) C – Horizon (Weathered parent material)(4) D – Horizon (Bedrock)

* Classification of Soils : First important classification of soils was done by the Russion pedologist Dokuchaiev. But traditionally most used soil classification was given by C.F Marbutt in 1938. He was associated with the US Department of Agriculture. That is why his classification in also referred as USDA System.

* Marbutt divided the world soils into three broad categories : Zonal, azonal and intrazonal* The zonal soils have the impacts of climate and vegetation of their region, whereas the

azonal soils are so new to their region that they have not experienced any impact of climate and vegetation. On the other hand, the intrazonal soils have some local influences.

* Zonal Soils :– Tundra Soils– Podsols– Grey Brown Podzolic Soils– Prairie Soils– Red and Yellow Soils– Laterite Soils– Chernozem Soils– Chestnut-brown Soils– Seirozem– Red Desert Soils

* Intrazonal Soils :– Hydromorphic Soils– Halomorphic Soils– Calcimorphic Soils

* Azonal Soil :– Lithosols – Mountain slope– Regosols – Glaciers, outwash plains, loess – Alluvial Soils – River deposited

* 7th Approximation Classification : On the basis of current properties of the soils :– It was introduced by the USDA in 1960.

– It is officially called Comprehensi Soil Classification System(CSCS). It is commonly called the Seventh Approximation because it is the seventh revision of the first system presented to the American scientists.

– It has classified soils into 10 orders :

1. Entisols 6. Spodosols2. Inceptisols 7. Alfisols3. Vertisols 8. Ultisols4. Aridisols 9. Oxisols5. Mollisols 10. Histosols

BIOMES

* A biome is a major regional group of distinctive plant and animal communities best adopted to the region’s physical natural environment, latitude, elevation and terrain.

* A similar biome reigon has more or less the same kind of abiotic and biotic foctors spread over a large area creating a typical ecosystem over that area.

* Fundamental Classification of Biomes :(1) Terrestrial (land) Biomes(2) Acquatic (Freshwater and marine) Biomes.

* On the basis of availability of siol-water and temperature Trewartha divided the terrestrial biomes into five categories(1) Forest Biomes(2) Savanna Biomes(3) Grassland Biomes(4) Desert Biomes(5) Tundra Biomes

* Major Terrestrial Biomes of the World :(1) Tropical Evergreen Rainforests Biome :* Regions : – Extends between 10º N and 10º S

– Amazon basin (S. America)– Congo Basin (Africa)– Indo-Malaysian region– Guinea Coast of Africa

* It is called optimum biome because of high temperature and rainfall throughout the year plants grow freely.

* In the Amazon Basin they are called Selves. In fact, Selvas are known as the lungs of the world

* This biome accounts for highest biodiversity.* It has five layers of vegetation :

1. Top layer (Dominant layer) – 30m to 60m2. Second layer (Codominant layer) – 25m to 30m.3. Third layer – 15–20m4. Fourth layer – Herbaceous or shrub layer.5. Lower ground layer – Herbaceous plants and fern.

* In a unit area the species diversity is very large and has very dense growth of vegetation that trees have to compete for sunlight. And only one third rainfall received at the top could reach the ground.

* Species of Trees : Mahogany, Rosewood .* This biome is known for climbers, creepers, Lianas (long woody climbers) and epiphytes

(Do not have roots in the ground).* Trees have leathery dark leaves and buttressed roots.

(2) Monsoon Deciduous Forest Biome :* Regions : – Mostly in the monsoonal climate regions.

– South Asia– South-East Asia– West Indies– Eastern Africa– Northern Australia – S. Africa– Southern Brazil– S.E. USA– Taiwan, Southern China and Southern Japan

* The length of dry season is more important in influencing the vegetation, as the trees drop their leaves in drier season to conserve moisture.

* The seasonal regime of monsoonal rainfall gives it a deciduous character.* It has four layers, and most of the trees range between 11m to 30m.* The shrubs in the third stratum are evergreen* The trees are characterized by thick girth, rough and coarse bark, large hydromorphic leaves

or small, hard xeromorphic leaves.* This biome is known for highest undergrowth because of the sunlight can reach the ground.(3) Savannah Biome :* Regions : 10º–20º latitudes

– Llanos of Orinico Basin– Compos of Brazil, Paraguay– Central America– Central and Eastern Africa– Northern Australia– India (Man-made savanna)

* 3 Layers : 1. Scattered trees2. Spare shrubs3. Xeromorpic shrubs

* Savanna trees are fire resistants (pyrophytic) as they have thick bark and thick bud-scales * Tree Species : Baobab, Isoberlinia, Dom Polm, Eucalyptus, Pine.* Savannas can be found with trees or without trees.* Frequent fires, both natural and anthropogenic are common.* This regions are known as the Big Game Country.* They have the largest number and the greatest variety of grazing mammals in the world.(4) Mediterranean Biome : This is also called as sclerophyll biome, because of their special

adaptation to dry summer and wet winter.* Regions : – Between 30º to 45º latitudes in the western parts of the

continents– European, African and Asian lands surrounding the

Mediterranean Sea – S. California (USA)– Central Chile– S-W South Africa– A-W and Southern Australia

* Local Names of Shrubs :– Europe – Maquis / Garrigue– California – Chaparral – S.Africa – Fymbosch– Australia – Mallee Scrub– Chile – Mattoral

* Xerophyitc Adaptations : – Thickened cuticles– Grandular hairs– Sunken stomata– Extensive roots with tap roots

* Tree Species : – Oak, Olive, Citrus Fruits, Eucalyptus in Australia (Karri,Jarrah), Cork.

(5) Temperate Grassland Biome :* Regions : Between 30º to 45º latitudes in the interior parts of the continents, where westerlies

flow.– Steppes – Eurasia– Pustaz – Hungary– Prairie – N. America– Pampas – Argentina, Uruguay– Veld – S. Africa– Downs – S Australia– Canterbury Grassland – S. Island, New Zealand – Manchurian Plain – N.E. China

* This biome is practically treeless because of less rainfall. Their grasses are shorter but more nutritive than savanna grasslands.

* Today the temperature grasslands have been converted into ‘the granaries of the world’ and have become the heart of dairy industry.

(6) Tropical Desert Biome :* Regions : 10º–30º latitudes in the western parts of the continents. It includes all the hot

tropical deserts.* Plants are adapted to aridity and are called xerophytic vegetation.* Adaptive Mechanisms :

– Extensive root system– Transpiration reduction

– Shedding of leaves– Heavy cuticular and epidermal layers – Waxy coating on leaves– Sunken stomata– Scaly and small leaves– Ridged stems– Modification in aerial organs according to climate– Shiny and glazed leaf surfaces.

(7) Mid Latitude Deciduous Forests or Mixed Forest Biome :* Regions : Between 40º–60º latitudes in the eastern and the western parts of the continents.* It includes China Type and West European Type climates* Due to moderate temperature and rainfall both deciduous trees can grow.* Deciduous trees shed their leaves in the winter to avoid snowfall.* Tree Species : Oak, Birch, Walnut, Maple, Ash, Chestnut(8) Taiga Biome :* Regions : These are found between 50º and 70º latitudes in the interior parts of the continents

in the northern hemisphere only. – Alaska, N.Canada, Greenland, Siberia

* Taiga biome is known for coniferous trees.* Plant Responses :

– Conical shape – Smooth leaf surface– Needle-shaped leaves– Sunken stomata– Less species diversity

* Conical trees are found in pure stands over a large area.* Trees are mostly of softwood, which are very useful commercially.* Tree Species : Pine, Fir, Spruce, Larch (a hardy deciduous tree found with conifers).(9) Tundra Biome :* Regions : Coastal lands of the Arctic Ocean.* Only 3% plant species could grow here.* Vegetation here are called cryophytes, who are well adapted to long severe cold.* Trees could grow only near river and in sheltered slopes lichens, mosses, grasses, sedges etc

grow here in the summer.

TYPES OF VEGETATION* Xerophyte : Desertic vegetation requiring very less amount of water* Cryophyte : Tundra vegetation, that can grow at very low temperature * Halophite : Vegetation that van grow in saline soils* Pyrophyte : Fire resistant vegetation* Lithophyte : Vegetation that can grow on hard rocks* Mesophyte : Temperate region vegetation that requires moderate temperature and rainfall* Tropophyte :Tropical vegetation* Hydrophyte : Vegetation that grow on water surface * Hygrophyte: Vegetation that needs high humidity

ECOSYSTEM* An ecosystem is a biological environment of a particular area consisting of all living and

non-living entities who interact with each other.* The interaction is brought about by the energy flow from one organism to another.* Basic Components of an Ecosystem :

– Energy– Biotic (plants and animals)– Abiotic (soil, water, water etc)

* The levels of through which food energy passes from one group of organism to another goup are called trophic levels.

* The chain of transformation and transfer of food energy in an ecosystem from one group of organism to another group through a series of trophic levels is called food chain.

* Complicated food chain is called food web.* When energy passes from one level to another level it follows ‘10% law’ i.e. only 10%

energy is transferred to the next level and 90% energy is used in metabolic activities.* Thus, the food chain becomes pyramidical in structure with larger base. An ecosystem’s

food chain has four major trophic levels : (1) Autotrophic Primary Produces (2) Primary Consumers / Herbivores(3) Secondary Consumers / Carnivores (4) Omnivores and Decomposers.

* Types of Ecological Pyramid :(1) Number Pyramid (Number of species in each tropic level) (2) Biomass Pyramid (Total weight of organic matters)(3) Energy Pyramid

* An ecosystem is an open system. The flow of energy also follows open system as energy comes from the sun and escapes in the space. On the other hand, flow of matters follows closed and cyclic pattern.

HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

* Some of important negative impacts of human activities on the environment are following :1. Soil Erosion2. Different types of pollution3. Acid Rain4. Ozone Depletion 5. Eutrophication6. Loss of Biodiversity 7. Deforestation8. Global Warming9. Urban Heat Island

* Eutrophication : The accumulation of nutrients in a body of water and resultant enrichment of water by nutrients is called eutrophication.* Factors : Natural – Slow ageing of lakes

Human – Domestic sewage and industrial effluents – Run-off from fertilized agricultural land.

* Effects : – Algal Bloom– Decay and stinking– Increase in BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)– Death of water bodies.

* Acid Rain : The mixture of higher quantity of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides

(NO and NO2) in the rain water gives acid rain. * Effects : – Soil pollution

– Effects on rocks– Affects reproductive capabilities of fish– Loss of biodiversity

* Urban Heat Island (UHI) : It is an urban area which is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas. This phemenon was first discovered by Luke Howard in 1810s. The temperature difference is usually higher at night than during the day. The main cause is modification of the land surface by urban development which

uses materials which effectively retain heat.* Preventive Measures :

Green-roofing Lighter coloured bulding Space for plantation Green energy use Rainwater harvesting

Ozone Depletion : Ozone is a tri-atomic oxygen (O3) and is a gas found in the troposphere as well as in

the stratosphere. In the troposphere ozone is undesirable since it helps in the green house gas effect. In the stratosphere it works as protective cover against Ultra-Violet radiations. The decrease in the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere due to human induced

chemical substances is called ozone depletion. Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) :

Chloroflro Carbons Halons Carbon tetrachloride Methyl chloroform

Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs) Hydrochlrofluorocarbons (HBFCs) Bromochloromethane (BCM)

These substances contain chlorine or bromine, which are capable of catalytically breaking down ozone into oxygen.

A region of exceptionally depleted ozone in the stratosphere over the Antarctic that happens at the beginning of southern hemisphere spring (August-October) is called ozone hole. However, there are evidences that it also appears over the Arctic Ocean.

Harmful effect of Ozone Depletion :o Skin cancer o Cataract of the eyeo Decrease in immune system o Kills planktono Stratospheric cooling and tropospheric warming.

Conventions and Protocols :o Montreal Protocol – 1987o London Convention – 1989o Helsinki Convention – 1989 – Review of Montreal Protocolo Copenhagen Conference – 1992.

* Loss of Biodiversity :* Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or an entire planet.* Biodiversity is the measure of the health of an ecosystem. Greater biodiversity implies greater health.

* Three Types of Biodiversities : (1) Genetic Biodiversity

(2) Species Biodiversity(3) Ecosystem Biodiversity

* IUCN has identified 3 categories of species heading towards extermination :(1) Endangered Species : One in immediate danger of extermination.

Examples: Everglades Kite, Blue Whale. (2) Critically Endangered Species :Will not survive without human intervention.

Examples : California condor, whooping crane(3) Threatened Species : Not presently in danger but are subject to risk.

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS* A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographical region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity

that is under threat form humans.* The concept of biodiversity hotspot was originated by Norman Myers in articles in “The

Environmentalist” (1988 and 1990).* Qualifications :

(1) It must contain at least 0.5% or 1500 species of vascular plants as endemics.(2) It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.

* List of Biodiversity Hotspots : * North and Central America

– California Floristic Province – Caribbean Islands– Madrean Pine-oak Woodlands – Mesoamerica* South America– Atlantic Forests

– Cerrados – Chilean–Winter Rainfall–Vladivian Forests – Tumbers –Choco –Magdalena– Tropical Andes* Europe and Central Asia– Caucasus – Irano– Anatolian– Mediterranean Basin– Mountains of Central Asia* Africa– Cape Floristic Region– Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa– Eastern Afromontane – Guinean Forests of West Africa– Horn of Africa– Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands– Mapuland Pondland – Albany– Succulent Karoo

* Asia-Pacific– East Melanesian Islands– Eastern Himalayas– Indo-Burma – Japan– Mountains of Southwest China– New Caledonia– New Zealand– Philippines– Polynesia-Micronesia – Southwest Australia– Sundaland – Wallacea– Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

* Ecological Footprint : It is a measure of human demand on the earth’s ecosystems. It compares human demand with planet earth’s ecological capacity to regenerate.

* For 2006 humanity’s total ecological footprint was estimated at 1.4 planet earth. In other words, humanity uses ecological services 1.4 times as fast as the earth can renew them.

* Carbon Footprint is a subset of ecological footprint and means the total set of GHG emissions caused by an organization, event, product or person, expressed in carbon dioxide.

Largest GHG Emitters (2007)1. China 22.30% 6. Japan 4.28%2. USA 19.91% 7. Germany 2.69%3. E.U. 14.04% 8. Canada 1.90%4. India 5.50% 9. UK 1.84%5. Russia 5.24% 10. S. Korea 1.69%

CARBON SINK* A Carbon Sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-

containing chemical compound for an indefinite period* The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as

carbon sequestration.

* Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since the passage of the Kyoto Protocol, which promotes theirs use as a form of carbon offset

* Natural Carbon Sinks : Oceans, terrestrial plants* Artificial Carbon Sinks : Landfills, carbon capture and storage.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

* According to the Brundtland Commission, sustainable development is “the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

* It ties together the concern for carrying capacity of natural systems with the social challenge being faced by humanity.

* As early as 1970s sustainability was employed to describe an economy in equilibrium with the basic ecological support systems.

* The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into three constituents parts : environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and socio-political sustainability.

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

AGRICULTURE* Agriculture is the artificial cultivation and processing of animals, plants, fungi and other life

forms for food, fibres and other byproducts.* Types of Agriculture :

1. Nomadic Herding2. Shifting Cultivation3. Rudimentary Sedentary Tillage4. Intensive Subsistence Tillage (With paddy dominance)5. Intensive Subsistence Tillage (Without paddy dominance)6. Subsistence Crops and Livestock Farming7. Mediterranean Agriculture (Near subsistence in the Occidental World)8. Mediterranean Agriculture (Commercial in the New World)9. Livestock Ranching 10. Commercial Grain Farming 11. Commercial Livestock and Crop Farming12. Commercial Dairy Farming13. Specialised Horticulture and Olericulture (fruits and vegetables)14. Industrial Crops15. Collective Farming

* Agricultural Practices and Techniques :

1. Fallowing : It is the practice of not cultivating a land for some period so that it can regain its fertility.

2. Crop Rotation : This is the practice of cultivating different crops in succession in a piece of land to avoid fallowing and utilizing the fertility of land adequately. Leguminous crops are grown to increase nitrogen for cereal crops.

3. Shifting Cultivation : This is the practice of clearing a piece of land and cultivating it for two-three years, then it is left and another piece of land is selected for the same purpose. Thus, unlike crop rotation in which crops are rotated, in the shifting cultivation lands are rotated.

4. Mixed Cropping : This is the practice of growing two or more than two crops in a particular land simultaneously so that the crops compensate each other naturally. It also saves farmers from uncertainties and crop failures.

5. Mixed Farming : It is the combining of two independent agricultural enterprises on the same farm. A typical case of mixed farming is combining crop with livestock farming.

6. Relay Cropping : The practice of sowing a new crop while a ripening crop is still standing in the field is called relay cropping.

* Specialsed Farms of Cultivation :* Aeiroponic : Plantation of tree without surface, in air.* Apiculture : Rearing of honey bees for honey.* Arboriculture : Planting trees and shrubs in which their conservation and areal expansion are also emphasized.* Floriculture : Cultivation of flowers commercially.* Horticulture : Cultivation of fruits.* Horsiculture : Rearing and breeding of horses and mules.* Mariculture : Commercial production of sea organisms. * Moriculture : Cultivation of mulberry for silk.* Namericulture : Primitive agricultural practice of gathering roots, fruits and flowers.* Olericulture : Production of fruits.* Oilviculture : Conservation and development of trees.* Sericulture : Rearing silk works which includes planting mulberry trees.* Vermiculture : Rearing of earthworms.* Viticulture : Cultivation of grapes.

LOCAL NAMES OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION IN THE WORLD

1. Ray Vietnam and Laos2. Taungya Myanmar3. Ladang Malaysia4. Tamrai Thailand5. Humah Indonesia (Java)6. Chena Sri Lanka7. Caingin Philippines8. Tavi Madagascar9. Masole Central Africa (Zaire Basin)10. Logan Western Africa11. Roca Brazil12. Konuko Venezuela13. Milpa Central America14. Coamile Mexico15. Echalin Guadeloupe

VARIOUS AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS

1. Amrit Revolution – Interlinking of rivers2. Blue Revolution – Fisheries3. Green Revolution – Agriculture (mainly cereals)4. Golden Revolution – Fruits5. Pink Revolution – Lobsters6. Rainbow Revolution – Overall development of agriculture7. Round Revolution – Potato8. Red Revolution – Meat / Tomato9. Silver Revolution – Eggs10. Yellow Revolution – Oil Seeds

RICE* Scientific Name – Oriza sativa.* Principle staple crop of half the population of the world.* Requirements :

(1) High temperature (27º–30 ºC) and high rainfall (about 100 cm)(2) Soil – clayey and loamy(3) Labour intensive

* Varieties : IR8, IR20, IR22, Miracle Rice.* Floating Rice can be grown in water up to 5m depth.* Diseases : Blight, Rust, Blast, Brown Spot, Smut, Leaf Scald.* Production:

– Ninety per cent rice is grown in South Asia and East Asia.– China is the largest producer of rice.– Red Basin (Szechwan) is called the Rice Bowl of China.– The Quinlingshan Mt. and the Hwang Ho River mark the northern limit of rice

cultivation in China.– India has the largest area under rice in the world but it is second to China in

production.– Japan is known high yielding paddy ‘Japanica’.– Sawah (wet paddy) and huma (dry paddy) two methods of rice cultivation in

Indonesia.* Trade : – The international trade of rice is very small (3–5%).

– Traditionally Thailand and Myanmar export rice.* Producers : – China (Yangtze and Si Kiang valleys)

– India (southern parts)– Bangladesh (Ganga Delta)– Japan (Setouchi Plain – Rice Bowl of Japan)– Indonesia, Thailand, Mynmar, Malaysia– Brazil– USA Louisiana, Texas, California, S. Carolina– Egypt (Nile Delta)– Europe –Po Valley (Northern limit of rice)

– Ebro Basin (Spain)– Rhone Delta (France)

* 5 Largest Producers of Rice :1. China2. India3. Indonesia4. Bangladesh5. Vietnas

* Highest Yields:Country Yield (Million Tonnes / Hectare)

1. Australia 10.292. Egypt 9.433. USA 7.454. Spain 7.285. China 6.076. India 3.00

WHEAT* Scientific Name: – Triticum aestivum* Conditions: – Warm and moist during early stages of growth and sunny and dry during later

period and harvest.– Temperature – 15.5ºC– Rainfall – 40 cm – 100 cm– Light or heavy loam (Chernozem is best suited)– Labour intensive where it is done manually

* Types of Wheat : (i) Winter Wheat – sown in late autumn or early winter (ii) Spring Wheat – sown in spring

(iii) Hard Wheat – good for bread(iv) Soft Wheat – good for bakeries(v) Red Wheat(vi) White Wheat

* Diseases of Wheat : Red Rot, Blight, Mosaic, Molds, Smut.* Production : Temperate grasslands are known for extensive wheat cultivations. They are

now called ‘granaries of the world’ – Prairie region of N. America is known as ‘the breadbasket of the world’.– China is the largest producer of wheat.– India has the largest area under wheat.– Wheat Crescent : – Pampas region, Argentina– France is the largest wheat producer in Europe.– USA is the largest exporter of wheat.

* Producing Regions :– Canada (Prairie Provinces – Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba)– Australia – Murray-Darling Basin– Europe – Paris Basin, Lombardy Plain, Pustaz, Lower Danube Basin– CIS – Steppe regions– Ukraine– Argentina – Pampas (Wheat Crescent)– New Zealand – Canterbury Plain– China – Hwang Ho Plain, Manchuria

* Largest Producers : China, India, USA, Russia, France.* Highest Yields : The Netherland, Denmark, UK, Germany.* Main Exporters : USA, Canada, Australia, Argentina.

MAIZE* Scientific Name : Zea mays.* Conditions : Temperature – 18º to 27ºC during day and 14º C during the night

– 140 frost free days– Rainfall – 65–115 cm – Soils – Well drained and rich in nitrogen – – Podzols (temperate regions), red soils (tropical regions)

* Productions : Maize is the grain crop with largest production even greater than rice and wheat– USA is the largest producer (40%) and exporter of maize.

– The Corn Belt in USA is famous for maize production. But here it is mainlyproduced for feeding pigs.

– Maize Triangle is located in S. Africa.* Producing Regions :

– USA – Corn Belt– China – Northern Plain, Manchuria– S. Eastern Brazil– Europe – France, Germany, Italy– S. Africa – Transvaal, Orange Free State– Mexico

* Major Producers (2009)1. USA – 3332. China – 1633. Brazil – 514. Mexico – 205. Indonesia – 186. India – 17

TEA* Scientific Name : Camellia sinesis* Origin : Yangtze Valley, China* Varieties: – Green Tea (China)

– Black Tea (Assam Tea)– Oolong Tea (Taiwan)– Yerbamate (Paraguay)

* A stimulating substance, tannic acid, is found in tea.* Conditions : Warm summer with greater frequency of rainfall

– Temperature – 13º–24 ºC– Rainfall – 125 – 205cm– Soils : – Well drained, deep and friable loan

– Acidic soil without calcium– Grown on highland because tea cannot tolerate stagnant water– Labour intensive (women are good for leaves picking)

* Productions :– China, India, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Turkey, Japan and Indonesia

are major producers.– In China the Yangtze Valley and the Szechwan Basin are major tea cultivating

regions.– Western Java, and eastern slopes of the Japanese Alps in the Honshu Island are

known for tea.* Producers (2008) :

(tonnes)1. China – 1,2573842. India – 805,1803. Kenya – 345,8004. Sri Lanka – 318,4705. Turkey – 198,046

* Exporters : Kenya, China, India and Sri Lanka.* Importers : Russia, UK, Pakistan, USA.

COFFEE* Origin : Native of the highlands of Ethiopia.* The word ‘coffee’ derived from the Kaffa district of Ethiopia.

* Its main stimulant is caffeine. * Varieties : Arabica – Least hardy, finest flavour, most traded.

– Robusta – Poor quality, disease resistant, survives in arid conditions.– Liberica – Sturdy and disease resistant, moderate quality, low land coffee.– Other : Mocha Coffee (Yemen), Blue Mountain Coffee (Jamaica).

* Conditions :– Temperature – 14º to 26 ºC– Rapid growth during rainy season– Rainfall – 100cm – 200cm– Needs shelter from direct sunlight– Soils – Sandy loan to clay loan– – Well – drained

– Rich in organic matters– Terra Roxa of Brazil is most suitable and it is known as ‘coffee

soil’.– Labour intensive– Grown on highlands (2000 feet to 6000 feet)

* Productions : Brazil is the largest producer of coffee.– Large coffee plantations are called ‘fazendas’ in Brazil.– Sao Paulo is the main centre of coffee trade, whereas Santos exports largest amount

of coffee in the world and is known as the ‘coffee port of the world’.– Columbian coffee has an excellent flavour and fetches higher prices than Brazilian

coffee.– Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Angola and Ghana are important coffee producing

countries from Africa.* Major Producers (2007) :

(tonnes)1. Brazil 2,249,0102. Vietnam 961,2003. Colombia 697,3774. Indonesia 676,4755. Ethiopia 325,8006. India 288,000

* Main Exporters : Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Ivory Coast.* The USA, Germany, France and Italy are main importing countries.

RUBBER* Scientific Name : Havea brasiliensis.* Rubber is latex of the tree Havea brasiliensis, which is widely found in the Amazon and Zaire

Basins.* But today it is grown commercial is the South-East Asia and South Asia, in big plantations.* Conditions : High temperature and heavy rainfall distributed evenly throughout the year

– Temperature – 21º to 27º C– Rainfall – 200 to 250 cm– Soils : – Deep, friable, well-drained, loamy soil.– – Alluvial soil is also suitable.

– Require cheap and skilful labours.* Productions :

– Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia etc are major producers of natural rubber.– Synthetic rubber, which was first made in Germany before the World War-I, is giving

tough challenge to natural rubber. – The USA is the largest producer of synthetic rubber.

* Major Producers (2004) :Share (%)

1. Thailand 36.332. Indonesia 21.493. Malaysia 11.994. India 8.99

* Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia are the major exporters of natural rubber.

JUTE* Scientific Name : Corchorus capsularis.* It is second most important vegetable fibre after cotton. * Conditions :

– It grows well in hot and humid climate.– Grown as cash crop in paddy growing regions.

* Production : – Almost all the jute comes from India and Bangladesh.– The Ganga and Brahmaputra valleys are main jute growing regions.– The Hoogly Basin is very popular for jute.

* Major Producers (2008) : (000 tonnes)

1. India 18462. Bangladesh 8483. Pakistan 4494. China 485. Myanmar 30

* Bangladesh is the largest exporter followed by India.

COTTON* Scientific Name : Onopordum acanthium.* It is the most important fibre grown in the world.* Varieties :

(1) Long Staple Cotton (3.5 to 6.5 cm)– Best quality cotton– Known as ‘Sea Island Cotton’– Grown in Egypt, USA, Sudan, Peru

(2) Medium Staple Cotton (2.2 cm to 3.2 cm)– Grown in USA, CIS, Nile Basin– It is also known as Egyptian Cotton.

(3) Short Staple Cotton (2.2 cm to 3.2 cm)– Least quality cotton, coarsest of all– Grown in India, Pakistan, Brazil

* Conditions :– Warm climate with moderate rainfall, plenty of sunshine during growing period but

cooler condition during harvest.– Temperature – 21 – 27ºC– 200 frost – free days– Rainfall – 50 – 100cm– Soils : Well drained, black cotton soil (regur in India), alluvial soils– Requires a large number of cheap and skilled labour force.

* Production :– Cotton Belt in USA– CIS countries

– India has the largest area under cotton– China is the largest producer– Australia has the highest yield per hectare followed by Syria, Mexico and Turkey– Pests : Boll Weevil (N. America), Pink Bollworm (Asia)– The main cotton-growing region of USA is shifting towards the west due boll weevil.

* Major Producers (2009) :(million tonnes)

1. China 322. India 23.53. USA 12.44. Pakistan 10.85. Brazil 5.5

* Importers : China, Turkey, Indonesia, Mexico, Thailand

SUGARCANE * Scientific Name : Saccharum officinarum.* Sugarcane accounts about 60% world sugar demand.* Sugar mills must be near the sugarcane farms as the sugar content is lost quickly after

cutting the sugarcane plants.* Sugarcane is grown as monocrop and it remains generally for two-three years, once it is

grown* Conditions :

– Hot climate with abundant rainfall– Dry sunny season during the harvest – Temperature – 21º – 27ºC– Rainfall – 120 cm– Soils : well drained, medium heavy soil, red loamy, limon (loess of Europe), Indian

black cotton soil.– Requires a large number of cheap labour.

* Production :– Brazil is the largest producer of sugarcane and sugar.– Brazil has the highest per capita consumption of sugar.– India has the largest area under sugarcane.– In Cuba sugarcane plantations are called ‘Latifundia’.

* Producing Regions :– India, Pakistan, Taiwan, China, (Si Kiang Basin) Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia

(Java Island), Malaysia – Brazil, Mexico, Jamaica, Barbados

– USA – Hawaii, Louisiana – Mauritius, Fiji, S. Africa (Natal)

* Indians were taken as indentured labours for sugarcane cultivation.* Major Producers (2008) :

(million tonnes)1. Brazil 6492. India 348

3. China 1244. Thailand 73.55. Pakistan 64

* Cuba is known as ‘sugar-bowl of the world’

TOBACCO* Scientific Name : Nicotina tobacum.* Origin : Native of America

* Varities :– Virginia Tobacco– Turkish or Oriental tobacco– Cigar Tobacco (Cuba)

* Conditions :– Warm temperature sub-tropical or tropical climate– Temperature – 18º to 21ºC– Rainfall – 50 cm to 100 cm– 120 – 180 frost –free days– Soil : Fertile soil with lime, potash and humus – Labour intensive crop.

* Production :– Production of tobacco is increasing developing counties, whereas it is declining in

developed countries.– Developing countries account for about 85% of tobacco production. – China is the largest producer and consumer of tobacco.– USA is the largest importer of tobacco.

* Major Producing Regions : China, India, Brazil, CIS, Turkey, Japan, Bulgaria, S. Korea, Cuba, Indonesia

* Major Producers (2005) : (million tonnes)

1. China 2.642. India 0.643. Brazil 0.554. USA 0.47

LARGEST PRODUCERS OF OTHER MAJOR CROPS

1. Grape (2009) : Italy, China, USA, France, Spain, Turkey2. Coconut (2005) : Indonesia, Philippines, India, Brazil, Sri Lanka.3. Soybean (2005) : USA, Brazil, Argentina, China4. Banana (2001–05) : India, Brazil, China, Ecuador, Philippines5. Mango (2007) : India, China, Mexico, Thailand, Pakistan6. Orange (2008) : Brazil, USA, India, Mexico, China, Spain7. Apple (2005) : China, USA, Iron, Turkey, Russia, Italy, India8. Cocoa (2004) : Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Indonesia, Nigeria, Brazil9. Barley (2007) : Russia, Canada, Spain, Germany, France, Cereals10. Potato (2007) China, Russia, India, USA, Ukraine11. Fruits and Vegetables : China, Indiana University12. Milk : India, USA, China

FORESTS* A forest is an area with a high density of trees.* Forests cover about 9.4% of the Earth’s surface i.e. 30% of the total land area.* The average land per capital is 0.6 hectare.* Factors Influencing the Distribution of Forests :

(a) Temperature (b) Precipitation(c) Soil(d) Altitude(e) Slope

(f) Wind(g) Sunlight

(1) Tropical Hardwood Forests :(a) Tropical Rainforests / Selvas :

* Regions : –Between 5º N and 5º S– Amazon Basin, Zaire Basin, Guinea coast, coastal

Ecuador, South-East Asia–

* Climate : – Temperature – 25 – 26ºC– Rainfall – 150 cm – 200cm (Uniformly distributed)– Humidity – Above 80%

* Characteristics :– Very dense and high diversity– Evergreen broad–leaved– 5 layers– Hardwood and long (up to 60 m)

* Tree Species : Mahogany, Rosewood, Ebony,Lalang, Greeheart,Meranti, Orchid, Chengal.

* Problem in exploitation as trees of a species are scattered in a wide area (lack of pure stand)

(b) Moonsoon Forests or Tropical Deciduous Forests :* Regions : – South Asia

– Southeast and East Asia– Northern Australia– Surrounding Guinea and Zaire basins– East Africa– Madagascar

* Climate : – Temperature – 27ºC– Rainfall – 100 – 200 cm (seasonal variation)

* Characteristics :– Open in comparison to tropical rainforests– 4 layers– Dense undergrowth– Deciduous trees

* Species of Trees : Sal, Teak, Sisam, Bamboos, Rubber, Cinchona.(3) Temperature Deciduous Forests :

(a) Mediterranean Forests and Shrubs :* Regions : – Between 30º to 45º latitudes in the western parts of the

continents.– European, Africa and Asian Coastal lands surrounding

the Mediterranean Sea– Southern California (USA)– Central Chile– S. W. South Africa– Southwestern and Southern Australia.

* Climate : – Temperature – 16ºC– Rainfall – 50 – 100 cm– Drier summer and wet winter

* Characteristics :– Shrubs are found– Evergreen trees– Wiry grasses– Local Names of Shrubs :

S. Europe – Maquis / GarrigueCalifornia – Chaparral S. Africa – Fymbosch

Australia – Mallee ScrubChile – Mattoral

* Tree Species : Cork, Oak, Olive, Almod, Jarrah, Karri, Cedar, Sequoia (b) Temperate Broad-leaved Mixed Forests :

* Regions :– Northeastern USA, Western Europe, Central Europe, China, Japan, Patagonia (Argentina), Tasmania (Australia), New Zealand.

* Climate : – Temperature – 11 – 16ºC – Rainfall – 60 – 105 cm

* Characteristics :– Have trees of different species – Mix of hardwood and coniferous– Hardwood deciduous tree shed leaves in winter– Woods are relatively lighter and easier to work.

* Tree Species : Oak, Birch, Redwood, Chestnut, Maple, Walnut, Elm, Ash, Beach.

(3) High Mid–latitude Softwood Forests :(a) Taiga / Coniferous Softwood Forests :

* Regions : – Poleward side of 60ºN in Eurasia and N. America – High altitudes in temperate regions– Southern Chile

* Climate : – Temperature : 4ºC – Rainfall : 50 – 55 cm

* Characteristics :– Taller trees, coniferous shape – Leaves are needle–shaped– Most of the trees are evergreen except larch.– Found in extensive pure stand.– Less density of trees.– Softwood in highly useful commercially.

* Tree Species :– Pine, Cedar, Spruce, Fir, Redwood, Walsum, Larch (Hardy deciduous trees).

* Forest Area Per Capita (2000) :(hectares)

1. French Guiana 45.62. Australia 8.33. Russia 5.84. Brazil 3.25. USA 0.86. Japan 0.27. India 0.18. World 0.6

* Total Forests (2000) :(`000 hectares)

1. Russia 851,3922. Brazil 543,9053. Canada 244,5714. USA 225, 9935. China 163,4806. Australia 154,5397. Congo 135,2078. Indonesia 104,9869. Angola 69,75610. Peru 65,21511. India 64,113

* Forest Cover As a Percentage of Land Area (2000) :

1. Cook Islands 95.7 10. Zaire (DR of Congo) 59.62. Surinam 90.5 11. Malaysia 58.73. Finland 72.0 12. Indonesia 58.04. S. Korea 68.2 13. Russia 50.45. Sweden 65.9 14. Canada 26.56. Congo 64.6 15. USA 24.77. Brazil 64.3 16. India 21.68. Bhutan 64.2 17. World 30.09. Japan 64 18.

FISHERIES* Factors Contributing Distribution of Fishing Grounds

1. Coastal shelf2. Upwelling of sea water3. Mixing of warm and cold water4. Broken coastline 5. Accessible forest resources6. Climatic condition 7. Capital, technology8. Food habit and demand

* Types of Fish :(1) Salt Water Fish :

(a) Pelagic : – Living at or near the surface of water– Herring, Mackerel, Sardines, Pilchards, Anchovies,

Menhaden (b) Demersal : – Bottom living fish

– Cod, Halibut, Hake, Flatfish, Tuna(2) Fresh Water Fish : – Found in rivers, lakes, ponds etc.

– Sturgeon, Trout, Perch, Carp, Pike(3) Anadromous Fish : – Most of the time live in the sea but come to rivers to

spawn and die – Salman, Humpback, Sockeye, Silver, Chum.

* Fishing Techniques :(1) Netting

(a) Drifting – Pelagic Fish(b) Trawling – Demersal Fish(c) Seining – Fish of big shoals

(2) Lining(3) Trapping – Crabs, Lobster

* Major Fishing Grounds in the World :(1) North–West Pacific Region :* From the Aleutian Islands to the Philippine Islands* Fish: Salmon, King Crab, Herring, Halibut, Cod * Wide coastal shelves and mixing of Kuroshio and Oyashio ocean currents provide

good conditions for plankton growth.* China and Japan are the leading countries.(2) North–East Atlantic Region :* Extends from Iceland to Portugal* The Dogger Bank in the North Sea is famous for fishing. * Wide coastal shelves and the North Atlantic Drift held in fishing.* Norway is the most important fishing country here, which is benefited by the fiords.* Fish–Herring, Cod.

(3) North–West Atlantic Region :– Wide coastal shelves and mixing of the Gulf Stream and Labrador Current

create excellent condition for plankton development.– The Grand Bank and George Bank are famous fishing sites.* Fish : Cod, Perch, Herring, Haddock, Oyster, Lobster, Halibut, Squid, Redfish

(4) North–East Pacific :* It has the world’s best cod fishing ground.* Fish : Salmon, Cod, Tuna, Halibut, Sardines, Herring, Haddock.(5) South–East Pacific :* Upwelling of seawater brings important nutrients for planktons from bottom of the

ocean.* Famous for Anchovies.* During the El Nino Event fishing is badly affected because the warm water stops

upwelling , which leads to the reduction of plankton growth. Thus, fish die of scarcity of food.

* Reasons for Less Development of Fishing in the Tropical Regions :1. Tropical waters have large varieties of fish mixed up in a region, which reduces

possibility of commercial exploitation2. High temperature does not support good plankton growth 3. Problems of fish preservation4. Low demand of fish5. Lack of capital, technology, entrepreneurship etc.

* Largest Freshwater Fish Catchers (2004) : (000 tonnes)

1. China 101242. India 30293. Bangladesh 17564. Indonesia 11525. Myanmar 825

* Largest Marine Fish Catchers (2004) :1. China2. Peru3. India4. Indonesia5. USA6. Japan

ENERGY RESOURCES

COAL* Most coals were formed about 300 million years ago in Carboniferous age, while the Tertiary

coals of recent origin are found in the forms of brown coal or peat as they are in the early stage of coal formation

* Types of Coal :(a) Anthracite : Contains about 90% carbon– Only 5% coal of the world are of this type– Of which Pennsylvanian fields (USA) produce half the anthracite coal of the world.– It is used in manufacturing of city gas (b) Bituminous : Contain 70 – 80% carbon– 80% of the world coal.– As a cocking coal used in metal industry(c) Lignite or Brown Coal : Contains about 40 to 50% carbon

– 15% of the world coal(d) Peat : Less than 40% carbon– It is in the primary stage of coal formation– Higher moisture content– Remains of plant tissue may be visible

* Production : – USA : Eastern Province – Pennsylvanian anthracite fields

– Appalachian bituminous fields– Interior Province (Bituminous) – Gulf Province (Lignite)– Rockies Province (Bituminous)– Pacific Province

– Canada : Alberta, British Columbia, Vancouver Islands, Nova Scotia– Europe : CIS – Donbas (Ukraine)

– Moscow-Tula (Russia)– Kuzbas (Russia)– Karaganda (Kazakhstan)– Pechora Basin (Russian)

Germany – Ruhr, Silesia, SaxonyFranco – Belgian – SaarBritain_- Scottish Lowlands, Pennines

– China : Sanxi, Saanxi, Inner Mongolia, Kansu, Hopei, Manchuria (Fushun)– Japan : Chikugo (Kyushu), Ishikari (Hokkaido)– S. Africa : Transvaal, Natal, Orange Free State– Zimbambwe :Wankie– Australia : Newcastle, Gippsland, Fingal, Ipswich– Columbia : Coli– India, Brazil, Chile, Pakistan, Iran etc.

* Major Producers (2009) :(million tonnes)

1. China 3050 (45.6%)2. USA 973.2 (15.8%)3. India 557.6 (6.2%)4. Russia 298.1 (4.3%)5. Indonesia 252.5 (3.6%)

* Largest Reserves (End of 2008) :(million tonnes)

1. USA 237,19562. Russia 1570103. China 114,5004. Australia 76,5005. India 66,600

PETROLEUM* Petroleum is found in anticlinal dome structure.* It was first drilled in Pennsylvania, USA.* Distribution :

– USA :– Mid-continental region– Gulf coast region– Rockies– California– Appalachian

– Alaska– Canada :

– Alberta and Saskatchewan– CIS :

– Baku, Grozney– Volga, Used Region – ‘Second Baku’– Tomk Region– Sakhalin Island

– Europe :– Romania, Germany, Norway, Britain– The North Sea has good reserves .

– Saudi Arabia : Dharan, Abquiq, Ghawar– Iran : Masjid-i-Sulaiman, Agha Jari, Bahregan – Kuwait : Burgan– China : Sinking, Daquing, Kashgar, Shandong etc.– Indonesia :

– Sumatra (Palembang, Jambi, Minas)– Borneo (Kalimantan, Irian Jaya)

– Brunei, Malaysia, Myanmar, Indias– Algeria, Libya, Nigeria (Biafra)– Mexico : Tampico, Sabinas, Reynosa– Venezuela : Lake Maracaibo, Orinico Basin

* Largest Proved Reserves (2010) :(billion barrels)

1. Saudi Arabia 4672. Iraq 1803. Canada 1794. Iran 1385. Kuwait 104

* Largest Producers (2010) :

1. Saudi Arabia2. Russia3. USA4. Iran5. China

* Exporters : Saudi Arabia, Russia, Norway, Iran, UAE, Venezuela* OPEC : Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,

UAE, Venezuela.

NATURAL GAS* Russia is the largest producer of natural gas and also has the largest reserves.* Largest Producers (2007) :

(million cubic m)1. Saudi Arabia – 654,0002. USA – 545,9003. Canada – 187,0004. Iran – 111,9005. Norway – 99,300

* Largest Proved Reserves (2008) :(trillion cubic m)

1. Russia 43.32. Iran 33.1

3. Qatar 26.24. Turkmenistan 7.95. Saudi Arabia 7.3

URANIUM* 2 primary sources of uranium :

(1) Pitch Blende – 50–80% Uranium(2) Uraninite – 65–80% Uranium

* Uranium City and Port Radium are important uranium mining regions of Canada.* D.R. of Congo - Katanga region* Australia- Port Darwin, Rum Jungle, Radium Hill* Reserves (2007) :

(tonnes)1. Australia 1,673,0002. Kazakhstan 651,0003. Canada 485,0004. Russia 480,0005. S. Africa 295,0006. Namibia 284,0007. Brazil 279,000

* Production (2010) :(tonnes)

1. Kazakhstan 140202. Canada 101733. Australia 79824. Namibia 46265. Russia 35646. Niger 3243

THORIUM* Sources of Thorium : Thorianite, Allanite, Monazite.* Sri Lanka, India and Madagascar are major thorium producing countries. * Reserves :

(tonnes)1. Australia 489,0002. USA 400,0003. Turkey 344,0004. India 319,0005. Venezuela 300,000

World Nuclear Power Production (MW)

World 376,3131. USA 101,2292. France 63,2363. Japan 47,3484. Russia 23,0845. Germany 20,3396. S. Korea 17,716

* Share of Nuclear Power in Total Electricity Production :1. France 75.2%2. Lithuania 70%

3. Slovakia 53.5%4. Belgium 51.7%5. Ukraine 48.6%6. Armenia 45.0%7. Hungary 43.0%8. Switzerland 39.5%

World 14%

HYDRO-ELECTRICITY CAPACITY(2009)(GW)

1. China 196.792. Canada 88.9743. Brazil 69.0804. USA 79.5115. Russia 45.0006. Norway 27.5287. India 33.600

* Norway produces its 98.99% electricity from hydroelectric sources.* Paraguay produces 100% of its electricity from hydroelectric dams and exports 90% of its

production to Brazil and Argentina.* Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Paraguay, Switzerland and Venezuela produce

majority of their electricity from hydroelectric sources.* Three Gorges Dam (China) has 22,400 MW capacity.

MINERALS

IRON ORE* Types of Iron Ore According to Iron Content:

1. Magnetite: The best quality iron ore with iron content up to 70%.* It is a black mineral formed in igneous or metamorphic rock in veins or lodes.* It is generally used for making natural magnets and also used in electric

industry.* Some of the best magnetite ores are extracted from Kiruna and Gallivare in Sweden,

Liberia and at Magnitogorsk in the USSR.2. Haematite: It has 50 to 65 per cent iron content.

* It is the second best but most important iron ore.* It is red in colour and formed of sedimentary rocks.* This type of iron ore is mined in Bilbao(Spain), Minas Gerais (Brazil),

Labrador and Quebec(Canada) and Lake Superior region (USA).3. Limonite: It has less than 50% iron content and brown in colour.

* It occurs in thick beds in sedimentary rocks sequence or in swamps or lakes.

4. Siderite: It has 20 to 30% iron content and is ash grey in colour.* It is a carbonate of iron and is found interbedded with other sedimentary rocks,

especially with carbonaceous rocks.* It is mined in Scunthorpe (England), L (France) and Luxemburg.

* Distribution:- USA - Lake Superior Region(Mainly haematite): Mesabi Range, Vermilion,

Cuyana,Gogebic, Menominee and Marquette Ranges.- N. Eastern Region (Mainly magnetite): Adirondacks, Cornwall.- Western Region: Utah(magnetite), Nevada, Wyoming(haematite) and California.- South Eastern Region (both haematite and limonite): Birmingham, Alabama.- Canada : Lake Superior, Labrador and Quebec (Schefferville, Wabush),

Newfoundland.- Russia : Moscow-Tula, Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, Kuznetsk,

Magnitogorsk.- Ukraine : Krivoi Rog, Kerch Peninsula- France : Lorraine, Normandy, Central Massif- Sweden : Kiruna, Gallinare, Dannemora, Grangeborg, Kopparborg- Britain : Scunthorpe, Frodingham- Spain : Bilbao, Santander, Oviedo- Germany : Siegerland- China : Manchuria (Anshan), Hopei, Yangtze Valley, Shandang

Peninsula, Hainan Island.- S. Africa : Postmasburg, Thabazimbi (Transvaal)- Liberia : Bomi Hills, Mt. Nimba- Brazil : Itabira, Minas Gerias, Carajas.- Australia : Mt. Goldsworthy, Mt. Whaleback, Mt. Bruce, Mt. Tom Price,

Yampi Sound, Iron Knob, Pilbara - India

* Ukraine has the largest reserves of iron ore.* China is largest producer of iron ore.

* Largest Reserves of Iron Ore : Country (million tonnes)1. Ukraine 68,0002. Russia 56,0003. China 46,0004. Australia 40,0005. Brazil 19,0006. India 98, 00

*Largest Producers of Iron Ore (2006):Country (million tonnes)

1. China 8202. Australia 4703. Brazil 2504. India 1505. Russia 105

COPPER* It is a soft brown metal found mostly in igneous and metamorphic rocks.* It often occurs along with gold, silver, lead or zinc.* Copper Ores: Cuprite, Malachite, Calchocite, Coveite.* Alloys: 1. Bronze - Copper + Tin

2. Brass - Copper + Zinc3. Nickel Silver (Coins) - Copper + Nickel + Zinc

* Distribution:- USA : Utah (Bingham), Montana(Butte), Nevada, Arizona

- Canada : Sudbury, Flin Flon, Sheridon, Lynn Lake- Spain : Rio Tinto- Zaire : Katanga Province- Zambia : Nechanga, Kitwe, Mufulira- Australia : Mt. Isa, Mt. Morgan, Mt. Lyell- Chile : Chuquicamata (world’s largest copper mining town), Braden,

El-teniente- Peru : Cerro de Pasco, Toque Pala, Morococha, Casapalca

* Largest Producers of Copper Ore (2004):Country (tonnes)

1. Chile 54125002. USA 11600003. Peru 10355744. Australia 8540005. Indonesia 840318

BAUXITE* Bauxite was first mined in a Mediterranean village of France called Les Baux. From here it got

its name.* Bauxite is the ore of alumina.* It has a very high resistance to corrosion.* Distribution: Most of the world’s largest producers of Bauxite are in tropical and sub-tropical

regions, because it is formed of excessive leaching. But major aluminium producers are in temperate developed countries where electricity is available in abundance and at a low price.

- USA : Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia- Russia : Ural region, Turgay- France : Brignoles (Northeast of Toulon)- India- Guinea- Australia : Weipa, Arnhem Land- Jamaica, Guyana, Surinam, Brazil

* Largest Reserves of Bauxite (2008): (000 tonnes)

1. Guinea 8600,0002. Australia 7900,0003. Vietnam 5400,0004. Jamaica 2500,0005. Brazil 900,000

* Largest Producers of Bauxite (2008): (000 tonnes)

1. Australia 63,0002. China 32,0003. Brazil 25,0004. India 20,0005. Jamaica 15,000

TIN* Tin occurs in veins and lodes in igneous and metamorphic rocks* It has low melting point. It is malleable and ductile and alloys easily. It resists corrosion, is non-

toxic and makes excellent solder.* It main ore is casseterite or tinstone which contains 75% of tin.* Distribution:

- Malaysia : Kinta Valley, Larut Plain, Kelang Valley, Jelebu Valley, KotaTinggi, Jemaluang, Sungei, Lembing.

- Thailand : Kra Peninsula, Phuket Island- China : Yunnan, Southeast China (Tauchin, He Xian) Nanling Shan- Indonesia : Bangka, Billiton, Singkep, Strait of Malacca- Nigeria : Bauchi Plateau, Jos and Zaria- Zaire : Manano, Manioma- Australia : Cornwall- Bolivia : Catavi, Colquiri, Huanui- Brazil, Argentina

*Largest Reserves of Tin : (000 tonnes)1. China 35,0002. Brazil 25,0003. Malaysia 12004. Peru 10005. Bolivia 900

*Largest Producers of Tin (2006): (tonnes)1. Indonesia 117,5002. China 114,3003. Peru 38,4704. Bolivia 17,6695. Thailand 6. Malaysia

* In 2007 China was the largest producer of tin in the world.

ZINC

* Zinc is resistant to corrosion and is used for making various alloys (Brass= Zinc + Copper).* Ores: Zinc Sulphide, Calamine.* It is used for coating iron or steel (galvanization) as a protective sheath for metals.* It is often found with lead, silver and other minerals.

* Distribution:- USA : Missouri, Oklahoma and Kansas, New Jersey, Western

mountain states.- Canada : Sullivan, Mattagami, Kidd Creek- Australia : Broken Hill, Mt. Isa, Tasmania- Peru : Cerro de Pasco- Mexico : Zacatecas, Chihuahua- China

* Largest Producers of Zinc (2009): (tonnes)

1. China 2,875,0002. Peru 1,439,0003. Australia 1,279,0004. United States 735,0005. Canada 695,000

MANGANESE* Ores: Pyrolusite, Psilomelane* It is a ferro-alloy but used for various purposes.* Distribution:

- Ukraine : Nikopol, Tokmak- Georgia : Chiatura- S. Africa : Postmasburg, Kuruman, Kimberley region- India- Brazil : Amapa, Urucum

*Production (2004): (tonnes)

1. China 4,500,0002. S. Africa 4,206,7463. Australia 3,381,0004. Brazil 8,143,000

GOLD* Gold is found both in placers (alluvial) and lodes.* Distribution:

- Canada : Yellow Knife, Red Lake, Kirkland, Timmins- USA : Homestake, Binghan, Carlin, Cortez- Russia : Yakutsk region (Aldan, Indigirka and Kolyma river valleys),

Lake Baikal- S. Africa : Witwatersrand, Odendalrus, Lydenburg- Australia : Kalgoorlie, Coolgardie

* Production (2004): (kilograms)

1. South Africa 837,2992. Australia 259,0003. USA 257,9054. China 212,350

* India is the largest importer as well as consumer of gold.

SILVER* Main Ore : Argentite* Silver Iodide : Cloud Seeding* Silver Nitrate : Antiseptic* Distribution :

- USA : Idaho, Arizona, Utah, Montana- Canada : Timmins, Yukon, Port Radium, Flin Flon- Mexico : Chihuahua- Bolivia : Potosi- Peru : Cerro de Pasco

* Production (2004): (kilograms)1. Peru 3,059,8292. Mexico 2,569,4783. China 2,450,0004. Australia 2,209,000

Diamond Producers : Russia, Botswana, Congo, AustraliaMica Producers : China, USA, S. Korea, CanadaTungsten Producers : China, Russia, Austria, Portugal

IMPORTANT MINES OF THE WORLD

1 Carajas (Brazil) Iron41 Nikopol (Ukraine) Manganese

2 Itabira (Brazil) Iron42 Chiatura (Georgia) Manganese

3 Minas Gerais (Brazil) Iron

43 Witwatersrand (S. Africa) Gold

4 Mesabi Range (USA) Iron44 Kalgoorlie (Australia) Gold

5 Vermilion (USA) Iron45 Coolgardie (Australia) Gold

6 Birmingham (USA) Iron46 Pennsylvania (USA) Coal

7 Adirondacks (USA) Iron47 Donbas (Ukraine) Coal

8 Schefferville (Canada) Iron48 Kuzbas (Russia) Coal

9 Wabush (Canada) Iron49 Karaganda (Kazakhstan) Coal

10 Kuznetsk (Russia) Iron50 Shaanxi (China) Coal

11 Kursk (Russia) Iron51 Shanxi (China) Coal

12 Magnitogorsk (Russia) Iron52 Wankie (Zimbabwe) Coal

13 Krivoi Rog (Ukraine) Iron53 Gippsland (Australia) Coal

14 Kiruna (Sweden) Iron54 Cali (Colombia) Coal

15 Gallivare (Sweden) Iron55 Baku (Azerbaijan) Petroleum

16 Bilbao (Spain) Iron56 Sakhalin (Russia) Petroleum

17 Santander (Spain) Iron57 Dharan (Saudi Arabia) Petroleum

18 Oviedo (Spain) Iron58 Ghawar (Saudi Arabia) Petroleum

19 Shenyang (China) Iron59 Kirkuk (Iraq) Petroleum

20 Anshan (China) Iron60 Mosul (Iraq) Petroleum

21 Pilbara (Australia) Iron61 Burgan (Kuwait) Petroleum

22 Mt. Goldsworthy (Australia) Iron 6 Palembang (Indonesia) Petroleum

2

23 Mt. Tomp Price (Australia) Iron63 Kalimantan (Indonesia) Petroleum

24 Bingham (USA) Copper64

Maracaibo Lake (Venezuela) Petroleum

25 Butte (USA) Copper65 Orinico Basin (Venezuela) Petroleum

26 Sudbury (Canada) Copper66 Uranium City (Canada) Uranium

27 Flin Flon (Canada) Copper67 Port Radium (Canada) Uranium

28 Katanga (Zaire) Copper68

Ruhr-Westphalia (Germany) Coal

29 Nechanga (Zambia) Copper69 Saar (Germany) Coal

30 Chuquicamata (Chile) Copper 70 Kimberley (S.Africa) Diamond

31 Cerro De Pasco (Peru) Copper71 Shan Plateau (Myanmar) Tin

32 Weipa (Australia) Bauxite72 Potosi (Bolivia) Silver

33 Kinta Valley (Malaysia) Tin73 Port Darwin (Austalia) UIranium

34 Kelang Valley (Malaysia) Tin35 Kra Peninsula (Thailand) Tin36 Bangka (Indonesia) Tin37 Sullivan (Canada) Zinc38 Broken Hill (Australia) Zinc,Lead39 Mt. Isa (Australia) Zinc,Lead40 Chihuahua (Mexico) Zinc

ORES OF MINERALS1 Aluminium Bauxite 7 Lead Galena2 Chromium Chromite 8 Copper Chalcopyrite,

Chalcocite3 Uranium Uraninite

(Pitchblende)

9 Manganese Pyrolusite

4 Tungsten Wolfram 10 Nickel Pentlandite5 Silver Argentite 11 Tin Casseterite6 Mercury Cinnabar 12 Titanium Illmenite

INDUSTRIAL REGIONS

EUROPE* United Kingdom:

● Birmingham – Steel● Coventry – Automobile● Derby – Textile, Engineering ● Nottingham – Hosiery, Pharmaceuticals● Burton – on – Trent – Brewery● Stoke – on – Trent – Pottery● New Castle – Shipbuilding

● Leeds – Garments● Sheffield – Cutlery ● Manchester – Textiles ● Glasgow – Iron and Steel, Shipbuilding● Belfast – Ship Building, Liner

* France:● Lille – Textiles● Lorraine – Iron and Steel● Lyons – Silk Textiles● Marseilles – Oil Refineries

* Germany:● Essen – Iron and Steel● Dartmound – Iron and Steel● Frankfurt – Engineering, Railway, Automobiles● Mainz – Leather, Brewing● Hamburg – Shipbuilding, Marine Engineering● Munich – Beer, Musical Equipments, Photographic Equipments● Stuttgart – Automobiles, Optical and Surgical Components ● Leipzig – Optical Instruments ● Dresden – China Clay and Porcelain

* Belgium:● Liege – Iron and Steel● Antwerp – Diamond Cutting

* Poland:● Lodz – Manchester of Poland (Cotton Textiles)

* Netherlands:● Rotterdam – Marine Engineering, shipbuilding, Oil Refinery● Amsterdam – Diamond cutting● Arnhem – Tin Smelting

* Sweden:● Eskilstona – Sheffield of Sweden (Pottery)

* Italy:● Milan – Manchester of Italy (Textiles)● Turin – Detroit of Italy (Automobiles), Rail, Aircrafts ● Genoa – Shipbuilding● Vance – Traditional Crafts

● Naples – Wine, Food ProcessingNORTH AMERICA* USA:

● Boston – Cotton Textiles, Shipbuilding ● Philadelphia – Shipbuilding, Engineering ● Pitts Burgh – Iron and Steel Capital of the World● Akron – World’s largest synthetic rubber manufacturing

● Buffalo – Flour Mills ● Detroit – Automobiles ● Chicago – Iron and Steel, Meat Packing, Grain Milling

● Gary – Iron and Steel ● Birmingham – Cotton Textiles, Iron and Steel● Dallas – Fashion, consumer refinery● St. Louis – Meat Packing, Flour – Milling● Kansas City – Similar to St. Louis, Aircraft, Oil Refinery● Los Angeles – Food Processing, Film (Hollywood), Oil Refinery● Seattle – Aircraft

* Canada:● Toronto – Engineering, Automobiles, Chemicals● Hamilton – Birmingham of Canada (Steel)● Windsor – Automobiles, Tyre● Montreal – Shipbuilding, Oil Refinery, Paper and Pulp● Edmonton – Oil and Natural Gas, Potash, Coal

* CIS:● Gorki, Tula – Steel, Heavy Engineering, Railway, Aircraft● Ivanovo – Manchester of CIS (Cotton Textiles)● Magnitogorsk – Iron and Steel, Heavy Engineering● St. Petersburg – Shipbuilding● Vladivostok – Shipbuilding

ASIA* Japan:

● Tokyo – Electrical Engineering● Yokohama – Engineering, Shipbuilding● Kawasaki – Marine Engineering, Cement, Glass● Osaka – Manchester of Japan (Cotton Textiles)● Kobe – Shipbuilding, Petrochemical and Refinery● Kyoto – Traditional Craft, Porcelain● Nagoya – Detroit of Japan (Automobiles)

* China:● Anshan – Fushun – Shenyang (Mukden Triangle) – Iron and Steel, Automobile● Paotow – Iron and Steel● Taiyuan – Iron and Steel● Shanghai – Cotton Textiles, Steel, Oil Refineries

* South Korea:● Pohang : Iron and Steel

AUSTRALIA● New Castle – Iron and Steel, Shipbuilding ● Adelaide – Agricultural Industries● Brisbane – Locomotives

SOUTH AMERICA* Brazil:

● Sao Paulo – Steel, Automobiles● Rio de Janerio – Ship Building, Aircraft● Belo Horizonte – Metallurgy

TRANSPORT

ROAD TRANSPORT* For medium and short distance travelling roads are the most convenient mediums. They can

reach door to door.* Generally the developed countries have greater length of roads and the quality of rocks are far

better than that of the developing countries.* Names of National Highways in Different Countries:

1. Autoroutes – Trance2. Autobahn – Germany3. Autotrades – Italy4. Motorways – England5. Commonwealth Highways – Australia 6. National Highways – India

* Important Roads in the World:● Alaskan Highway : Connects Anchorage (Alaska, USA) to Edmonton (Canada) ● Trans-Canadian Highway: Connects St. John (Newfoundland, Canada) to Vancouver (British Columbia, Canada)● Stuart Highway: Connect Birdum (Northern Australia) to Melboune.● Trans-Continental Highway: Connects Cairo (Egypt) to Cape Town(South Africa)● Pan-America Highway: It will connect North America, Central America and South

America.

RAILWAYS* Railways are very important for long distance transport. It can carry larger amount of freight in

shorter span of time than the roads. It also requires less cost in operation.* Important Railways in the World:● Canadian Pacific Railway: Connects St John’s (New Brunswick, Canada) with Vancouver. Canadian National Railway : Connects Halifax(Nova Scotia) to Vancouver● Trans-Andean Railway: Connects Valparaiso (Chile) with Buenos Aires (Argentina) through

the Uspalata Pass. ● Mid Trans-Continental Railway: Connects San Francisco with New York.● Southern Trans-Continental Railway: Connects Los Angeles with New York and New

Orleans.● Cape-Cairo Trans-Continental Railway: From Cape Town to Cairo.● Benguela Railway: Benguela (Angola) to Kontanga Province (DR of Congo)● Tanzara Railway: Katanga Province to Dar-es-Salaam (Tanzania)● Orient Express Railway: Paris to Istanbul (Turkey)● Tokaido-Express: Osaka to Tokyo● Trans-Siberian Railway: 9232 km (longest railway of the world) connects St. Petersburg

with Vladivostok.● Trans-Asian Railway (TAR): 30,000 km long

– 28 countries of Asia– Specially beneficial for landlocked Asian countries

* Undersea Railway Tannels:1. Seikon Tunnel:– Tsugaru Strait, Japan – 53.85 km long (23.3 km under sea)– Connects Aomori Prefecture (Honshu Island) with the Hokkaido Island– Channel Tunnel has longer portion under the sea2. Channel Tunnel:– Strait of Dover – 50.45 km long (37.9 km under the sea)– Link Calais with Folkestone, Kent near Dover– It carries high speed Eurostar (Passenger train) and Eurotunnel shuttle roll on/roll off

vehicle transport-the largest in the world.* Busiest Airports of the World (2010): Number of Passenger Traffic

(1)Atlanta, (2) Beijing, (3) Chicago, (4) London, (5) Tokyo, (6) Paris, (7)Los Angeles, (8) Dallas, (9) Frankfurt, (10) Denver

WATER TRANSPORTOcean Transport:

* Principal Ocean Routes:1. The North Atlantic Route (Busiest)

2. The Suez Canal Route3. The Panama Canal Route4. The Cape of Good Route5. The South Atlantic Route6. The Pacific Route.

* Eentreport Ports: A specialised port-of-call that serves as a collecting centre. In fact, it acts as mediator between countries. It has large godowns and warehouses.

* Examples: Singapore, Rotterdam, Copenhagen.* Port of Call: In this type of ports ships stop for fuelling and water.

– Examples – Aden, Honolulu, Singapore.* Outport: A type of port-of-call designed to save a ship from a slow and perhaps costly voyage

up in the estuary. For example, Haldia works as outport of Kolkata Port.* World’s Busiest Container Seaports (2009):

(1)Singapore (4) Shenzhen(2)Shanghai (5) Busan(3)Hong Kong (6) Guangzhou

MAJOR CANALS OF THE WORLD* Suez Canal: Constructed in 1869.

– Runs from Port Said (Mediterranean Sea) to Port Suez (Red Sea)– 161 km long– Lakes: Manzala, Timsa, Great Bitter, Little Bitter – Ports: Port Faud, Port Taufique, Ismalia

* Panama Canal: – From Colon (Atlantic Ocean) to Panama (Pacific Ocean)– 80 km long– Wider and deeper than the Suez Canal.– It has brought the two sides of Americas closer.

* Soo Canal: Joins the Superior Lake with the Huron Lake.* Welland Canal: Connects the Lake Erie with the Lake Ontario.* Erie Canal: Connects the Lake Erie with the Lake Huron.* Kiel Canal: It connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea.* Stalin or White-Baltic Canal: Joins the Baltic Sea with the Arctic Ocean.* Rhine-Maine-Danube Canal: Connects the Baltic Sea with the Black Sea.* Volga Canal: It connects the Moscow region with the Caspian Sea.* St. Lawrence Waterway: It connects the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean.

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

RACES*Race is a term used for a large group of people with some basic inherited physical characteristics in common, e.g. , skin colour, hair, facial features, head shape, etc. But in the modern time due to complex racial mixing, it is very difficult to differentiate people of different races.

*Mankind has been divided into three main races- Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid.

Racial Characteristics Caucasoid Negroid Mongoloid

Skin ColourLight reddish white to

olive brownBrown to brown-black

Some are yellow-Light yellow to yellow

brown. Some are

brown reddish-brown.Eye Colour Light blue to dark

brownBrown to brown-black Brown to dark brown

Body Hair: Quantity Moderate to profuse Slight Sparsely distributed

Head Hair/ColourStraight to wavy in

form. Fine to medium in texture. Light blond to dark brown in colour

Brown-black in colour. Curly to frizzy or

woolly in form. Coarse in texture.

Brown to brown-black in colour. Coarse in texture. Straight in

form.

Head FormDolichocephalic to

brachycephalicPredominantly

dolichocephalic. Predominantly brachycephalic

Body Height Medium to very high Low to medium Medium

FaceNarrow to medium

broadMedium broad to narrow. Strong Prognathism

Medium broad to very broad. Cheekbones are

high and flat.

NoseLeptorrhine to

mesorrhine usually bridge is high

Platyrrhine. Usuallybridge is low.

Mesorrhine to platyrrhine. Usually

bridge is low to medium.

Stature Medium to tall Very short to tall Medium tall to medium short

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES RELATED WITH RACIAL GROUPS

*Melanoderms : Found in black-skinned people, represented by Negroids.*Leucoderms : Found in white-skinned people, mostly in European, Western, Asiatics, North

Africans, Polynesians, Hamites and Indo-Dravidians.*Xanthoderms : Found in yellow-skinned people, mostly in Asiatic Mongoloids. Amerindians, Bushmen and Hottentots also show some yellowish skin colour.*Ulotrichus : Having woolly forms of hair found in Negroids.*Leiotrichous : A smooth hair form found in Mongoloids.*Cymotrichus : Wave-like hairs found in people of western Asia, northeastern Africa, Europe. etc.*Prognathism : Protrusion of jaw, found in Negroids and Australoids*Orthognathism: The absence of Prognathism*Epicanthic Fold : Hanging skin hangs over the eye in Mongoloids

*Nasal Index =

Breadth of NoseLength of Nose ¿ 100

*Leptorrhine : Narrow nose (Nasal Index : 55-69.9)*Mesorrhine : Medium nose (Nasal Index : 70-84.9)*Platyrrhine : Broad nose (Nasal Index : 85-99.9)*Cephalic Index = Breadth of Head/ Length of Head ¿ 100

*Dolicocephalic : Narrow head (Cephalic Index : 70-75.9)*Brachycephalic : Short and broad head (Cephalic Index : 81-85.5)*Mesocephalic : Medium head (Cephalic Index : 75.9-81)*Steatophygia : Presence of lot of fat in the buttocks of women generally found in

Hottentots,less found in Bushmen and sometimes in African Pygmies or Negrillos.

DISTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY RACES

I.CAUCASOID : Generally found in Europe, North Africa , Asia.

*Sub-Races:1. Mediterranean:- Originally found around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea but now they have migrated in all directions.

(a) Classic Mediterranean: - Found in the Mediterranean shores

1. Egyptians2. Berbers - Morocco and Arabia3. Jewish,Palestinians

(b) Atlanto-Mediterranean: - Present is N. Africa, Iraq, parts of Arabia, eastern Balkan countries.(c) Indo- Afghan: - Found in Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, North-West India and Pakistan.(d) Nordic: - Commonly found in the Baltic region and north-western Europe. (e) Alpine: Central Europe(f) East Baltic: - Found in North-eastern Germany, Poland, Baltic States, Russia and Finland.(g) Ketlic: - Ice Land, Scotland and Wales(h) Lapp: - Northern Scandinavia (Sweden, Northern Finland, Norway) Northwest Russia. - Sometimes they are classified as Mongoloids but they are more of Caucasoid.(i) Indo- Dravidian: - Central and South India(j) Polynesian: - Polynesian Islands- Hawaii, New Zealand etc - Essentially Caucasoid but have mixed with Mongoloids and Negroids.(k) Ainu: - Northern Japan, Sakhalin, Yezo - Mainly Caucasoid but mixed up with Mongoloids(l) Armenoid: - Turkey, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Palestine and Balkan Countries(m) Dinaric: - Dinaric Alps region (Serbia, Albania)

* Some Other Important Sub-races:(a) Pyrenian(b) Prospectators(c) Eurasiatic(d) Hamite(e) Half-Hamite - Masai (Northeast Africa)(f) Semite - Bedouins

II. NEGROIDS: Found in Africa, Asia, Oceania

*Sub-Races:(a) African Negroes: - West Africa, Guinea Coast(b) Nilotic Negroes:

- Upper Nile Valley, Eastern Sudan- Shiluk, Dinka and Kavirondo are some representatives.(c) Bantu:- Central and southern Africa(d) Bushmen-Hottentots :- Bushmen (Khuai/San) are mainly found in the Kalahari Desert and Hottentots (Khoi Khoi) are found in southwest Africa. - Steatopygia is more pronounced in Hottentot women than in Bushmen women(e) Negrilo (Pygmy):- Equatorial forests of Congo and DR. of Congo

2. Oceanic Negroes: Negritos:- Andamanese, Semang (Malaysia), Aeta (Philippines), Papua(Papua and New Guinea) and Melanesians

IMPORTANT SUB-RACES AND TRIBALS OF THE WORLD

Tribe/Sub-Race Region

1. Aborigines Australia2. Aeta Philippines3. Ainu Japan4. Aleuts Alaska5. Alpines Central Europe6. Amerindian Americas 7. Bantu Central Africa8. Bedawines Arabia, Syria, Palestine9. Berbers Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia10. Bindibus West Australia11. Black Fellow Australia12. Bora Amazon Basin(Brazil)13. Bushmen Kalahari Desert (Botswana)14. Chukchi Chukchi Peninsula (Russia)15. Dayak Borneo Island (Indonesia)

16. Eskimo (Inuit) N.Canada, Alaska, Greenland, E.Siberia

17. Fellah Nile Valley (Egypt)18. Fulani Nigeria19. Hamites Ethiopia, N E Africa, Arabia20. Han China21. Hausa Nigeria22. Hottentots S-W. Africa23. Inca Kulko Valley (Peru)24. Jacunda Brazil25. Kafir S. African temperate lands26. Keltic Iceland, Scotland, Wales27. Kikuyu Kenya28. Kirghiz Steppes, Central Asia29. Kubu Sumatra (Indonesia)30. Kurd W. Asia31. Lapp Northern Scandinavia

32. Maori New Zealand33. Masai Kenya, Tanzania34. Nordic Baltic region, N-W Europe35. Paitus Great Basin (USA)36. Samoyed Taymir Peninsula (Russia)37. Sakai Malaysia38. Shan Mynamar39. Chin, Kachin Myanmar40. Swahili Zanzibar41. Tartars Siberia (Russia)42. Tungus E Siberia(Russia)43. Vedda Sri Lanka (Smallest Heads)44. Xinca S. Africa (Zulu People)45. Yuits Siberia, St. Lawrence Island46. Yuruk Anatolia Plateau (Turkey)47. Zulu Cape Province, S. Africa

LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD*Official Languages of the UN :

1. English2. French3. Russian4. Spanish5. Arabic6. Mandarin(Chinese)

*Languages with the Largest Number of Speakers :

Language No. of Speakers (in million)

1. Mandarin 1,0002. English 5083. Hindi 4974. Spanish 3925. Russian 2776. Arabic 2407. Bengali 2118. Portuguese 1919. Malay-Indonesian 15910. French 129

RELIGIONS*Largest Religions: Religion Number of Followers (in million)

1. Christianity 2000-22002. Islam 1570-16503. Hinduism 829-10004. Buddhism 400-15005. Folk Religion 600

6. Shintoism 27-657. Sikhism 24-288. Judaism 14-189. Jainism 6-1210. Bahai Faith 7.6-7.9

DEMOGRAPHY Density:

Types of Density:

1. Crude Density or Arithmetic Density : Total number of people divided by the total land.

2. Nutritional/Physiological Density :

Total PopulationTotalCultivated Area

3. Agricultural Density :

Agricultural PopulationCultivated Area

4. Economic Density :

Total PopulationTotalResources Made Available

5. Room Density : Average number of people per room.

*Ecumene: Inhabited areas of the world. About 60% land area of the world is considered to be under the ecumene.

*Population Density Pattern of the World:

1. Areas of Very Dense Population(>100 persons/km2):- East Asia- South-east Asia- North-western Europe- Eastern Anglo-America

2. Areas of Medium Dense Population(50-100 persons/km2):- Central and Eastern Europe- European Russia- South-eastern Australia- Coastal lowlands of S. America and South Africa

3. Areas of Low Population Density (50 persons/km2):- Hot deserts- Cold deserts- Hot wet regions

*Non-ecumene Regions:- Extremely cold regions (Antarctica, Greenland)- Dry desert region (Hot deserts)- High mountains (Himalayas, Andes, Rockies etc)- Extremely hot and humid regions

*Population of the Continents (2004):

Continent Population (in million)1. Asia 3,8752. Africa 8853. Europe 7284. S. America 3655. N. America 4726. Oceania 33

*Top Ten Most Populated Countries:1. China2. India3. USA4. Indonesia5. Brazil6. Pakistan7. Russia8. Bangladesh9. Japan10. Nigeria

*Population Density of the Continents (2004):1. Asia - 1222. Europe - 323. Africa - 294. Latin America - 275. North America - 166. Oceania - 4 World - 48

*Top 5 Countries with Most Population Density:1. Monaco – 34,0002. Macao – 21,192 3. Singapore – 70134. Hong Kong – 63605. Malta – 1304

COMPONENTS OF POPULATION GROWTH

*There are three basic components of population growth- fertility, mortality and migration.*Fecundity means reproductive capacity of women during their entire productive period, whereas the ertility is the actual occurrence of birth.*Various Measures of Fertility:

1. Crude Birth Rate (CBR) :

Live Births in a yearPopulation (mid year ) ¿ 1000

2. Fertility Ratio/Child Women Ratio :Po-4Pf 15-49 ¿ 100

- It means children below five years of age per thousand females of reproductive age group.

3. General Fertility Ratio (GFR) :

No . of live birth (year )Total Population of women in reproductive age ¿ 100

4. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) : Average no. of children that would be born to a women over her lifetime.

*Various Measures of Mortality :

1. Crude Date Rate (CDR) :

Death (year )Population (mid year ) ¿ 1000

2. Age Specific Death Rate :

No . of deaths of specific age and sextotal population of specific age and sex 1000

3. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) :

No . of deaths of children under one year No . of live births

4. Child Mortality Rate (CMR) : It refers to the death of infant and children under the age of five.

5. Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) : It is the ratio of the number of maternal death per 100,000 live births.

*Crude Birth Rate of the Continents (2004): (per thousand)1. Africa - 382. Latin America - 223. Asia - 204. Oceania - 175. N. America - 146. Europe - 10

World - 21

*Crude Death Rate (2004) : (per thousand) 1. Africa - 142. Europe - 123. North & C. America - 8 & 54. Asia - 75. Oceania - 76. S. America - 6

*Population Growth Rate (2004): 1. Africa - 2.42. Central America - 2.13. S. America - 1.54. Asia - 1.35. Oceania - 1.06. N. America - 0.57. Europe - -0.2

World - 1.3

MIGRATION

*A true form of migration is the permanent shifts of residence for substantial duration. It can be seasonal, temporary, permanent etc.*Determination of Migration:

1. Social2. Economic

3. Political4. Demographic5. Natural disaster etc

*All the factors can be grouped in to pull factors and push factors.*Types of Migration:

1. On the Basis of Time - Short term and long term

- Permanent and temporary - Periodic and seasonal - Daily

2. On the Basis of Area of Migration:(a) Internal Migration

- Rural to Urban- Urban to Rural- Rural to Rural- Urban to Urban

(b) External Migration:- Intercontinental- Transoceanic

3. On the Basis of Social Organisation:- Individual- Family- Clan

4. On the Basis Of Distance:- Long distance- Short distance

*The process of people going away from a country is called emigration or outmigration, whereas the process of people coming inside a country is called immigration.

AGE STRUCTURE *It is an expression of the number of people in different age groups.*Age group is broadly divided into 3 categories:

1. Young (under 14)2. Adult (15-59)3. Aged (60 and above)

*Generally the developing countries have higher number of people in young and adult age groups while the developed countries have more number of people in the old age group.

SEX RATIO

*Ratio between the number of males and the number of females in a particular group.*Types of Sex Ratio:

1. Primary Sex Ratio - At the time of conception2. Secondary Sex Ratio - At the time of birth3. Tertiary Sex Ratio - At the time of enumeration

*Sex Ratio of the Continents:1. Europe - 10512. N. America - 10503. Africa - 10174. Latin America - 9955. Oceania - 983

6. Asia - 960 World - 993

AGE AND SEX PYRAMID/POPULATION PYRAMID

*It is a composite structure showing both age groups and sex categorization.*Vertical axis represents age structure of a population with a regular interval.*Horizontal axis of the pyramid is divided in to two halves and the right side represents females and the left side represents males.

*Types of Population Pyramid:1. Progressive Pyramid: Very broad base but fast tapering upward. Developing

countries have such pyramid.2. Regressive Pyramid: Narrow base with equally wide subsequent age groups tapering

off gradually. This type of population pyramid is generally found in the West European countries. 3. Stationary Pyramid : Regularly tapering upward In Japan such pyramid is found.4. Intermediate Pyramid: This structure is posterior of the progressive pyramid and is moving

towards the regressive pyramid. The USA has this kind of pyramid.

URBANISATION*Pattern of Urbanisation in the World (2004):

(%)1. South America 792. North America 793. Europe 744. Oceania 725. Central America 686. Asia 397. Africa 35

World 48

SOME FACTS REGARDING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

*11 July is celebrated as the World Population Day because the world’s population reached the 5 billion mark on 11 July, 1987.*The population of the world touched the 6 billion mark on 12 October 1999.*About 75.5% of the world humanity lives in the less developed countries.*Only Asia accounts for 58.2% population of the world.*More than 90% of the world’s population live in the Northern Hemisphere.*The oriental world accounts for about 86% of the world’s population.*The three southern continents accounts for about 19% of the world’s population.*Two-third population of the world lives within 500 kms from the sea coast, whereas the three-fourth population of the world live within 1000 km from the coast.*56% of the world’s population live in areas less than 200m of altitude.

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD

ASIA

Location* Asia is the largest continent. It occupies about 30% of the land surface of the Earth.* Except some islands of Indonesia it is entirely located in the Northern Hemisphere.* The three important latitudes-the Equator, the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle pass through it.* It extends from the 100S latitude up to 800N latitude and from 250E to beyond 1800 meridian

(1650 longitudinal difference)

Boundaries* North America : Bering Strait* Europe : Ural Mt, Ural River, Caspian, Sea, Caucasus Mt., Black Sea,

Bosporus Strait, Sea of Marmara, Strait of Dardanelles.* Africa : Suez Canal, Red Sea, Strait of Bab-al-Mandeb, Gulf of Aden.* Surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.

Land Locked Countries : * Mongolia, Nepal, Bhutan, Laos, Tajikistan, Kyrghizstan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan,

Turkmenistan. (10 countries).* Kazakhstan is the largest of the above ten countries.

Why is Asia So Big?* Area - 44,579,000 km2 (30%)* Population - 8879000000 (58.2%)* Pop. Density - 122/km2

* Countries - 48* Highest Point - Mt. Everest (8858m)* Lowest Point - Dead Sea (392 m below sea level)

Seas/Gulf/Boys* Chukchi Sea, Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Gulf of Bo Hai, Yellow Sea, East China

Sea, South China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, Banda Sea, Java Sea, Andaman Sea, Gulf of Thailand, Gulf of Martaban, Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Marmara, Black Sea, Kara Sea, Laptov Sea, East Siberian Sea.

Peninsulas* Arabian Peninsula (Largest peninsula of the world), Indian Peninsula, Malay Peninsula, Indo-

China Peninsula, Korea Peninsula, Kainchatka Peninsula, Taymyr Peninsula, Gyda Peninsula, Yamal Peninsula.

Important Islands* Aleutian Islands, Kurile Islands, Sakhalin, Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Tsushima,

Taiwan, Luzon, Palawan, Cebu, Mindanao, Hainan, Borneo, New Guinea, Moluccas (Spice Islands), Bali, Java, Sumatra, Andaman and Nicobar, Sri Lanka, Lakshadweep, Maldives, Socotra, Severnaya Zemlya, New Siberian Islands, Wrangel.

Physical Regions1. Eastern and Southern Islands:

* So many islands are found the between the Bering Sea and the Indian Ocean.* The islands are mainly formed because of the convergence of the Eurasian and the

Pacific plates.* The islands are parts of ‘the Pacific Ring of Fire’ and have many active volcanoes.

2. Southern Plateaus : There are three major Plateaus- Arabian Plateau, Indian Plateau and the Indo-China Plateau.* These are made up of hard metamorphic rocks. The Arabian Plateau is desertic, while theother two are old dissected plateaus formed of erosion.

3. Central Mountains: The middle part of Asia is covered with the largest young fold mountains and highest plateaus of the world.

*The mountains form two knots- Pamir Knot and Armenian Knot. * From the Pamir Knot, the Himalayas, Karakoram, Kunlun Tian Shan, Alai Shan, Hindu Kush and the Suleiman mountains radiate in all directions. * Tibet Plateau – the roof the world - Lies between the Himalayas and the Kunlun Mountain, whereas the Tarim Basin lies between the Kunlun Mountains and the Tian Shan. * Gobi Desert lies east of the Tarim Basin.

* From the Armerian Knot, the Pontic, Taurus, Zagros and the Elburz mountains radiate.* The Anatolia Plateau lies between the Pontic and the Taurus Mountains, whereas the Iranian Plateau lies the Pontic and the Taurus mountains.* The land occupied by Turkey in Asia is called Asia Minor. In fact, it is a large peninsula.

4. Northern Lowlands : * This lies to the north of the central mountains up to the Arctic Ocean. Most of its land is covered by Siberia.* It is triangular in shape and surrounded by mountains and seas.* It is drained by big river like the Ob,Yenisey and Lena.* The Central Asia is mainly drained by the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya.* Siberia is often snow-covered.

5. River Valleys : The rivers of Asia have formed big alluvial plains and deltas. These river valley are known for their fertile lands and have been the cradles of many civilizations.

* These valleys are the densest regions of the world. * The river valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Si Kiang,

Yangtze, Amur etc are known their heavy population concentration.

LakesMajor Lakes of Asia:1. Caspian Sea - The largest lake of world.2. Aral Sea - Located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan3. Balkash Lake - Located in Kazakhstan

Drained by the Ili Rivers4. Baikal Lake - Deepest (1741 m) and oldest lake of the world.

- Second most voluminous lake after the Caspian Sea

- It contains 20% of the world’s surface freshwater.

5. Lake Lop Nur - Located in the Tarim Basin in China

- Nuclear test site of China.6. Dead Sea - Deepest point on the earth’s land surface (420 m

below sea level)7. Tonle Sap - Located in Cambodia is the largest freshwater

lake of the Southeast Asia.- It drains into the Mekong River- It has been designated as a biosphere reserve by

the UNESCO8. Lake Biwa - Largest freshwater lake of Japan, located in the

Honshu Island near Kyoto.- It is tectonic lake.

9. Lake Toba - It is the largest volcanic lake in the world, located in the northern part of the Sumatra Island (Indonesia)

Asian Deserts* Gobi - Mongolia, China* Taklamakan - China* Ordos - China* Kara Kum - Central Asia* Kyzyl Kum - Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan* Thar-Cholistan - India-Pakistan* Dasht-e-Lut - Iran* Dasht-e-Kavir - Iran* Negev Desert - Israel* Syrian Desert - Syria, Iraq* Al Nafud - Saudi Arabia* Rub al Khali - Saudi Arabia

Drainage System* Most of the rivers of Asia have their origin in the central mountains. For convenience of study they can be divided into following drainage system :1. Indian Ocean - Tigris

- Euphrates- Indus- Ganga- Brahmaputra- Irrawaddy- Salween

2. Pacific Ocean - Amur- Yalu- Huang Ho- Yangtze- Si Kiang- Red- Mekong- Menam /Chao Phraya

3. Arctic Ocean - Yenisey- Len- Indigirka- Kolyma

4. Island Drainage - Syr Darya- Amu Darya

- Helmand- Jordan- Tarim

* Longest Rivers of Asia: (1) Yangtze (2) Yenisey-Angara (3) Huang Ho (4) Ob-Irtysh (5) Amur

* Important Facts about the Asian Rivers:* Ob forms the longest estuary of the world.* Yenisey is the greatest river system flowing to the Arctic Ocean.* Angara is the only river that flows out of the Baikal Lake. * Amur forms boundary between Russia and China* Huang He is known as “the Sorrow of China’ because it caused lot of disastrous floods.* Yangtze: Divides China into north and south regions.* Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River is the largest hydro-electricity station in the world (Capacity- 22,500 MW). * The reddish brown heavily silt laden water gives Red River its name.* Mekong is the largest river of the South-East Asia.* Jordan River links the Sea of Galilee with the Dead Sea.

Climate* Factors Affecting the Climate of Asia:

- Latitudinal extent- Distance from the sea- Altitude and direction of mountain ranges- Prevailing winds- Ocean currents

* Summer Season: Because of lot of heating the central part of Asia becomes very hot and a low pressure is developed there.

- The moisture-laden winds from the oceanic region start flowing towards the interior region.- These winds are called “Summer Monsoon’. The monsoon is especially effective in the South Asia, South-East Asia and East Asia.- The extreme interior parts of the continents generally get low rain because of the

continentality effects and some topographic barriers when the winds reach there they have very less moisture to give rain.

* Winter Season: After the shifting of the sun into the southern hemisphere the northern part of Asia comes sunder the grip if extreme cold.

- The high pressure develop over here and the cold winds start blowing towards surroundin sea.

- The coastal regions which come in the way of these cold winds get rain in the winter if the winds have accumulated sufficient moisture.

- The coastal regions around the Mediterranean Sea get winter rains. The western disturbances also reach up to India and give rain and snowfall.

* Climatic Regions of Asia: – Monsoon Regions – South Asia, South-East Asia– Equatorial Regions – South-East Asia– Temperate Region – East Asia– Steppe Region – Central Asia– Mediterranean Region – W. Asia– Desert Region – W. Asia, Central Asia– Taiga Region – Southern Siberia– Tundra Region – Northern Siberia

Natural Vegetation

1. Equatorial Rainforests: Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei.- Tree Species - Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood, Palms

2. Tropical Monsoonal Forests: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Southern China. - Trees are deciduous and shed their leaves to conserve water. 3. Temperate Forests : North and central China, South Japan, South Korea.

- Broad leaved deciduous trees are found.- Tree Species: Bamboo, Camphor, Oak, Mulberry, Camellia.

4. Mediterranean Forests: Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel- Tree Species: Cedar, Citrus Fruits, Olive, Almond, Oak.

5. Deserts: W. Asia, Central Asia, Western India, North-Western China- Only cactus, shrubs and thorny bushes grow.- Date Palms grow in oasis regions.

6. Steppes: These are found in Central Asia between deserts and Taiga regions.- These are known for short and softer grasses. Most of the steppe regions have

been converted in to farmlands.7. Taiga Forests : These are found in the Siberian regions, to the north of the steppes.

- Coniferous trees are found in gregarious form.- Tree Species : Spruce, Fir, Cedar, Larch and Pine.

NORTH AMERICA* North America is the third largest continent after Asia and Africa.* Extent : North- South - 7oN to 85oN

East - West - 20oW to 179oW * Countries : Canada, USA, Mexico* 100oW longitude divides North America into almost two equal parts.* The Bering Strait separates it from Asia.* The Isthmus of Panama links it with South America.

Physical Regions1. The Western Cordilleras:

- They extend from Alaska up to Mexico.- They are mostly young fold mountains formed because of the convergence of the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate.- They come under the Pacific Ring of Fire.- They work as climatic barriers and are snow-covered.- In their upper reaches coniferous trees are found.- Mt. McKinley located in the Alaska Range is the highest peak of North America.

2. The Central Lowlands: Extended from the Arctic Ocean up to the Gulf of Mexico between the Rockies and the Appalachian Mountains.

* The western part is known as the High Plains because of higher altitudes. * The Northern part is shield structure called the Canadian Shield.

* The Northern part has so many glacial lakes formed during the last glacial age (Pleistocene Epoch).

* The southern part of this lowland has covers of sediments deposited by glaciers and rivers. These plains are highly fertile and produce good yield of crops.

3. The Eastern Highlands:- These are old mountains, extends from the Gulf of St. Lawrence up to southern USA.- They are not higher as the Western Cordilleras and are also not continuous.

Some Physical Facts

* Grand Canyon is located on the Colorado River between Lake Mead and Lake Powell* Old Faithful Geyser is located in the Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming (USA)* Death Valley is the lowest point (-86m) of North America. It is located in the Southwest corner of the USA.

Drainage Pattern* The rivers of North America flow into 4 major water bodies – the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic

Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico.* Pacific Ocean:

– Yukon– Fraser– Columbia-Snake– Sacramento– Colorado

* Gulf of Mexico:– Rio Grande– Mississippi-Missouri

* Atlantic Ocean:– St. Lawrence – Hudson– Potomac– Delaware

* Arctic Ocean:– Nelson (Hudson Bay)– Mackenzie

* Important Facts About the Rivers:– The Colorado River forms the Grand Canyon.– The rivers originating in the eastern part of the Appalachian Mountains form the Fall

Line after the piedmont where they suddenly fall. – The Mississippi forms the bird food delta in the Gulf of Mexico.

– The Mississippi – Missouri system forms the largest river system of North America.* Tennessee: Valley Authority (TVA) inspired the Damodar Valley Authority (DVA) of

India.* Dams of Colorado: Hoover, Bolder, Parker, Davis* Dams of Columbia: Coulee, Bonneville, Chief Joseph.* The Hudson River is called as American Rhine for its beauty.* The Great Basin region forms inland drainage system.

Climate* Factors affecting the climate of North America

(1) Topography(2) Latitudinal extent(3) Distance from to sea(4) Ocean currents

* Natural Regions:1. Arctic or Tundra Region:- Regions: Coastal areas around the Arctic Ocean.- Climatic Features :- Temperature – Mean monthly temperature always less than 10oC.- The duration of the summer is 3 months, while the winter is 9 months longer.- The Midnight Sun can be seen in the north.- The rainfall takes place mostly in the form of snowfall.2. Cold Continental Region:

- South of Tundra mainly in Canada- The coldest temperature can go up to -15oC in January- Rainfall is cyclonic (50 cm)3. Cold Temperate Maritime Climatic Region:- Western coast from Alaska to north California - The warm N. Pacific Ocean current does not allow the temperature to fall below zero

degree in the winter. That is why it has mild winters and cool summers.- The westerlies provided rainfall almost throughout the year.

4. Warm Temperate Western Margin Region:- It is in fact the Mediterranean type of climate. - It is found in coastal California. - It has hot and dry summer and cool and cold rainy winters.

5. Hot Desert Region:- South-west USA - The cool California current, high pressure and rain shadow situation keep the rain

very low (10 cm) 6. Lawrencian Climatic Region:

- Areas around the Great Lakes, New England and Southeastern Canada. - Meeting zone of northern and humid air mass.- Annual rainfall is 80 cm and the majority of it is received in the summer.7. Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Region:- From the Lawrencian Climate region up to the Mexican coast. - Annual average rainfall 110 cm.- Tornado storms move from the gulf towards the north and are disastrous. 8. Steppe Climatic Region:- South-west Canada, High Plain and the Great Basin - Low rainfall because of the rain shadow of the western mountains and their location

away from the coast. 9. Mountain Climate Region:- It extends from north to south in the Rockies has a number of sub-regions

Soils* Anglo-America has a large variety of soils because of variation in –

(1) Rainfall(2) Temperature(3) Topography(4) Vegetation(5) Latitudinal extent

* The soils of North America can be divided into two major groups –1. Pedalfer Soils : - Rainfall more than 65 cm

- Abundance of aluminum and ferrous because of leaching -Subgroups - Podzol Soil

- Grey – Brown Podzol Soil- Red – Yellow Podzol Soil- Laterate Soil- Prairie Soil

2. Pedocal Soils - - Rainfall below - 65 cm- Less leaching of calcium and magnesium.- Accumulation of salts.- Subgroups: - Chernozem Soil

- Chestnut-Brown Soil - Seirozem or Arid Soil

* Miscellaneous Soil - Alluvial Soil

- Mountainous Soil- Tundra Soil- Tropical Forest Soil

Natural Vegetation* Since Anglo-America has vast areal extent it has a variety of natural vegetation.

1. Tundra Vegetation: Found within the Arctic Circle - Main vegetation are mosses and lichens.- During the summers some stunted flowering plants come into

existence for a short period.- Towards south some bushes grow in some protected places.2. Coniferous Forests:- Between the Tundra region and the Great Lakes.- Coniferous tree shape and needle – shaped leaves help in protecting trees from high

snowfall.- Trees are evergreen and soft are found in pure stands.- Tree species – Pine, cedar, aspen, fir, spruce, hemlock.3. Broad Leaved Mixed Forests:- North – eastern and eastern North America- Mix of deciduous and coniferous trees- Coniferous dominates towards the north, while the deciduous dominates in the south.- Tree Species – Coniferous – White pine, spruce, larch, fir.

Deciduous – Maple, elm, chestnut, oak, hickory etc4. Temperate Grasslands:- Also known as Prairies- Between the Rockies and the Appalachians- Rainfall – 50 cm (Not sufficient for tree growth)- Grasses attain the heights of 3 to 4 meters- Grasses are nutritious, but these grasslands have been foe agriculture, especially for

wheat.5. Desert Vegetation: Southern California, Arizona, Western Cordillera.- Average annual rainfall – less than 25 cm.- Xerophytic plants like cactus, mosquito and yucca can grow here.- Occasionally short grasses and thorny bushes are also found.6. Sub – tropical Evergreen Forests:- South – eastern part of the USA- Rainfall – 100 – 200 cm- High temperature and rainfall promote the growth of deciduous trees like oak,

hickory, elm, maple etc- Some coniferous trees also grow.7. Mountain Vegetation:- On the slopes of the Rockies and other mountains.- Altitudinal variation in vegetation is found.

Agriculture* Canada and the USA have large productive lands.* Here because of intense agricultural activities the agriculture belts have developed. Some

important agricultural belts are the Corn Belt, Wheat Belt, Dairy Belt etc.1. Wheat: Major wheat producing areas –

(i) Spring wheat Areas (Prairies)(ii) Hard Winter Wheat Areas(iii) Soft Winter Wheat Area (Ohio Basin)(iv) Columbian Plateau Wheat Area

(v) California Wheat Area2. Cotton: Grown only in the USA

South – East Cotton Belt – Situated between the Mexican Coast and 37oN and from the eastern coast to 1000W. Californian Cotton Region - Mid Western Coast. Imperial Valley Cotton Area - Colorado Basin

3. Maize or Corn: It is mainly grown for animal feeding especially pigs.- Corn Belt lies to the south of the Great Lakes in Iowa and Indiana- Favorable Conditions – Gently rolling lands

- Suitable Climate- Fertile Soils- Mechanization- Transport Facilities- Demand of Corn

4. Sugar beet: Anglo America produces about 10% of sugarbeet of the world.- The USA is the second largest producer of sugarbeet in the world.- Regions – East of the Mississippi River- Region from Montana to California

5. Sugarcane: - Gulf states and California- The Hawaiian Islands

6. Tobacco: Between the Cotton Belt and the Corn Belt- Connecticut Valley- The USA is a major producer of tobacco

Iron Ore* Anglo America is rich in iron ore. It is mined both in the USA and Canada* Important Iron Ore Producing Regions:

1. Lake Superior Region: Iron ore is mined in six ranges – Mesabi, Menominee, Marquette, Cuyana, Vermillion and Gogebic.

- Mesabi contributes about 50% of the USA’s iron ore output.2. Alabama Region: Southern Appalachian region - Contributes 5-10% output of the USA- Main Centres – Birmingham, Chattanooga, Red Mountains.3. Quebec Labrador Trough: The major iron ore producing region of Canada.- Main Centres: Knob Lake, Ruth Lake, Wabush Lake, Gagnon4. Wabana (Belle Islands) and Newfoundland – both are in Canada

Copper* USA – Arizona – Miami, Globe, Bisbee, Jerome, Ajo etc

Montana – ButteUtah - BinghamNevada - ElyNew Mexico – Santa Rita

* Canada: Mines of Ontario and Quebec provinces contributes nearly 85% of Canada’s copper output.- Main Centres: Sudbury

NorandaGaspe PeninsulaFlin Flon

Miscellaneous Things about Minerals* Zinc – Sullivan mines (British Columbia)* The USA is the leading produces of molybdenum the world.

* Canada is the leading producer of nickel in the world.* Sudbury mines (Ontario) are the largest nickel mines in the world.* The USA is the largest producer of sulphur.

Coal* Almost every state of the USA produces coal, but the eastern states have major reserves of

coal.* Major Coal Areas of the USA:

1. The Northern Appalachian Coalfields:- Largest coal producing region of Anglo America- High grade Anthracite and Bituminous coal are found.- Pennsylvania is the major centre here.2. The Southern Interior Coalfields:- Reserves are concentrated in Alabama and Tennessee.3. The Eastern Interior Coalfields:- Illinois, Southern Indian and Western Kentucky are the main states- Coals are closer to the surface and have high heating capacity4. Other Regions: - Western Interior

- Rockies- Pacific Coast- Gulf Coast

* Canadian Coalfields:- Alberta: It is the leading producer of coal in Canada and has both bituminous and lignite coal.- British Columbia and Nova Scotia also have coalfields.

Petroleum* Anglo America is quite rich in petroleum. In fact, the great economic progress has been

boosted by the presence of petroleum locality.* First oil mine of the world was dug at Titusville in the state of Pennsylvania.* Oilfields of the USA: Appalachian Oilfields

Mid Continent OilfieldsGulf Coast OilfieldsCalifornia OilfieldsRocky Mountain Oilfields

* Oilfields of Canada: Athabasca Sand AreaSouthern SaskatchewanEdmonton Calgary

* The first oil well of Canada was dug at Calgary in the Turner Valley (Alberta)

Hydro – Electric Power* HEP is often known as White Coal.* The USA has developed 75% and Canada has developed 62% of hydro – electricity power

potential.* Region of HEP of the USA:

- The Niagara Falls- The New England States – The St. Anthony Falls- The Appalachian Region:

- Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is the most important.- The Columbia Plateau: Grand Coulee, Chief Joseph, Bonneville

- The Colorado Basin: Hoover, Coolidge, Parker, Imperial, Lagina and Roosevelt dams

-Canadian HEPs : St. Lawrence River ValleyOntarioBritish Columbia

Kitimat Scheme on the Nechako River

Industry1. Iron and Steel Industry: Anglo America is fortunate to have all the requisite factors

which help in the development of iron and steel industry.* Regions:

(i) Pittsburg and Upper Ohio Valley:- Produces nearly 50% iron and steel of Anglo America.- Centres: Pittsburg, Young Town, Wheeling, Ironton etc- Pittsburg is known as ‘the Iron and the Steel Capital of the World’

(ii) Chicago – Gary Region : On the shore of the Lake Michigan- Centre’s: Chicago, Gary, Milwakee, St. Louis.

(iii) Lake Erie Region: -Erie, Cleveland, Lorrain, Detroit, Toledo and Lowell are the chief centres.-Port Colborne, Hamilton, Toronto and Niagara

are main centers of Canada in the region.(iv) Middle Atlantic Region: Important centers are Baltimore, Sparrow Point,

Morrisville, Susquehanna etc.(v) Canadian Iron and Steel Regions:

- Ontario Peninsula – Hamilton and Port Colborne- Nova Scotia and Cape Breton- Sault St. Marie

* Hamilton is known as the Pittsburg of Canada.

2. Cotton Textile Industry:- The first textile mill was started at Powtucket (Rhode Island) in 1790.

* Principal Regions in the USA: (i) New England Region: Advantage of early start and huge market.(ii) Southern Cotton Region: This region is growing rapidly mainly because

of cotton production, humid climate, cheap labour and latest machineries.(iii) Central Atlantic States: New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore.

* Canadian Centres: Sherbrook, St. Hyacinth, Coburg and Owensound all in the eastern Canada are some significant cotton textile centres.

3. Automobile Industry:- Important Centres: Detroit, Flint, Lansing, Toledo, Toronto, Windsor and

Chatham.- Detroit is known as the Automobile Capital of the World.

4. Paper Industry: It is very well developed and highly organized industry in Anglo – America.

- The USA is known for paper and pulp, whereas Canada is known for newsprint.- Factors:

- Enormous presence of coniferous softwood.- Electricity- Water- Chemical industry- Means of transport

- Capital- Demand

5. Aircraft Industry:- The USA is the leading producer of aircraft in the world.- Major Centres: Seattle, Hartford, Dallas, Toronto, Edmonton.- Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed are major aircraft companies.

Railways* Railways are important for connecting these two huge countries.* The USA has 25% rail track length of the world.* Important Rail Routes:

1. Union Pacific Railway – New York to San Francisco.2. North Trans Continental Railway – New York to Seattle. 3. Mid Continental Railway – New York to San Francisco.4. Southern Trans Continental Railway – Los Angeles to New Orleans.5. Canadian Pacific Railway – Halifax to Vancouver.6. Canadian National Railway

Waterways1. St. Lawrence River waterway2. Soo Canal: Superior – Huron3. Welland Canal: Erie – Ontario4. Erie Canal: Erie – Atlantic Ocean5. Rideau Canal: Ontario – Ottawa River6. Illinois Canal: Michigan – Illinois River

LATIN AMERICA* Latin America is a cultural term. It includes those countries of Americas where the

Latin languages predominates* The following regions are includes under it:

1. South America2. Central America including Mexico3. Caribbean Countries

Mexico* Mexico is the third largest Latin American country after Brazil and Argentina

Physiography:1. The Central Plateau: It is an intermontane plateau situated between the Sierra Madre

Oriental and the Sierra Madre Occidental.- It is a series of plateaus made of limestone, though at places overlain by lava flows or fans of alluvium.2. The Sierra Madre Oriental: Series of ridges which extends from the north to south in the east Mexico.3. The Sierra Madre Occidental: It is a series of which borders the Central Plateau on its west.4. The Central Volcanic Mountains: It lies to the south of the above three physiographic divisions.5. The Sierra Madre del Sur: It is located to the south and east of the Central Volcanic Mountain.6. The Sonoran Desert: Situated between the Gulf of California and the Sierra Madre Occidental.7. The Peninsula of Lower California: Located to the west of the Gulf of California. It is rocky and arid.

8. The Yucatan Peninsula: It is a low lying platform exhibiting Karst topography because it has a base of limestone.

9. The Narrow Pacific Coastal Plain10. The Gulf Coastal Plain – Along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.11. The Chiapas Highland.

Climate* Factors Affecting the Climate of Mexico:

1. Situation2. Proximity of water bodies3. Polar winds4. Altitude

* The altitude in Mexico dominates the temperature pattern.* Mexico is mostly arid and semi – arid.* About half of Mexico receives less than 65 cm of rainfall.

Vegetation1. Desert and Semi – Desert Areas: Baja California, Sonoran desert, northern part of the Central Plateau.2. Temperate and Mountain Grasslands: Eastern coast and Southern part of the Sierra

Madre Occidental.3. Tropical Grasslands and Scrublands: West Coast, Higher lands, Yukatan, Eastern

Coast.4. Coniferous Forests: These are found on higher parts of the plateau on the Sierra Madre

Occidental and the Chiapas Highlands.5. Tropical Forests: Gulf coastal plain.

Agriculture* Only 15% land of Mexico is arable.* The old system of owning large areas is called Hacienda.* Hacienda have been confiscated and broken into smaller patches called Ejidos.* Main Crops:

1. Maize: It occupies about 50% arable land of Mexico.2. Wheat: It is second important food crop grown in Mexico. Mexican variety of wheat is high yielding, drought and disease resistant.

* Other important crops are rice, potato, cotton etc.

Minerals* Mexico was populated because of rush for gold or silver.* Mexico is known for silver mining. It produces nearly one-third of world silver.* Mexico is the second largest producer of sulphur in the world after the USA.* Mexico is considered to have the largest oil deposits of Latin America.* Oil fields are found near the Gulf of Mexico.

Demography* 4 out of every 5 Mexicans are Mestizos, who are mixed Spanish – Indians.* About 1% are Negros.* Mexico city is the largest city followed by Guadalajara.

CENTRAL AMERICA* Central America belongs to South American continent. In Fact, from the geological point of view, a part of Mexico (up to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) is also a part of South America.* It Central America has seven Countries –

1. Belize

2. Guatemala3. El Salvador4. Nicaragua5. Costa Rica6. Panama

* Physiography: Almost 80% area is hilly.- Coastal areas have flat lands- About 40 volcanoes are scattered- The highest point – Tajumulco (4,221 m)- The largest volcano is Fuego (3753 m)- There are three parallel ranges – 1. The Llanos, 2. Sierra De las Minas, 3. Sierra De

Merendon.- These ranges are broken by many river basins.- Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua are parts of a rift valley.

* Climate:- Factors: - Latitude

- Altitude- Topography- Prevailing Wind- Proximity to water bodies- The movement of ITCZ

Vegetation(1) Tropical Rainforests: Found in eastern lowlands(2) Savannah: Found central and southern Belize, north eastern parts of both Honduras and

Nicaragua(3) Montane Forests : Interior parts of Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala, Costa Rica and

western Panama

Agriculture* About 13% of the land is arable in Central America. * Nearly half of the agricultural products are exported. * Emphasis is given on cash crops.(1) Coffee: Central America produces about 10% coffee of the world.

- Mainly grown in the Pacific side.- The highest yield is obtained from Meseta Central in Costa Rica.

(2) Banana: It is grown mainly on the coastal lowlands in the Caribbean side. Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica.

(3) Sugarcane: It is grown in the foothills in the pacific coast extending from Guatemala to Nicaragua.

(4) Cotton: The main areas of cotton cultivation are near the Lake Regions of Nicaragua, Honduras and el Salvador.– The suitable conditions for cotton cultivation are available in Central America.

Minerals* In the nineteenth century silver and gold were the main exports. But in the 20th century zinc

and silver were important especially in Honduras.

Miscellaneous * The Pan–America Highway : Run through whole Central America .

* Mestizos constitute 60% of the population of the region. * Guatemala is the most populous country.* Lake Nicaragua is the largest lake of Central America, is located between Nicaragua and

Costa Rica.

SOUTH AMERICA* S. America is the fourth largest continent. It extends from 12ºN to 56ºS and longitudinally it

extends from about 35ºW to 81ºW. * Total area–17,814,000 sq km. (1/8th of land surface).* Triangular shaped continent. * North–South: 75,69 km (From Point Gallinas (Venezuela) to Cape Horn (Chile)).* East–West: From Cape Branco (Peru) to Cape Sao Roque (Brazil).* Highest Point – Mt. Aconcagua (6959 m) in Argentina.* Lowest Point – Valdes Peninsula (– 40m) in Argentina.

Physiography(1) The Andes:

– Long mountain extending from the Caribbean sea up to the Cape Horn.– The only break in the Andes is Uspallata Pass.– It is about 8850 km long and its height is second only to the Himalayas.– Mt. Aconcagua is the highest peak.– Many volcanic peaks are found.

(2) The Eastern Highlands:(i) The Guiana Highlands: Situated to the north of the Amazon River. Mt.

Roraima (2771 m) is its highest peak. (ii) The Brazilian Highlands: These are located in the eastern part of Brazil. Its average

height is about 1000 m. Its southern part is called the Sierra de Mar.(iii) Patagonia Highlands: Extends from the Andes to the Atlantic coast in the southern

Argentina.(3) The Middle Lowlands:

It occupies half of South America.– It lies between the Andes and the Eastern Highland – It can be broadly divided into –

(1) The Northern Coastal Lowland(2) The Amazon Depression(3) The Parana–Paraguay Basin

– Paraguay Basin– Pampas– Gran Chaco (the Hunting Land)

Drainage System(1) The Amazon Basin:

– Second longest river in the world.– It has the largest flow of water in the world.– It has about 1000 tributaries and drains about 40% of South America. – It was named by Francisco de Orellana to whom the local tribal female warriors

gave a pitched battle.– The Madeira River is the most important tributary of the Amazon.– Smaller ships can reach up to Iquitos.– The Negro River joins the Amazon with the Orinico River.

(2) The Rio de La Plata Basin: – Second largest river basin of South America

– Main Rivers: Paraguay, Parana and Uruguay (3) The Orinico Basin:

– The Orinico River rises in the Guiana Highlands and drains into the Atlantic Ocean after traversing 2740 km.

– Its valley is known for the tropical grasslands, Llanos.– Angels Falls is located on the Churun River, a tributary of the Caroni River, which

is a tributary of the Orinico. (4) San Francisco Basin:

– It is 2914 km long and flows within Brazil.– It rises in the southern part of the Brazil.– It rises in the southern part of the Brazilian Highlands.– It forms the Poulo Afanso Falls.

Lakes(1) Lake Maracaibo (Venezuela):

– Largest lagoon of the world– Known for petroleum production (more than 70% petroleum output of Venezuela)

(2) Titicaca:– Between Peru and Bolivia– Highest navigable lake of the world.– It is a crater lake.– Linked to the Poopo Lake by the Desaguadara River.

(3) Poopo:– A crater lake in western Bolivia– La Paz city is located on its eastern shore.

(4) Patos Lagoon:– Largest lagoon of Brazil– Porto Alegre is located on its northern edge.

(5) Mar Chiquita:– Endorheic salt lake in Argentina, receives the Dulce River.

Climate* Factors affecting the Climate of S. America:

(1) Sub-tropical high pressure(2) Ocean current along the western coast(3) High mountain barrier.

* Climatic Regions: (1) Tropical Region:

– A part of Brazilian coast, Guiana coasts, the Amazon Basin and the Pacific coast of Colombia

– This region experience high temperature through out the year and the annual average rain is about 250 cm, spread throughout the year.

(2) Savannah Region:– Western Ecuador, the Orinoco Basin and the Brazilian Highlands.

(3) Temperate Climatic Region:– Paraguay, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, Chile and in the western slopes of the

Andes.(4) Mediterranean Region:

– Central Chile(5) Desert Climatic Region:

– The Atacama Desert and the Patagonian Desert, North-eastern Brazil.(6) Cold Climatic Region:

– Higher slopes of the Andes– Southern S. America

Vegetation(1) Equatorial Forests:

– These are also called as Selvas.– They are found in the Amazon Basin and in its neighboring regions.– These forests are called ‘the Lungs of the World’

(2) Montana:On the higher slopes of the Andes, the forests are more open because of the fall in temperature caused by the altitude. These are called Montana in Colombia and Peru and Yungas in Bolivia.

(3) Savannah:– Adjoining area of the Amazon Basin where the rainfall is lower tropical

grasslands develop.– Grasses are coarser and higher, and trees are found in between.– These are called Llanos in the Orinico Basin and Campos in Brazil.

(4) Sub-tropical Hardwood Forests:– These are found to the south of the tropical grasslands.– These are more open.– Gran Chaco lies in its eastern part, which is known for ‘quebracho’ or

‘break-axe’ trees.(5) Pampas:

– These are temperate grasslands found in Uruguay and northern Argentina.– These are known for short, soft and nutritious grasses.

(6) Tropical Desert Vegetation:– These are found in the coastal areas of Peru and Chile

(7) Mediterranean Forests:– Central Chile

(8) Temperate Forests:– Southern Chile

Agriculture

(1) Wheat:– Argentina is the leading producer of wheat in S. America.– Its greatest concentration is in the Wheat Crescent of the Pampas region from Rosario to Bahia Blanca. – Wheat is also grown in Uruguay, central Chile and sothern Brazil

(2) Corn:– It is cultivated both as food crop and feed crop.– Argentina is the largest producer of corn in S. America. It is produced here mainly

for export. – It is grown mainly in the northern and eastern Pampas.– In Brazil corn is grown in the south-eastern part.

(3) Coffee:– Brazil produces about one third coffee of the world.– The geographical and climatic factors like climate, soil, topography, labour etc are

favourable for coffee cultivation. – The major concentration of coffee in Brazil is in the south-east.– Big coffee forms are known as ‘Fazendas’.– The soils which are favourable here for coffee cultivation are called Terra Roxa.– Santos is known as ‘the coffee port of the world’.

– Colombia is the second largest producer of coffee in the world. It contributes nearly 15% of the world coffee. It produces finer coffee than Brazil.

(4) Rubber:– The rubber plant is native to South America.– It grows wild in the tropical rainforests. – Today the rubber production in South America has become insignificant because trees

are scattered in jungles.(5) Cocoa:

– The tropical American region is the home of cocoa.– The region contributes about one-third cocoa of the world. – Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru etc are major producers of cocoa.

(6) Sugarcane:– Brazil is the largest producer of sugarcane in the world. It produces about 15%

sugarcane of the world.– Eastern and north-eastern Brazilian lands main regions of sugarcane cultivation.

* Other important crops of S. America are cotton, rice, cassava, tobacco, soybean etc.* Animal Husbandry:

– Cattle, sheep, goats, alpacas, Llamas etc are reared.– The tropical regions have more of cattle raising, while the temperate region rears

sheep. – The Pampas region is famous for the sheep rearing.

Minerals(1) Iron Ore:

– South America has 20% iron ore reserves of the world.– Brazil, Venezuela, Chile and Peru are main producers of iron ore. – Minas Gerais, Cake Peak of Itabira, Para at Carajas and Moto Grass – du-sul are

major iron ore producing regions of Brazil.(2) Copper:

– South America producers about 25% copper of the world.– Chile – Chuquicamata – Peru – Yauricocha, Caspalca, Morococha, Cerro de Pasco – Brazil – Caraiba (Bahia)

(3) Tin:– Bolivia – Potosi– Brazil – Amazon Basin

* Other minerals found in S. America are lead, zinc, gold, silver and diamond.

Energy(1) Petroleum:

(i) Venezuela: – It has about 5% oil reserves of the world.– Major regions – Maracaibo Gulf

– Lower Orinico Basin(ii) Colombia:

– Lower Middle Magdalena Valley– Southwestern part of Maracaibo lowlands.

* Ecuador, Argentina, Bolivia, Peru and Chile are other petroleum producers.

Manufacturing Industry* Manufacturing is in poor condition because of –

– Lack of raw materials

– Lack of power materials– Lack of technology– Poor means of transportation– Lack of market

* Industries:(1) Brazil:

– Iron and Steel-Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte, Sao Paulo– Cotton textiles– Sugar industry

(2) Argentina:– Iron and steel, cotton textiles, sugar, ship

(3) Chile:– Iron and steel, sugar

(4) Colombia:– Iron and steel, sugar

(5) Venezuela:– Iron and steel, air craft, petro-chemical

Demography* Composition of People:

(1) Mestigo – European + Indian(2) Mulatto – European + African(3) Zambo – African + Indian

EUROPE* Europe is the sixth largest continent. Its area is almost 10 million sq km. North America is

two and Asia is five times as large as Europe.* Europe extends from North Cape (7108’N) to Cape Trafalgar (36030’N).* So many peninsulas emerge from Europe. That is why it is also called as ‘the Peninsula of

Peninsulas’.

Physiography

1. North-Western Mountain Region: – It includes the Ural Mountains, the Scandinavian Mountains and the mountains of the British Islands.

2. The Middle Plains: – It is consisted of two major divisions-(i)The Russian Plain (ii)The Western and Mid-European Plain

3. The Southern Mountainous Region: (i) The Old Mountain Blocks:

– Meseta of Spain– Central Plateau of France– Brittany Peninsula– Black Forest– Vosges– Bohemian Plateau– Rhodope Mountain

(ii) The Alpine mountain Range:– The Alps– The Carpathians– The Balkans– The Caucasus

– Sierra Nevada– Apennines– The Pyrenees.

(iii) The River Valley Plains – Andalusia, Ebro Basin, Rhone Valley, Po Basin, Hungary Plain.

(iv) The Southern String of Peninsulas –– Iberian Peninsula– Italian Peninsula– Balkan Peninsula

River System

River of Spain: River of Northern Europe:– Mino – Meuse– Duero – Rhine– Tagus – Weser– Guadiana – Elbe– Guadalquivir – Oder– Ebro – VistulaRiver of France: – W. Dvina– Rhone River of Russia:– Dordogne – Onega– Loire – N. Dvina– Seine – PechoraRiver of Italy: – Ural– Tiber – Volga-Longest river of Europe– Po – DonRiver of Britain: River of Eastern Europe:– Thames – Donetz– Trent – Dnieper– Tyne – Bug– Severn – Dneister– Clyde – Prut

– Danube

Climate* Factors Affecting the Climate of Europe:

A. Territorial Factors:– Latitudinal Situation– Asiatic land and the Atlantic Ocean– Mountain Chains– Interior situation of land and water

B. Atmospheric Factors:– Low pressure over the North Atlantic Ocean – High pressure over Azores– Low pressure over the Mediterranean Sea– High pressure over Siberia– Monsoonal low pressure area– Temperate cyclones and westerly winds

* Climatic Regions:(i) Maritime Climatic Region: Norway, North-Western Europe.(ii) Continental Climate: Eastern and southern European(iii) Transitional Climate: Middle Europe, comprises the Baltic region, Poland, Alpine

and Danube basins.(iv) Mediterranean Climate: Countries along the Mediterranean Sea. It is known for the

winter rain.

Vegetation(i) Tundra Vegetation Region: Extreme northern and western part of Norway, Sweden,

Finland, Iceland and Russia.(ii) Taiga Vegetation Region: Its northern limit is 620 N.

- It is found in Northern Russia, Finland, Sweden and Norway.(iii) Mixed Forest Region: It is found south of 600 N and in North-Western Europe.(iv) Deciduous Forest Region: Found in middle and western Europe.(v) Grassland Region: European Russia and Eastern Europe.

- It is known as Steppes in Ukraine and Russia, while in the Hungarian Plains it is called Pustaz.(vi) Mediterranean Vegetation Region: Southern Europe around the Mediterranean Sea.

Agriculture(1) Wheat: Wheat is the most important cereal crop of Europe. Almost every European country produces, but the main producers are the U.K., Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, Poland and Hungary.

- France is the largest wheat producers of Europe.- Polders, Po Basin and Danube Basin are famous wheat cultivation.- Steppes are another region known for extensive wheat.- In Europe, wheat cultivation is generally carried on as a part of the mixed farming

system of agriculture. (2) Sugarbeet : It is the main source of sugar production in Europe.

- In the north-western Europe sugarbeet is the principal crop of the land use.- These countries produce nearly 60% sugarbeet of the world.- Major Regions:

- Vistula Basin- Rhine Valley- Paris Basin- Eastern UK- South-west Ireland

(3) Rice: - Southern Spain- Po Basin-Northern limit of rice cultivation

(4) Other Crops: - Rye, atso, barley, maize flax

Minerals(1) Iron Ore:

- Nearly all European countries have iron ore.- It has 5% ore reserves of the world.- France:

- Lorraine fields (North-east France)- Normandy and Pyrenees

- Germany: Salzitter, Volgelsburg, Silesia, Sunderland, Westphalia and Saxony.- Spain ; Bilbao, Santander- Sweden:

- Sweden is the leading producer of iron ore in Europe.- Mining Centres: Kiruna, Gallivare

- U.K.:- Lincoln region, Scunthorpe

(2) Copper:- Bulgaria and Poland are the major producers.

(3) Coal:- U.K.:

(i) North-western coastal Area – Northumberland, Durham, Newcastle(ii) North-eastern coastal Area – Yorkshire, Nottingham, Derby(iii) Lancashire Area:(iv) South Wales Region(v) Scotland: Lothian, Fife, Clyde

- Poland:- Silesia – coking coal- Oder Valley – brown coal- Konin –

- Germany: - Germany is the largest producer of lignite in the world.- West Germany (Ruhr Region) produces bituminous coal.- The eastern part of Germany has the largest lignite deposits.

- Ukraine: Donbas is famous for coal production. (4) Petroleum:

- The North Sea is the most important region of petroleum production in Europe.- UK, Norway, Romania, Germany etc are main oil producers.

Hydro-Electricity(1) France:

- Nearly half HEP potential has already been exploited.- Major Regions :

(i) Alps (ii) Pyrenees(iii) Central Plateau (iv) Rhone-Rhine Valleys.

(2) Norway:- It fulfills almost all its energy needs through HEP.- It is said to have the highest per capita HEP production in the world.

(3) Italy:The abundance of river water, mountainous topography, lack of coal and oil, all promote HEP production in Italy.

(4) Sweden: Presence of numerous rivers and lakes, and the rugged topography help in HEP production.

(5) Switzerland: The lack of oil and coal and suitable geographical conditions promote HEP here.

Industries(1) Iron and Steel Industry:

- Germany:(i) Rhine and Ruhr Region:

- Essen, Dartmund, Bokum, Oberhausen(ii) Mid German Region:

- Hanover, Salzgitter and Brunswick(iii) SAAR Region:(iv) Berlin Region: (v) Magdeburg Region:

- U.K.:(i) Black Country Region:

- Dudley, Coentry, Birmingham(ii) Sheffield Region:

- Sheffield, Doncaster, Rotherham(iii) N-E Coastal Region:

- New Castle, Darlington, Middleborough(iv) South Wales Region:

- France:(i) North-Western Region:

- Mons, Douai, Lens, Valenciennes(ii) North-Eastern Border Region:

- Le Creusot, St. Etinne, Alais(iii) Lorraine Region: Longwy, Briey, Metz, Thionville, Nancy

- Belgium:- Mons, Charleroi, Namur, Leige, Verviers

- Poland:- Cracow, Czestochowa, Nova Huta, Ostrowice

- Italy:- Turin, Milan, Naples, Trieste

(2) Cotton Textile Industry:- UK:

(i) Lancashire Region: Manchester, Bolton, Preston, Blackburn(ii) Lower Clyde Valley: Glasgow, Paisley, Rengrew

- Germany: (i) Westphalia Region:- Munchengladbach – Manchester of Germany- Wupertal(ii) Saxony Region: Easter Germany- Karl Marx Stadt, Frieberg, Plaunean

- France: (i) Flanders Region:- Lile, Roubaix(ii) Rouen Region: Seine valley(iii) Vosges and Alsace Region:- Centres:- Epinel, Colmar, Mullhouse(iv) Lyois Region: Rhone and Saone valleys- Centre: Lyons

=> Other Industries of Europe:(i) Woollen textiles(ii) Engineering(iii) Ship building(iv) Synthetic fibre(v) Chemical(vi) Automobile

Demography* Germany is the largest populated country of Europe.* France is largest country by area.* The Netherlands has the highest density of population in Europe.* Belgium has the highest urbanisation in Europe (97%).

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF CIS* Russia is the largest country of the world whose 25% land lies in Europe, whereas 75% land

lies in Asia.* The USSR was broken into 15 countries in 1991.* Russia accounts for the 76.2% area of the CIS.* The CIS consists of Russia, Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,

Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.

Physiography(1) The Plains of Eastern Europe: Also called as the Russian Platfrom, lies to the west of the

Ural Mountains.- If consists of the Baltic Shield in the west and the Ukrainian shield in the south- Its general height is 200m or less.

(2) The Ural Mountains: These are Hercynian mountains.- These can be divided into the northern, middle and the southern Urals.- Highest peak – Gora Narodnaya (1894 m).

(3) The West Siberian Lowland:- Located between the Ural and the Yenisey rivers.- It is quite gentle and lower in height. That is why the rivers flow sluggishly and

marshes are formed.(4) The Kazakh Upland: It lies south of the west Siberian lowland.

- In the Caledonian and Hercynian times, it was uplifted but later on plained down.(5) The Turanian Lowland: It lies in south and south-west of the Kazakh Upland.

- The Amu Darya and the Syr Darya flow from the south to drain into the Aral Sea.(6) The Central and Eastern Siberia:

- It lies to the east of the Yenisey River.- It is drained by the Lena, Tungus, Angara, Indigirka and Kolyma rivers- This region is known for extreme coldness.

(7) The Southern Mountain Ranges:- The Carpathians- The Crimean Mountains- The Caucasus – Its highest peak is Mt Elburz

(8) The Central Asian Moutains:- The Pamirs – Lenin Peak (7126m), Mt. Communism(7495m)- The Alai mountains- The Tien Shan

(9) The Southern Siberian Mountains:- The Altai and the Sayan- The Yablonovy Mountains

(10) The Far Eastern Mountains:- Stanvoy- Dzhugdzhur- Verkhoyansk- Cherskogo- Kolyma- Chukostk Range- Koryak Range

Drainage System* Yenisey – The largest river of Russia.* Ob-Forms the longest estuary of the world

* Lena-Forms a delta* Amur-Forms boundary between Russia and china * Ural-Drains into the Caspian Sea* Volga-Longest river of Europe.* Amu Darya and Syr Darya flow into the Aral Sea.* Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniester, Bug, Prut etc drain into the Black Sea.* Indigirka and Kolyma are important rivers of the far eastern Russia.

Climate* Factors Controlling the Climate of CIS:

- Latitude- Altitude- Broad Expanse- Distance from the Sea

* Temperature:(i) Winter: Temperature is quite higher in coastal regions because of the influence of the

warm ocean currents and it decreases in the interior parts.- Verkhoyansk recorded the lowest temperature outside the polar region (-700C).(ii) Summer: With the northward shift of the sum the interior parts, especially the Central

Asia, start experiencing warm conditions.- The lowest temperature recorded this time of the year is 50C in the Arctic region.* Precipitation: Most regions receive rainfall of about 40-50 cm in a year.- The highest rainfall of CIS is recorded on the south-western flank of the Caucasus

Mountain.- The lowest rainfall is received in Uzbekistan and south of the Aral Sea.- Most of the rain is received in the summer.

Vegetation(1) Trundra Vegetation: The northern-most part of the CIS.(2) Coniferous Forests: South of the Tundra Region.(3) Mixed and Deciduous Forest: South of the Conifeous Zone mostly confined to the

European Russian part.(4) Wooded Steppe Zone: It is a transitional area between the true steppes in the south

an the coniferous forests in the north.(5) Steppe Zone: It spreads from the Altai Mt. in the south-east to the western margins of

Europe in Ukaraine around 500 N.(6) Dry Steppe and Semi-desert Zone: Located south of the steppes belt.(7) Desert Zone: Lies between the Caspian Sea and the Altai Mountains.(8) Hmid Sub-Tropic Zone: It is around the Black Sea and the caspian Sea.(9) Southern Mountain Zone: It starts from Crimea of Ukraine and goes upto the

mountains of the Far East.

=> - The CIS is the largest timber-producing region in the world.- More than 50% of its geographical area is under the forests.- The coniferous forests found here are the largest single stretch of forests in the

world.

Agriculture* The Russian Revolution of 1917 ended the old system of feudalism in agriculture.* Kolkhoz is a system of large-scale collective farming.* Solkhoz is a system of farming done by hired labours.(i) Wheat: The CIS was once the largest producer of wheat in the world.

- Wheat is produced mainly in the steppes and its adjoining eastern lowlands.- It is mainly produced through extensive farming system.- 80% wheat is spring wheat.

(2) Cotton: It is grown in Turkmenistan, Trans-Caucasia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan etc. - About 20% cotton of the world is produced here(3) Sugarbeet: The erstwhile USSR held the first position in sugarbeet production

in the world.- Major regions are Ukraine, European Russia and the Central Asian countries.

(4) Sunflower: It represents 75% all vegetable oil crops of the CIS.- The main regions are the steppes.

(5) Flax: It yeilds fibre and oil.- It is grown all ever except the Siberian region.

*Other crops grown is CIS are soybean, potato, rye, oat etc.

Energy Resources(1) Coal: Ukraine ( Donbas)

- Siberia(Kuznetsk and Irkutsk)- Pechora basin- Karaganda(Kazakhistan)- Tula(South of Moscow)

(2) Petroleum:-It is called liquid gold.- Volga(Ural region)- West Siberian region- East Siberian region- Caucasus region- Sakhalin region- Turkmenistan- Kazakhstan

(3) Natural Gas: The CIS holds the first position in the extraction of gas in the world.- Fields: - Western Siberia

- Volga Basin- Komi region- Trans-Caucasus- Kharkov region- North Caucasus

Minerals(1) Iron Ore: The CIS has about 46% iron ore reserves of the world and produces about 25% ore

of iron.- Regions: (1) Ukraine: - Krivoy Rog

- Kerch Penisula(2) Kazakhstan: - Atasuand Kustanaya(3) Russia: - KMA – Kursk Magnetic Anomaly

- Biggest iron ore reserves in the world.- Southern Ural region- Angara Basin- Kuznetsk

(2) Copper:- Kazakhstan – Major producer of copper in Asia.- Russia – Ural, Kola Peninsula- Caucasia and Armenia

- Uzbekistan(3) Bauxite: Leningrad region, Ukraine (Zaporozhje), Ural, Azerbaijan, Kola Peninsula,

East Siberia, Kazakhstan(4) Manganese: Ukraine (Nicopol)* Other Minerals: Chromite, gold, diamond, lead, zinc etc.

Industry(1) Iron and Steel:

- Ukraine: Zaporozhe, Nicopol, Krivoi Rog- Moscow – Tula region- Southern Ural – Kuzhetsk region- Kazakhstan – Palvador, Tamirtan, Antgubinsk- Caucasus Region – Zestafoni, Dashkezan, Rustao.

(2) Cotton Textile: - Central European Russia – Moscow, Ivanovo- NW European Russia – Leningrad- Central Asia- Kazakhstan – Alma Ata, Kustania

(3) Automibiles: Moscow, Zaparozhye, Gorky, Kama, Tashkent, Barnaul, Kharkov(4) Other Important Industries: Ship building, chemical, woolen textiles, machine tools,

agricultural machines, pulp and paper etc.

AUSTRALIA* The first discovers of Australia were the Dutch who named it ‘New Holland’.* In 1801, a British officer Flanders was the first person to circumnavigate New Holland and

he named it Australia.* The first settlers of Australia were the British convicts and their guards.* Before the arrival of the white settlers, these were about 350000 aboriginals, who were

named black-fellows. But today their number is just around 86,000.* The total area of Australia is 8,112,000 sq km. Its size is more than double of India’s size.

Physiography* Only 6% land is above 600 m in height. (1) The Western Shield: Western part of Australia, west of a line joining the Gulf of

Carpentaria and the Gulf of Spencer.- So many uplands and lowlands are present within it.- It hosts most of the desert region of Australia.

(2) Flinders Mountain Region: It is located to the south-east of the Western Shield near the Spencer Gulf.

(3) The Great Artesian Basin: It is the largest artesian basin in the world.- Parts -(i)Carpentaria (ii)Eyre Basin and (iii)Murray Darling Basin.

(4) The Eastern Highlands: It is also known as the Australian Cordillera and popularly the Great Dividing Range.- It has complex origin and displays a great variety of landforms.- The Mount Kosciusko in the Snowy Mt is its highest peak (2228 m).

Climate* Only 10% of Australia gets more than 100 cm.* Factors Controlling the Climate of Australia:

- Sub-tropical high pressure- Cold ocean current- Monsoonal winds

- Cyclones- Jet streams

* Climatic Regions:(1) Tropical Wet Dry Region: Northern coastal region.

- Very narrow eastern coast.- Affected by monsoonal winds and tropical cyclones.

(2) Mediterranean Region: The regions around Perth and Adelaide.(3) Sub-tropical Humid Region:

- Eastern coast of Queensland and New South Wales.- Most of the rain is received in the summer.

(4) The Arid Region:- Western half of Australia.- The rainfall is about 25 cm.

(5) The Steppes Region:- The arid region is surrounded by a broad belt of semi-arid climate called the

steppe climate.(6) The Marine West Coast Climate:

- Southern Victoria and Tasmania.

Drainage System* About half of the continent does not have rivers reaching the sea.* The Murray – Darling represents the largest drainage basin of Australia.* Cooper’s Creek, Diamantina, Georgina and Macamba drain into the Lake Eyre.* The Fitzroy River in Queensland, on whose bank Rockhampton is located, cuts the Tropic of

Capricorn twice.Vegetation

(1) Rainforests: These forests are found in patches along the entire east coast from Cape York up to Tasmania.

(2) Sclerophyll Forests: These forests are known for the tallest Eucalyptus.- These forests are mainly found around Perth, Adelaide and the south-eastern

Queensland.(3) Woodlands:

- These are found in the regions which receive 50 to 60 cm rainfall.- Such forests are found in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Western

Australia.(4) Grasslands:

- These cover much of the northern and eastern interiors of Australia.- In the tropical regions in the north Savannah grasses grow, while in the temperate

southern part Downs grasses grow.(5) Shrublands:

- These are found in the southern and the western parts of Western Australia, the southern part of S. Australia, the western part of New South Wales and a small area in southern Queensland.

(6) Desert Vegetation:- These are xerophytic vegetation scattered in the western deserts.

Agriculture* Agriculture accounts for more than half of the export of Australia.* Only 4% Australian land is arable.(1) Wheat:

- Grown in South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Western Australia.- The most important area of wheat cultivation is the Murray-Darling Basin.

(2) Sugarcane:

- It is the major crop of the tropical regions of Australia.- It is mainly grown in the eastern coast regions of Queensland and New South Wales.

(3) Rice:- It is mainly grown in the tropical monsoon regions.- Main Regions – Murray – Darling Basin, Coastal Queensland.

(4) Cotton:- Grown in tropical and subtropical regions of Queensland, New South Wales and

Western Australia.(5) Other Crops:- Tobacco, corn, fruits and vegetables.

Livestocks(1) Sheep:

- Australia has the largest number of sheep in the world.- It producers nearly one-third wool of the world.- Nearly 75% of the Australia sheep are merinos.- Large-sized sheep farms are known as stations, which are further divided into

paddocks.- Sheep are raised in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia,

South Australia and Tasmania(2) Beaf Cattle:

- These are raised in hot and humid regions.- The major states are Queensland, New South Wales and Northern Territory.

(3) Dairy Cattle:- Dairy farming is practiced in Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, and other

states.

Energy(1) Coal:

- Australia is rich in coal.- Produced in New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria.

(2) Petroleum:- Queensland – Moonie, Roma.- W. Australia – Barrow Islands- Gippsland Shelf (Bass Strait)

(3) Natural Gas:- W. Australia – Dongaria- N. Territories – Mercenia- Victoria – Bass Strait (Gippsland Shelf).

(4) HEP:- Eastern coastal regions and Tasmania

Minerals(1) Iron Ore:

- South Australia – Iron Knob (Eyre Peninsula)- Western Australia – Mt Goldsworthy, Mt. Tom Price, Mount Whaleback, Mount

Newman, Pilbara, Yampi Sound Island (2) Bauxite:

- Australia has the world’s largest bauxite deposit at Weipa (Cape York Peninsula)- Gove (Arnhem Land)- Mitchell Plateau (W. Australia)- Jarrahdale (West Australia)

- Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the world(3) Gold:

- Western Australia – Coolgardie, Kalgoorlie(4) Uranium:

- Northern Territory – Ranger, Naberlak, Rum Jungle, Koongarra- West Australia – Yeelirrie- South Australia – Radium Hill, Mt. Painter, Mt. Fitton- Queensland – Mary Kathleen, Westmoorland

(5) Lead, Zinc, Silver :- Broken Hill (New South Wales)- Renison, Risdon (Tasmania)- Mt. Isa (Queensland)- McArthur River (Northern Territory)

(6) Other Minerals: Copper, manganese

NEW ZEALAND* Area: 269,057 sq km.* Islands: South Island, North Island, Stewart Island, Chatham Islands.* The South Island is largest by area but the North Island has 75% population.* The Cook Strait separates these two islands.* The Taranaki Plain is located in the North Island, and is known for dairying.* The Canterbury Plain is known for the wheat cultivation and sheep rearing, is located in the

south Island near Christchurch.* Lake Taupo located in the mid of the North Island is the largest lake of New Zealand.* Mt. Cook (3764 m) is the highest peak of New Zealand, which is located on the Southern

Alps in the S. Island.* The indigenous Maori people account for 10% population of New Zealand.* Auckland is the largest city of New Zealand.

AFRICA* Africa is called as the Dark Continent because its interior part has put obstacles in its

exploration and much is still to be known. * The Greek word ‘Aphrika’ means without cold. * It is the second largest continent in terms of both area and population.* Africa is the only continent through which the Equator, the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic

of Capricorn pass.* It extends from the Al Ghiram Point (Cape Bon) to the Cape Agulhas, south to north.* From the west to east it extends from the Cape Verde up to the Cape Guardafui.* Highest Point – Mt Kilimanjaro (5895 m) in Tanzania.* Lowest Point – Lake Assal (-153 m) in Djibouti

Physiography* Five Basins:

– Zaire Basin– Kalahari Basin– Sudan Basin– Chad Basin– Djouf Basin

* The Mountains:(1) The Atlas Mountains:

- They occupy the Maghrib i.e. the land in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia- Its highest peak is Mt. Toubkal (4165m).

(2) The Ahaggar Mountains: - These mainly lie in the south-eastern Algeria and some parts of Libya and adjoining

countries.- They have a volcanic formation.- Their highest peak is Mt. Tahat (2918m).

(3) The Tibesti Mountains: - Spread over Chad, Niger and Libya - Their highest peak is Emi Koussi (3415m).- They have volcanic formation.

(4) East African Mountains: - All these mountains are of volcanic origin. - Mountains: Mt Kenya, Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Ruwenzori, Mt. Algon etc.

(5) South African Mountains: - Mitumba Mountains- Muchinga Mountains- Swartberge- Drakensberg

(6) West African Mountains: - Adamava Mountains- Loma Mountains- Fouta Djallon

* Lakes:- Victoria, Tanganyika, Malawi (Nyasa), Turkana, Albert, Kiwu, Rukwa, Edward,

Tana, Lake Assal, Chad, Mweru. * The Great African Rift Valley:

- It is a tectonic valley formed by the faulting and subsidence. It extends from the Sea of Galilee (Asia) up to the Natal Province in South Africa.

- The Victoria and Tana lakes do not came under the valley and interestingly they are the sources of the White Nile and the Blue Nile, respectively.

Climate* Factors Affecting the Climate of Africa:

– Latitude– Subtropical high pressure– Water bodies– Ocean current– Altitude

* Climate Regions:(1) Wet Equatorial Region:

– It extends from the Zaire Basin up to Guinea along the Guinea coast.(2) Monsoonal Region:

– Western end of Guinea and western Madagascar (3) Savannah Region:

– It lies on either side of the Equator.– It surrounds the equatorial and the monsoonal climates.

(4) Low Latitude Steppe Region:– It lies between the drier sides of savannah and the deserts. It is also called as

‘Sahel’. In fact it is a transitional eco- climatic zone. (5) Tropical Deserts:

– It includes the Sahara, the Namib and the Kalahari deserts.– These regions are desertic mainly because of the subtropical high pressure.

(6) Mediterranean Region:– Located in coastal Morocco, northern Algeria and the Cape Province of South

Africa.

(7) Humid Sub-tropical Region:– Situated along the eastern coast of South Africa around Durban.

(8) Highlands:– It is mainly found over the Ethiopian Highlands.– The higher altitude has moderating effect on the climate.

Vegetation(1) Equatorial Rainforests: Congo Basin and southern Guinea coast(2) Eastern Africa Forests and Bush: It lies as a narrow belt of 200 km breadth along the

eastern coast of Africa. From Somalia up to Mozambique(3) Savannah Vegetation: It surrounds the equatorial rainforests.

– It is known for long tropical grasses with scattered short trees.– This region is also referred as ‘Big Game Country’– Trees are mostly fire resistant.

(4) Sahel Regions: A strip between the Sahara Desert and Savannah region.– This is also referred as ‘Sahel’.– It has thorny woodlands, grasses and semi-arid vegetation.– It lies between 150N to 200N.

(5) Desert Vegetation: Xerophytic vegetation found in the tropical warm deserts.(6) Karoo Namib Shrubland: It lies parallel to the Namib Desert on the eastern side and

balloons towards the south in the Karoo region of South Africa.(7) Highveld Grassland: These are formed because of the rain shadow effect of the Swartberge

and the Drakensberg mountains.(8) Mediterranean Vegetation: N-W Africa and the Cape Province of South Africa

Minerals(1) Iron Ore:

– Liberia – Bomi Hills, Bong and Nimba Hills, Mano Valley– Guinea – Nimba – Simandou– South Africa – Postmesberg, Bushveld, Pretoria– Gabon, Zimbabwe, Egypt.

(2) Uranium: – South Africa– Namibia– Gabon – Mounana

(3) Chromium: – Africa has the largest reserves of chromium in the world.– S. Africa – It has the largest deposit– Zimbabwe – Great Dyke

(4) Manganese: – Gabon has the largest reserve of manganese in the world.– Ghana, Moracco, Burkina Faso, Cameroon and Zaire also have manganese deposits.

(5) Copper: – The famous copper belt extends from Zambia to Katanga (Shaba) of Zaire.– Zaire – Elizabethville– Zambia – Kipashi, Ndola, Changola.

(6) Cobalt: – World’s 50 per cent cobalt is found in Zaire.

(7) Bauxite: About 25% world’s bauxite is found in Africa.– It is found in an area stretching from Guinea to Togo– The largest reserves are found in Guinea.

(8) Gold: – South Africa – Witwatersrand, Orange Free State– Main Mines – West Kimberley, Bird, Reef, Livingstone, Ludenburg, Klark Drop.

(9) Diamond: – South Africa traditionally known for the production of diamond in the world.– Kimberley, Pretoria and Orange and Vaal alluviums are main regions of diamond

production.– Africa has about 40% industrial diamond and the Congo Basin has the largest deposits

of industrial diamond in the world. (10) Phosphate:

– Africa is the traditional exporter of phosphate.– Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia have main deposits of phosphate.

Energy(1) Coal:

– S. Africa – Witbank Field (Transvaal)– Natal Coal Field

– Algeria – Bechar– Morocco – Oujda– Zimbabwe – Wankie– Nigeria – Enugu

(2) Petroleum and Gas:– Major Producers – Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Nigeria, Sudan, Angola,

Cameroon, Congo(3) HEP:

– Aswan Dam – Egypt (on the Nile)– Kariba Dam – Zambia–Zimbabwe (on the Zambezi)– Cabora Bassa Dam – Mozambique (on the Zambezi)– Akosombo Dam – Ghana (on the Volta)– Kainji Dam – Nigeria (on the Niger)– Sennar Dam – Sudan (on the Blue Nile)

Agriculture(1) Maize:

– Egypt has the largest area under maize.– In South Africa, it is the staple food of Bantu people.– The Orange Free State, Natal and Transvaal are major maize producers of South

Africa.– The Orange Free State and the Transvaal form the Maize Triangle.

(2) Rice:– Egypt (Nile Valley), eastern coast and Guinea coast.

(3) Wheat:– S. Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya

(4) Millets and Sorghum:– Savannah regions

(5) Cossava:– Countries of the Guinea coast

(6) Tea:– Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique

(7) Coffee:– Ethiopia, Uganda, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Cameroon

(8) Cocoa:– Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon

(9) Cotton:– Mainly in the Nile Valley– Egypt, Sudan, Zimbabwe, Mali

(10) Sugarcane:– South Africa (Natal Province)– Egypt– Mauritius– Madagascar