Physical GeographyUniverseImmanuel Kant: Nebular hypoChamberlain and Moulton: Another star approached Sun. Material separated from sun, formed planets.Big Bang took place 13.7 billion years ago from now.Planets formed 4.6 billion years ago from now.Life began to evolve 3.8 Billion years ago.Singular atom: Infinite temp and infinite densityExpansion of universe means increase in space between galaxies. How did the planets form? G force within lumps leads to formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge roatating disc of gas and dust develops around the gas core. Gas cloud starts condensing, matter around the gas core becomes solid(planetesimals). These collide to form bigger planets.

Inner planets: Between sun and mars(asteroids), terrestrial planetsRemaining Jovian planetsTerrestrialJovian

Temp too hot as they are close to sun, gases could not condense, hence smallopposite

Solar wind was most intense near the sun, it blew off a lot of gases and dustopposite

These are smaller and could not hold the escaping gases

Evolution of Lithosphere:1. Due to gradual increase in density, temp has increased inside. Material inside started getting separated as per densities. Heavier metals at core, lighter towards the surface.2. From crust to core, density increases.Evolution of Atmosphere:1. Loss of primordial atmosphere consisting of H, He(because of solar winds)2. During the cooling of earth, gases and water vapour were released from interior solid earth. (Degassing) Initial atmosphere had very less of O. Volcanic eruptions. As earth cooled, water vapour started condensing. CO2 in atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater resulting in further condensation. Rainwater fell into depressions forming oceans.3. Photosynthesis in oceans saturated oceans with O. After this O began to flood the atmosphere.Geological time scale: eons, era, period, epoch (decreasing order)Earth BasicsInterior of the earth: Direct sources about the interior of earth volcanic eruptions Indirect sources Gravitation Magnetic field Seismic activity Gravity anomaly: Uneven dist. Of mass of material within the interior of earth influences the value of g. Earthquake waves: Body waves P waves Move faster and are first to arrive at the surface. Similar to sound waves, can travel through all materials. Vibrate parallel to direction of wave. S waves Can travel only thru solid. It has helped scientists to understand the interior of the earth. Perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical plane. Surface Waves These are more destructive. Love waves(horizontal motion) Rayleigh waves(up and down + side to side) Shadow zone There exists some areas where earthquake waves are not reported. These are shadow zones. Collapse earthquakes, explosion earthquakes Richter scale(measures energy released), mercalli scale(measures damage on surface) Structure of the earth: Oceanic crust is thinner than continental crust. Mantle Upper portion of mantle:asthenosphere The crust and upper part of mantle are called asthenosphere. The core:made of Ni and Fe(NiFe) The Deccan traps from India, presently covering most of the MH plateau are a much larger flood basalt province. Volcanic Landforms: Intrusive Forms: Igneous rocks Volcanic rocks Plutonic rocks(cool at the crust) Batholiths(very big), Lacoliths(blister), Lapolith(saucer), Phacolith(present in synclines and anticlines of the folds)

Distribution of Oceans and Continents Alfred Wegener:Continental Drift theory Pangaea Split into Laurasia and gondwanaland Panthalassa Evidence in support of continental drift theory: Rocks of same age across the ocean(Brazilian coast and African coast) Tillite sedimentary rock formed from glaciers. Rocks present in India and 6 other places Placer deposits Deposits are present in Ghana, but no source rock. Rock present in Brazil. Distribution of fossils Force for drifting: Pole fleeing force Tidal force Convectional Current theory: Convection currents in mantle due to the radioactive elements causing thermal differences. Sea-floor spreading by Hess(during ww2): Rocks at mid-oceanic ridges have the youngest age, rocks equidistant from the ridge are older and have the same age. Sedimenst on the ocean floor were very thin. If they were old, more sediment should be there. New crust generated sinks into trenches Plate tectonics: Plates move over the asthenosphere horizontally as rigid units. Pacific plate is a oceanic plate and Eurasian plate is an continental plate Cocos, Nazca, Arabian, Philippines Divergent boundaries: New crust is generated Convergent boundaries Crust is destroyed, subduction Transform boundaries: Crust is neither is created nor destroyed Rates of plate movement Strips of parallel and reverse magnetic field that parallel the mid oceanic ridges Forces for the movement Convection flow due to radioactive heat and residual decay

GeologyMinerals and Rocks: O, Si, Al: elements in earths crust Mineral has definite chemical composition and structure Cleavage Tendency to break in given directions producing relative plane surfaces Fracture Crystal will break in an irregular mannerfeldsparSi,OCeramics, glass making

quartzsilicaImportant component of granite

pyroxeneAl , Ca, Mg, Fe Silica

amphiboleAl, Ca, Mg, Fe, Silica

micaAl, Mg, Fe, Silica, KElectrical instruments

olivine Mg,Fe, Silica

Types of sedimentary rocks:Mechanically formedSandstone, conglomerate shale, limestone, loess

Organically formedGeyserite coal

Chemically formedLimestone, halite, potash

Mechanical disruption and reorganinsation of the original minerals within rocks due to breaking and crushing without any appreciable chemical changes is called dynamic metamorphism. Thermal metamorphism changes chemical composition of rocks Contact metamorphism Rocks come in contact with magma Regional metamorphism Rocks undergo metamorphism due to tectonic shearing Gnessoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist marble are metamorphic rocks Granite consists of Al and silicaTillite, breccia, borax are sedimentary rocksMarble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock.

Geomorphic processesThe phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations on the surface of earth through erosion is known as gradationEndogenic process, exogenic process All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earths crust come under diastrophism. Orogenic Builds mountains Epeirogenic Build continents Weathering is of 3 types(caused by atmosphere)chemicalSolutionCarbonation:formation of carbonic acidHydration: calcium sulphateOxidationreduction

Physical/ mechanical Gravitational forces such as overburden:exfoliation, top layer removed due to erosion, load decreases Expansion due to temp changes Water pressures controlled by wetting

biological

Exfoliation domes: upper layer removed due to erosionExfoliation tors: upper layer removed due to temp. changesExfoliation is a result and not a processWeathering results in enrichmentMass movements are aided by gravity and not by geomorphic agents like water, air. Hence mass movement cannot be called an erosion even though there is a shift of land.Creep is common in moist temperate areas.Debris avalanche is quite common in Himalayas as the rocks are sedimentary. They are not frequent in western ghats as the rocks are harder there.The coarser materials get deposited first and then the finer materials.Pedologist studies soils.Petrologists study rocks. Soil formation depends on PCTBT Parent material Climate Precipitation gives moisture content to the soils. In wet equatorial climates due to excess rains soils are devoid of silica,ca, mg,k. In dry conditions, ground water is brought to the top due to capillary action. When they evaporate they leave behind salts In tropical climates and areas with intermediate precipitation, calcium carbonate (nodules) kanker are formed. Topography Soils thin on steep slopes, thick on plains Biological activity Humus accumulates in cold climate as bacterial growth is slow. Organic matter piles up forming peats In humid tropical equatorial climates, humus content is low as bacterial action is very intense on dead plant matter. TimeLandforms and their evolutionHumid regions implies more rainfallThe gentler the river channels in gradient or slope, the greater is the depositionThis type of plain forming as a result of erosion are called peneplains.Stages of running waterYouthv shaped flood plains with narrow or no flood plains, waterfalls, rapids

matureValleys are still v shaped but deeper, meanders, flood plains

oldLevees, oxbow lakes

River valleys are generally V shaped because of faster water flow during the youth of the river. Glacier valleys are U shaped due to slow movement of glaciers.Gorge , canyons are all kinds of valleys. Gorge has the same width at its top and bottom. Canyons are wider at top and narrower at bottom.generally meanders are found in plains where the stream gradient is low. But in some cases they are also found on hard rocks. These are called incised/entrenched meanders.River terraces are surfaces marking old valley floor or flood plain levels. Paired terraces, unpaired terraces.Streams which flow over alluvial fans do not stay on a single channel and shift their position across the fan forming distributaries.Unlike alluvial fans, deltas are well sorted with clear stratificationActive floodplain, inactive floodplain, natural levees

Swallow holes on top of limestones, limestone pavements, big collapse sink= doline, cavesHanging=stalactitesRising up= stalagmites Glaciers Cirque, corrie Ciques can come together forming horns-aretes Hanging valleys Fjords Moraines Glacial till:unassorted, deposits in outwash plains:unassorted Long ridges of glacial till:moraines Eskers:long ridge, ice forms the banks Drumlins:egg shaped ridges made of glacial till High rocky coasts, submerging, erosion prominent, cliffs, wave cut terraces Low sedimentary coasts, deposition predominant West coast of india:retreating , erosionEast coast: depositionGently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot caused by erosion are called pediments.Pediments extend backwards forming pediplains.A deep valley with steep step like side slopes is known as canyonLapis: an irregular surface with sharp pinnacles, grooves and ridges, found in karst region

ClimateComposition and structure of atmosphere:co2 and water vapour are only found upto 90 km from the earths surfaceco2 is transparent to the incoming solar radiation but opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation, green house effectthe amount of dust particles is high in temperate and sub tropical areas as the wind is dry here than equatorial regions. Polar regions:ice and no dust to fly, equator: high rainfall so no dust Structure of the atmosphere Troposphere 18 km at equator, decreases towards poles The zone separating troposphere from stratosphere is called tropopause Stratosphere Mesosphere Ionosphere Exosphere

If the air were never heated by solar radiation its temperature would continue to fall as we climb. However, at a height of ~12 km a minimum of ~-55C is reached, the tropopause***. Above that the temperature starts to increase again because the stratospheric air contains a sunlight absorber, ozone.

The tropopause minimum acts as a barrier^between the troposphere and stratosphere because mixing and heat transport by convection can only occur when temperature decreases with height. The troposphere - with convection allowed - is turbulent and well mixed. The stratosphere with its temperatureincreasewith height is stable, stratified into layers and relatively poorly mixedSolar radiation, heat balance and temperature

Process of vertical heating of atmosphere is known as convectionTransfer of heat thru horizontal movement of air is known as advectionIn tropical regions particularly in Northern hemisphere during summer seasons local winds called loo is the outcome of advection process.The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of earthIsotherms:During July, the isotherms bend to the North over the ocean and south over the continent. In the north atlantic warm ocean currents increase the temperature and over the continent the temperature decreases abruptly.

In India, the maximum day temperature is recorded in May because in June the southwest monsoons arrive at the Kerala coast and advance further inland in June and July. These winds have cooling effect and summer solstice in June is cooler than May.

Atmospheric Circulation and weather Systems Coriolis Force: Deflection is more when the wind velocity is high Force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force. The PGF is perpendicular to an isobar. The higher the PGF, the higher is the speed of the wind. Deflection would be more As a result of these two forces being perpendicular to each other, in low pressure areas the wind blows around it. Cyclones are not formed near the equator No coriolis force, wind blows perpendicular to isobars and fills the low pressure areas Geostrophic wind Isobars are straight Pressure gradient is balanced by the coriolis force Wind blows parallel to the isobar. Appearance of warm water off the coast of peru is known as El Nino.The El Nino is associated with pressure changes in central pacific and Australia. The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and el nino is called ENSO In mountainous regions peaks are heated and warm air rises up. To fill this new gap cool wind from valleys blows up the valley. This wind is known as valley breeze. Opposite is katabatic wind. Air masses When air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently long time, it acquires the characteristics of that area. Air masses are classified according to the source regions Warm tropical and subtropical oceans Subtropical hot deserts Relatively cold high latitude oceans Very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes Permanently ice covered continents in the arctic and Antarctic Fronts:boundary zone between air masses Cold Cold Front have narrower, more steep slopes. Because of their steep slope, air rises quickly, condenses and cause large rain storms but they are limited in areal extent. Warm Warm Fronts have broader, less steep slopes Because of their slow rate of advance and less steep slopes, they tend to have moderate precipitation spread out over a broad area

Stationary Occluded Air mass fully lifted over the surfaceThemiddle latitudes(mid-latitudes, sometimesmidlatitudes) are between 2326'22" North and 6633'39" North, and between 2326'22" South and 6633'39" Southlatitude, or, the Earth'stemperate zonesbetween thetropicsand theArcticandAntarcticpolar regions.

Low pressure systems: Caribbean and some parts of USA 8 N and 20 N They draw their energy from warm seas(temp should be above 26 C) In higher latitudes pressure is high and they keep the atmosphere stable Warm trade winds with moisture converge and raise upwards Water vapour condenses to water droplets Latent heat is released This heats the atmosphere further Violent thunderclouds are formed Cyclones in India, Madagascar, and some parts of Australia Typhoons in Japan and south east AsiaExtra tropical cyclones: West to east Jetstream in middle latitudes Comma shaped clouds These cyclones move along with the jet streams from west to east Youtube video Wind direction change, clouds over the cold front, low pressure in the cold frontExtra tropical cycloneTropical cyclone

Can form over land and seaCan form only over sea

Clear front formation

Covers large areasNot so much

West to east along with the jetstreamEast to west

Middle latitudes8 to 20 N

Water in the atmosphereThe moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies thru evaporation and from plants thru transpirationWater vapour present in the air is known as humidityHumid air gives rains.RH is great over oceans and least over the continentsCondensation is caused by loss of heatCondensation depends upon the amount of cooling and the RH of the air. When temp of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining constantFog mixed with smoke is smogMist contains more moisture than fogFogs are drier than mist and they form when warm air meets with cold currentsOrographic rainfall: after giving rain to windward sides, the air moves down. Temp increases and moisture taking capacity increase. No rain in the leeward face.Nitrous oxide and ozone are green house gases.Ozone occurs in the stratosphere where the uv rays convert oxygen into ozone.OceanIcecaps, groundwater: fresh waterA mid oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depressionThe boundary region in ocean where there is a rapid decrease in the temperature is thermocline.HaloclineWave formation:Gravity pulls the crests downwards. The falling water pushes the former troughs upwardsTides:Due to moons gravity, water at top is pulled towards it. High tideEarth as a whole is pulled towards it. But water at bottom does not move enough- high tide againSides have low tidesSun, moon on a straight line on full moon/new moon : enhanced high tide called spring tideSun moon at right angles on quarter moons, diminished high tide called neap tideGenerally occurs twice during the day at most places.Natural disasters re more sudden and dangerous than natural hazardsSpeed of wave is more in shallow water. A ship at sea wont feel the tsunami much.Generally cyclones occur during monsoon but in case of bay of Bengal they occur during October and November.Storm surges are cause due to cyclones. Due to high horizontal pressure gradient surface winds are very fast. They push sea water into the coast along with a downpour of rains.Meteorological drought:low rainfallAgricultural drought: moisture content in soil is lowHydrological drought: water in dams has fallen down to alevel which cannot be replenished by precipitationEcological drought: ecosystem is unable to produce due to shortage of waterPitoragarh landslide: uttarakhandIndias maritime boundary: 12 nautical miles from coastGeography coined by eratostahnese. Geo attempts spatial synthesis, history temporal synthesisMajor approaches to study geo: systematic(studied at world level and patterns are identified) and regional, dualism: In philosophy and theology, any system that explains phenomena by two opposing principles.In math, in the subjects of probability and statistics, if, when event A happens, another event, event B is more likely to happen, this is a "cause and effect relationship"Aphelion:4 th JulyAurora: multi-coloured lights that appear in the upper atmosphere(ionosphere) over the polar regions and visible from locations in the middle and high latitudes . caused by interaction of solar wind with O and N. Aurora borealis in NH, Aurora Australis in SH.Ecosystem: biotic+abiotic, interrelated and interactingPalaeomagnetism: Paleomagnetism(orPalaeomagnetismin the United Kingdom) is the study of the record of theEarth's magnetic fieldin rocks, sediment, or archeological materials.

Indian GeographyPhysical features of India:Indian peninsula was a part of Gondwana land.Himalayan mountains: a lot of valleys lie between these mountain ranges Himadri Himachal/lesser Himalayas Kasmir valley, kullu valley Shiwalik DunsIndus and Sutlej Punjab himalaya

Satluj and kaliKumaon himalayas

Kali and tistaNepal himalayas

Tista and dihangAssam himalayas

Purvanchal : Himalayas in thye east; patkai, naga, Manipur and mizo hillsMajuli in Brahmaputra is the largest inhabited riverine island.Ganga plain extends between ghaggar and teesta riversNorthern plains:Bhabar stone belt shiwaliksSouth of this belt rivers remerge, swampy marshy region known as teraiBangar, khaddar(new alluvium) kankar(calcareous deposits)Peninsular plateau:Made of igneous, metamorphous rocks Central highlands North of narmada, covering malwa plateau Eastward extension is called bundelkhand, bagelkhand Chotanagpur plateau Deccan plateau South of narmada Bound by mahadev, kaimur and maikal hills Karbi anglong plateau in Meghalaya(garo, khasi, jaintia hills, west to east)Western ghats(tallest anaimudi) are continuous(tal bhor pal passes)Western ghats taller than eastern(tallest mahendragiri)Distinctive feature of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as deccan traps.Luni river flows thru tharWest coast is narrower than east coast Konkan(northern part) Kannad plain Malabar oastEastern plains are wider. Northern circars Coromandel coastLake chilika is the largest salt water lake, OrissaLakshwadweep are coral islands. Pitli island has a bird sanctuaryKashmiri hills have karewa formation, useful for cultivation of zafranBetween great Himalayas and pir panjal range- dal lakeSrinagar is on the banks of JhelumBarak is an important river in MizoramBhima fault in KarnatakaWest coast-sea is deep, submergent-portEast coast-sea is shallow, emergent- no port, wular lake is becoz of tectonic activityIndian climateDecrease in rainfall from east to west along the northern plainsAny coastal area with warm or col currents will warm or cool if the winds or on shoreIndia has tropical and subtropical climatesIndia lies in the region of north easterly winds.These winds blow over land and do not have much moisture over them. Then how does India get rain?

Wintersummer

High pressure area over North of himalayasLow pressure develops over interior asia as well as northwestern India

Cold winds blow from this area over the oceans to the southAir moves from the high pressure south indian ocean, c hange direction at equator and reach India as south west monsoon

These winds blow over warm ocean currents gather moisture and bring rainfall over mainland of India

Tropical westerly Jet stream moves north of himalayas

Tropical easterly jet stream blows over Indian peninsula(14 N)

Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air currents and the formation of high pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level

Upper air in this area is dominated by a westerly flow. (subtropical westerly jet streams, flows from west to east, 27 N - 30 N)Jet streams flow in troposphereThis jet stream blows south of himalayas all year except in summer. This westerly flow brings in westerly cyclonic disturbances from the Mediterranean during Indian winterTropical cyclones can occur during monsoon as well as in October-November.

Monsoon:Monsoon arrives in the first week of June at the southern tip of Indian peninsula. Arabian sea branch Reaches Mumbai on 10 june. By mid june reaches saurashtra-kutch and central India Bay of Bengal branch Arrives in assam in first week of June Deflected my mountains to the east Reaches delhi by end of juneBy early dec monsoon has withdrawn from the country.During winter NE trade winds prevail over the country. They blow from land to sea and hence ethere is no rainfall. However, there is rainfall in TN as here the lands blow from sea to land.Summer:Due to the apparent northward movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts northwards. Towards the end of may an elongated low p region is generated between thar desert and chotanagpur plateau.Loo is a hot wind, pre monsoon mango showers I Karnataka, kerala.Advancing monsoon(rainy season):Breaks in monsoon are related to monsoon trough. RiversDrainage patternsDendritic:rivers follow slopeTrellis: due to rock patternRectangular radialHimalayan riversLonger coursesIntense erosional activityDuring their middle and lower courses they form ox bows, meandersPeninsula rivers

IndusZaskar, nubra, shyok, hunzaManasarovar, tibetGilgit baltistanGentle slope

gangaYamuna, ghagara, gandak, kosi, Chambal,betwa and sonGangotri glacierBhagirathi+alakananda at devaprayagYamuna meets ganga at AllahabadFlows eastward till farakka in WBSplits, main stream goes into BDesh

brahmaputraCalled dihand when it enters APDibang,lohit,kenula,manasarovarIn tibit, carries less ilt as rocks are hard and climate is dryMajuli river island in assam

narmadaAmarkantak hillsDhuadhar falls

tapisatpura

godavariPurna, wardha, pranahitha, manjira, waiganga, pengangaNasik, MH

krishnaTungabhadra,koyana,ghatprabha,musi,bhimamahabaleshwar

kaveriAmravati,bhavini,hemavati,kabiniBrahmagiri range of western ghats

Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoirSediment deposited in reservoir should decrease, and downstream must increaseHills and mountainous regions-guls or kuls of western Himalayas diversion channelsIn arid areas, agricultural fields were converted into rainfed storage areas that allowed water to stand and moisten the soil called khadins in jaisalmer and johads in some place elseUnderground tanks-tankas in RJMeghalaya-bamboo drip irrigation systemHighest total replenishable water system gangaPULSES OIL SEEDS HAVE low water requirement.Economic geographyBruntland commission-sustainable developmentAlluvial soilsNorthern plainsBangar, khaddar(more fertile)Bangar has more kankar.Potash, phosphoric acid, limeSugarcane, paddy,wheat,cereals,pulses

Black soilsDeccan trapClayey material, holds moisturedevelop cracks during winter, better aeration of soilCalcium carbonate, potash and lime Mg,poor in phosphoric contenet

Read and yellow soils Areas of low rainfall in eastern and southern deccan plateau, Orissa, chattisgarh

Laterite nsoilsHeavy rain+high tempHumusm content of soil is low as bacteria is destroyed by high tTea coffee cashew

Strip cropping: grass is grown between strips of crops to break force of windLand degradation in Punjab due to over irrigationMineralsPeninsular rocks contain coal and metallic minerals, mica, non metallicSedimentary rocks on the western and eastern flanks of peninsula in Guj and assam have petroleumNothing in alluvial

Major iron ore belts in IndiaOrissa-jharkhandHigh grade hematite Badampahar mines in mayurbhanj and kendujhar districts of OrissaGua and noamundi in singhbum, jharkhand

Durg-bastar-chandrapurhematiteBailadila hills in bastarExported to japan, worst korea via vsk port

Bellary-chitradurga-chikmaglur-tumkurKudermukh mines in western ghas of karnataka

Maharashtra goaMarmagao port

Orissa-largest producer of Mn, bauxite(bauxite in panchpatmali deposits in koraput)Copper-balaghat mines(MP),singhbum(Jharkhand),khetri mines(rajasthan)Bauxite-amarkantak plateau, maikal hills and plateau region of bilaspur-khatniMica-koderma in jharkand(largest), Nellore, ajmerChota Nagpur plateau is a store house of minerals like mica, bauxite, copper, limestone, iron ore and coal. The Damodar valley is rich in coal and it is considered as the prime centre of coaking coal in the country. Massive coal deposits are found in the central basin spreading over 2,883 km2. The important coalfields in the basin are Jharia, Raniganj, West Bokaro, East Bokaro, Ramgarh, South Karanpura and North Karanpura.IndustriesFirst textile mill in Mumbai, 1854First jute mill in Kolkata, 1859Cement Chennai 1904, uses limestone as a raw materialIndia has world class spinning, but weaving supplies low quality of fabric as it cannot use much of the high quality yarn produced in the country. Weaving is done by handloom, powerloom and in the millsLifelines of national economyGolden quadrilateral-delhi Kolkata Chennai MumbaiNorth south corridor-srinagar kanyakumariEast west corridor- silchar porbandarNH1 delhi- AmritsarNH2 delhi-kolkataNH7 varanasi kanyakumari via Jabalpur,Nagpur, Hyderabad, Bangalore and MaduraiNH8 delhi MumbaiNH15- covers most of RJDistrict roads are maintained by zilla parishadBimportant pipelinesUpper assam to KanpurVia gauhati, barauni, AllahabadSalaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in PunjabVia viramgam, Mathura, delhi and sonipatHazira in GJ to jagdishpur in UP

WaterwaysAllahabad to haldiaSadiya-dhubriWest coast canal in kerala, kottapuram to kollam

Vsp is the deepest landlocked and well protected port.Damodar valley coal

Gaddi tribe in himachal Pradesh, bhils in Madhya pradesh

16 railway zonesEast central-hazipurNorth central-allahabadSouth east bilaspurSouth west hubli

Chiru-tibetan antelope

Largest linghuistic group of India-indo Aryan

India year book

Western himalayaChir, pine, other conifers, broad leaved temperate trees

Higher upDeodar, blue pine, spruce, silver fir

Alpine zone(above 2 level)High level silver fir, silver birch, junipers

Temperate zone of eastern himalayasOaks, laurels, maples, rhododendron, alder and birch(BROMAL)

World geographyPeople are human resourcesOpen cast mining, shaft miningGenerally igneous rocks contain metallic minerals, non metallic minerals in sedimentary rocks of younf fold mountainsCaucasus of France has limestoneBrazil-largest producer of iron oreAustralia-goldChile largest producer of copperPittsburgh steel city in USAOsaka textile centre of japan-manchester of japanIndia is the largest producer and exporter of micaBio gas causes green house effectBiogas: organic waste is decompose bya abacyteria to emit bio gas which is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxidePopulation pyramid: percentage of age group vs ageEnvironment forcing us to do things in a certain way: environmental determinism, opposite is possibilismNeo determinism : middle pathDemographic transition theory:Bhigh birth rates, high death rates, illiterates to low births low deaths literateBhighest sex ratio latvia-potatoTruck farming-veggies onlyCooperative farming most successful-denmarkExtensive commercial grain cultivation: grasslands(prairies, pampas, steppes)Footloosee industries: main factor is road connectivityA form of outsourcing in which knowledge- and information-related work is carried out by workers in a different company or by a subsidiary of the same organization. This subsidiary may be in the same country or in an offshore location to save costs or other resources. Companies resort to knowledge process outsourcing when they have a shortage of skilled professionals and have the opportunity to hire skilled workers earning lower wages in another location for a lower overall cost.

With the global outsourcing sector showing steady growth, despite the looming slowdown, there have been many KPO and BPO units coming up especially in the developing nations. For a layman, both seem one and the same thing but in reality there is profound difference in KPO and BPO. Let us first define both the terms.

What is BPO?Business Process Outsourcing or BPO is outsourcing of some of the business functions to a third party in order to save money. It usually consists of the back office or front office operations. While front office services are related to client interaction and customer support, back office services are related to finance and HR. If outsourcing is done to a company situated outside the parent company's country, it is known asoffshore outsourcing.

What is KPO?Knowledge Process Outsourcing or KPO is a subset of BPO. KPO involves outsourcing of core functions which may or may not give cost benefit to the parent company but surely helps in value addition. The processes which are outsourced to KPOs are usually more specialized and knowledge based as compared to BPOs. Services included in KPO are related to R&D, Capital and insurance market services, legal services, biotechnology, animation and design, etc. are the usual activities that are outsourced to KPOs. LPO or Legal Process Outsourcing is special type of KPO dealing with legal services.

Difference between BPO and KPO, which one is better?As we saw earlier, BPOs usually deal with fringe business activities such as customer care, finance and HR and at the same time, the USP of a BPO is their being cost effective. Companies usually outsource such processes to BPOs which are not directly linked to its value chain. And the motive behind such outsourcing is directly linked to cost reduction. On the other hand, highly specialised and knowledge based services are outsourced to KPOs. These activities are directly related to core offering of parent company. The motive behind such outsourcing is not only to reduce cost but to get specialised solutions for which availing in-house resources might be tough.The difference in BPOs and KPOs can also be judged by the way they hire people. While basic education may be enough for you to get a BPO job but a KPO job requires you to be competent in a particular field. Also, the training provided by the KPOs is more rigorous and sector specific. So if you are a 'Jack of all trades', KPOs may not be the right choice for you.Even businesses outsourcing their services to KPOs do a more extensive research before giving a contract to a particular KPO, as a good KPO can be the differentiating factor between a good market offering and a bad one.So if you compare the functionalities and expertise involved,KPOs are far better than BPOs,but both of them help businesses to streamline their operations and making them cost effective.

Why KPOs are emerging at a rapid pace now?1) Lack of highly qualified professionals in developed countries.2) BPOs are shifting further east to Philippines and Bangladesh, thus India is exploring KPOs as the next big thing for them.3) As the US Govt is reducing bpos, India might have to look at kposTrans continental stuart highwayDarwin-melbourne

Moscow Vladivostok highway

Channel tunnel(rail)London - paris

Buenos aires-valparaiso(rail)

Trans siberianSt petersburgh vladivostok

Trans canadianHalifax vancouver

Australian trans continentalPerth sydney

Orient expParis Istanbul via strasbourgh, munich, Vienna, Budapest, belgrade

Port said EgyptAden yemenBig inch pipeline carries petroleum from oil wells of gulf of mexico to north eastern staesBig trunk route- north atlantic oceanInland ports are away from the sea coast-kolkataoldest well documented urban settlement-mesopotamia