Geomorphic context of the prehistoric Huastec ﬂoodplain ...sociales.uaslp.mx/Documents/Licenciaturas...agriculture, while swidden was limited to the hilly up-lands. Additionally,

Geomorphic context of the prehistoric Huastec floodplainenvironments: lower Panuco basin, Mexico

Paul F. Hudsona*aDepartment of Geography, University of Texas at Austin, GRG 334, Austin, TX 78712-1098, USA

Received 18 March 2003; received in revised form 19 May 2003; accepted 2 June 2003

Abstract

The Huasteca of eastern Mexico is the northern extent of prehistoric Mesoamerican complex culture. In comparison to othermajor Mesoamerican culture regions, much less is known about the physical environment of the Huasteca. This paper examines thestructure, scale, and dynamics of floodplain environments in the lower Panuco basin, the major physical setting in which prehistoricHuastec resided. Data sources included total-station surveying, topographic and historic maps, particle size of floodplain deposits,and analysis of air photos and satellite imagery. Study results illustrate the geoarchaeological significance of spatial changes infloodplain environments. Valley profiles grade from concave to planar in the upper portions of the study area, where the RioMoctezuma exits the mountains, and are characterized by low floodplain relief and active floodplain reworking. Thus, the narrowvalley and dynamic fluvial environment would not have been suitable for sustained habitation. The lower Moctezuma and Panucovalleys have a convex profile with low rates of floodplain reworking, relict meander belts, and floodplain environments that are moreprone to flooding. The Panuco valley would have represented a stable environment suitable for habitation along wide natural levees,which are perched above extensive flood prone backswamps with buried relict channels. The absence of multiple oxbow lakescoupled with the association of older Huastec material culture along the active channel suggests that low rates of floodplainreworking have persisted since the late-Holocene, and help to constrain the age of a meander belt for a major river system. Studyresults provide a framework for future geoarchaeological research within the Huasteca.� 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Huasteca—Huaxteca, Rio Panuco, Moctezuma, Mexico; Meander belts; Floodplains; Geoarchaeology

1. Introduction

Prehistoric settlements were located along rivers forresources, transportation, and fertile soils for agricul-ture, and there is a close correlation between humanadaptive patterns and the morphology and dynamics offloodplain environments [7,9]. Alluvial geoarchaeologydepends on an understanding of floodplain morphologyand channel dynamics [4,6]. Although floodplains aresubtle landscapes, each type of floodplain deposit ishydrologically discrete, and therefore has distinct en-vironmental implications to humans. The risk of flood-ing and amount of arable land are two fundamental

characteristics of floodplain environments that must bemet for sustained habitation, but the risk of floodplainerosion is also important [6,39]. Excluding low Holoceneterraces, natural levees are the optimum site forhabitation due to the lower risk of flooding, and alsobecause they provide arable land for agriculture[7,10,21,22,39,45]. In many large river systems naturallevees grade to floodplain bottoms, which may includebackswamps. Prehistoric agriculture had long utilizedthe transition between levee backslopes and back-swamps for intensifying agricultural production[10,14,67]. Within a single river system natural leveesvary in their width and height above the floodplainbottoms, presenting considerable diversity in the landsuitable for human habitation and manipulation. Natu-ral levees are eroded at channel cutbanks, resulting insignificant variability in the size of natural levees. In

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-512-232-1554; fax:+1-512-471-5049

E-mail address: [email protected] (P.F. Hudson).

Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (2004) 653–668

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addition to representing a more hazardous setting [53],the erosion of levees also results in the loss of oldercultural materials, and can therefore bias the archaeo-logical record [24]. Some river valleys include extensiverelict channel systems. The associated natural leveespotentially increase the amount of space suitable forhuman habitation, or in the case of buried channelspotentially serve as a cultural archive. Within a largewatershed systematic changes in fluvial processes resultsin spatial variability in the size of natural levees,floodplain hydrology, and in channel erosion [32,34].

Prehistoric societies residing within alluvial settingsadjusted in response to floodplain hazards [53], or in thecase of more complex societies, imposed their ownculturally specific styles of technology and innovation toovercome specific floodplain conditions [6,9]. TheHuasteca culture region (Fig. 1) represents the northernextent of prehistoric Mesoamerican complex society[12,15]. The lowland Huasteca is located along theMexican Gulf Coastal Plain of eastern San Luis Potosi,northern Veracruz, and southern Tamaulipas, and isstrongly associated with the floodplain environments ofthe lower Panuco basin [15,56]. The large river valleyscomprising the lower Panuco basin represent majorphysiographic alignments within the Huastec cultureregion. Moreover, they represent the landscape matrixwithin which the lowland Huastec resided and inter-acted, and thus were fundamental components of theirphysical environment. This study provides an overviewof the morphological framework and floodplain dynam-ics of the lowland Huastec environment. The studyexamines the fluvial environment the Huastec con-fronted, and may serve as a framework for moreextensive Holocene geoarchaeological research.

2. The lowland Huasteca

The prehistoric Huastec chronology was establishedby Ekholm [15] from a single site along the Rio Panuco(Table 1). The past six decades, however, have wit-nessed very little archeological research, in spite of theHuasteca’s status as a major Mesoamerican cultureregion [12,56,67]. When coupled with the dearth offundamental environmental information of easternMexico, the body of knowledge concerning the Huastecais particularly sparse, and stands in sharp contrast to ourunderstanding of other major Mesoamerican cultureregions. The Teenek are the major Indian group com-prising the region, but the Huasteca is hardly homo-geneous. Over different periods the Nahua, Tepehuas,Chichimec, and Totonac resided within portions of theHuasteca. An intriguing facet of Teenek culture is thatthey speak a primitive Mayan language [12,15], but it isunclear how and when this trait developed [2], particu-larly since their material culture is distinct. The prevail-ing theory is that the Teenek migrated north from theYucatan along the coastal plain prior to the develop-ment of the distinctive lowland Maya culture, and weresubsequently separated by the emergence of other indiangroups in Central Veracruz and Tabasco [2,15].

The first evidence for sedentary agriculture within theHuasteca is believed to date about 3400 BP, basedprimarily on correlation with the Mesoamerican period-ization (Table 1). The early Teenek lived in smallsettlements along major rivers [15,56]. The large valleysincluded extensive savanna in the floodplain bottomsand dense broadleaf tropical forests along the rivers [1].Although lower surfaces were seasonally flooded, higherfloodplain surfaces, such as natural levees and lowterraces, probably remained dry during most years andwould have provided ideal sites for habitation andagriculture. Humans have lived within the valleys sinceat least the mid-Holocene [1,52], but there is no reasonto believe that nomadic hunter–gatherers that precededthe Teenek would have significantly modified the land-scape. Within the river valleys agricultural intensifi-cation increased through the Late-Formative and isassociated with a more defined Huastec society (Table1), based primarily on floodplain agriculture, whichincluded numerous small urban centers [1,47,48].Sanders [56] suggested that the land adjacent to riverswas permanently cleared and intensively utilized foragriculture, while swidden was limited to the hilly up-lands. Additionally, large lagoons in the lower valleyprovided ample marine resources, and shellfish wereprobably as important as agriculture until 1100 BP [56].The Post-Classic Teenek were organized into smallindependent entities known after the Spanish Conquestas cabeceras, with smaller affiliated towns or sujetos.This period represents the apex of Teenek society andwas associated with a large increase in population, social

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Fig. 1. The Panuco drainage network and the Huasteca culture region.The study area includes the Lower Rio Moctezuma (#2) and the RioPanuco (#1). The Huasteca is delimited based on maps by Ochoa [65]and Trejo [52].

P.F. Hudson / Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (2004) 653–668654

and political stratification, an increasing influence ofreligious deities, and the development of a metallurgythat involved a sophisticated trade network with theTarascans in Michoacan [27,28]. Thus, in comparison toother major Mesoamerican culture regions the Huastecadeveloped much later. Moreover, this implies that thezenith of the Huastec culture developed on a floodplainvery similar to the modern floodplain surface.

Regression of the Huasteca prior to Conquest wasprobably due to the western and southern portions ofthe region being conquered by the Aztec Triple Alliancein the mid 15th century, while Chichimec peoples were aconstant threat along the northern frontier. The extentto which the Huastec manipulated their environment isnot known, but it was far from degraded. The popu-lation density on the eve of Conquest is estimated at70 persons per square kilometer [1]. At this time theTeenek were poorly organized and dispersed into smallsettlements. The introduction and subsequent intensivebreeding of cattle [13] and horses probably facilitatedthe conversion of the open savanna in the lower portionsof the valley to a woody thorn-savanna after Conquest[1]. The format of this land tenure system displacedremaining Teenek from river valleys to the upper coastalplain and eastern Sierra Madre Oriental [1]. Ochoa [52]suggested that channel irrigation could have occurred in

the Tamuin valley, although this has not been con-firmed. The later maturation of Huastec society and lackof centralization may have significantly limited the de-velopment of extensive floodplain agriculture systems,such as are located further south [68]. Scholars workingin Central Veracruz, south of the Huasteca, have re-ported wetland agriculture associated with levee back-slopes [59–62,68]. The physical setting associated withthese agricultural systems differs from the large valleyscomprising the lower Panuco basin. Additional infor-mation on the floodplain hydrology and valley mor-phology of the Huasteca is required before informedhypotheses can be generated, and extended acrosscultural boundaries to a region with varying physicalcharacteristics.

3. Meandering river dynamics and floodplain landscapes:Archaeological implications

Floodplains have long been a topic of investigationby geomorphologists and sedimentologists, but imbal-ances in research themes have precluded an understand-ing of how individual floodplain deposits are representedwithin the larger environment. Research by Melton [46],Russell [55], and Fisk [17] greatly contributed to our

Table 1Characteristics of Huasteca periods in relation to major Mesoamerican periods

Huastecaperiodsa,b

Characteristicsc General Mesoamerican periods (absolute dates–years BP)

Larger population, but increased stateletsPanuco VI Influence of Aztec Triple Alliance

Intense religious lifePost classic (1100–500)

Continued expansion and population recoveryLas Flores V Distinctive Teenek culture

Art and ball courts

Zaquil IVDevelopment of distinctive architectureIncrease in population

Classic (1700–1100)

Pithaya IIIDeclining populationInfluence of Teotihuacan and El Tajin

Development of true Mesoamerican cultureEl Prisco II Development of larger urban areas

Social stratificationLate Formative (2500–1700)

Chila IDevelopment of small villages along rivers and lagoonsBeginning of political organization

Aguilar

PonceDevelopment of first mounds along rivers and lagoons

Early–Middle Formative (3400–2500)Increased reliance on agriculture

PavonFirst sedentary agricultureHuman figurines Archaic (�3400)Small settlements along major rivers

Source: a,bfrom Ekholm [15] and Sanders [56], cbased on Merino and Garcıa-Cook [47,48] from Aguilar-Robledo [1].

P.F. Hudson / Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (2004) 653–668 655

knowledge of meandering river floodplains, but unfor-tunately the promise that these early works representedin terms of understanding meso-scale floodplain en-vironments was not initially fulfilled in later decades.Sedimentologists working within the Gulf Coastal Plainwere primarily interested in petroleum exploration andfocused on valley-fill chronologies and subsurface analy-sis. Because overbank deposits and not considered to beas significant to floodplain construction (e.g., [70]), thereis an under appreciation for their contribution to flood-plain landscapes. Fluvial geomorphologists, on the otherhand, used the theoretical foundation provided by thevarious works of Leopold and Wolman in the 1950sand 1960s to link increasingly rigorous deterministicapproaches to understand fluvial processes, and focusedat increasingly smaller scales. The result is a muchgreater understanding of channel reach hydraulics andflood sedimentation, but less of an understanding ofhow varying deposits formed by distinct fluvial processesare integrated at a landscape (valley) scale. The signifi-cance of these directions in floodplain research is thatnatural linkages with allied sciences, such as archae-ology, have are only recently being constructed, andremain incomplete. Work by Butzer [8,9] helps to estab-lish how combinations of alluvial valley deposits aremorphologically significant to human settlement. Thiswork offers an important conceptual framework forarchaeologists, but has not been expanded upon inarchaeological field research. When coupled with con-sideration of watershed-scale changes in hydraulic andsedimentary controls (e.g., [16,20,44]), the frameworkprovided by Butzer represents a promising avenue forcharacterizing systematic changes in floodplain styles(e.g., [51]) and their relevance to prehistoric humans.This approach is particularly appropriate where a singleculture region overlaps with a single drainage system,such as the Huasteca and Panuco of eastern Mexico(e.g., Fig. 1).

The potential for a floodplain surface to be occupiedand utilized is dependent on access to resources andsafety, with flooding and erosion being two primaryconcerns [6,39]. In large lowland floodplain environ-ments, subtle differences in topography results in signifi-cant differences in floodplain hydrology, with portionsof the floodplain being inundated while other portionsof the floodplain may remain dry (Fig. 2). Lowersurfaces may be seasonally inundated for severalmonths, imposing a significant constraint to humansettlement, or requiring substantial investment in laborand technology [6]. In large drainage systems floodingmay occur due to watershed-scale or local-scale mech-anisms. Local-scale flood mechanisms occur due toprecipitation falling within the lower reaches of thebasin, which limits flooding to floodplain bottoms, suchas backswamp environments. Flow paths associatedwith local-scale mechanisms include direct precipitation

on to floodplain bottoms, groundwater sapping atvalley margins, and small tributaries draining boundingterraces (Fig. 2). Watershed-scale generated mechanismsare associated with seasonal changes in atmosphericcirculation. This produces a predictable streamflowpulse, which is transported from the river channel tofloodplain via three distinct flow paths (Fig. 2). Theseinclude groundwater induced flooding of backswampsassociated with a rise in river stage, surface linkages suchas old channels and crevasse channels, and overbankflooding. Of the three, only the overtopping of leveeswill produce valley-wide inundation of all floodplainsurfaces. In large alluvial valleys having extensive back-swamps, these multiple flood mechanisms significantlylimit the availability of land suitable for habitat andagriculture, relegating most activity to natural levees[6,21]. Because natural levees are topographicallyperched above lower lying backswamp environmentsand constructed of coarser and more permeable sedi-ments, natural levees remain dry for most (or all) of theyear. Indeed, although backswamps flood on an annualbasis, natural levees are flooded much less frequentlyand quickly drain upon passage of the flood crest. LowHolocene terraces may occasionally be flooded duringextreme events, but are generally located above the levelof inundation.

Channel migration (floodplain erosion) represents animportant control on floodplain landscapes. Over longertime-scales (102 yrs), the rate of meander bend migrationcontrols the length of time for overbank sediments toaccumulate, which influences the height and width ofnatural levees (Fig. 3). Additionally, the expression ofmeander scroll topography on the floodplain landscapeis influenced by lateral migration. High rates of lateralmigration produce pronounced floodplain meanderscroll (ridge and swale) tapering toward the channel(e.g., [26,46]), and smaller and steeper natural levees(Fig. 3). River valleys with laterally active channelsproduce a floodplain landscape that consists of numer-ous abandoned meander neck cutoffs having multipleoxbow lakes. These relict channels generally occur at thesame height as the active channel and represent suitablesites for occupation (e.g., [21]). Conversely, lower ratesof meander bend migration result in wider and highernatural levees, and less pronounced meander scrolltopography (Fig. 3). Thus, meandering river floodplainswith low rates of lateral migration are preferred sites forhuman occupation because of their stable nonerodingsurfaces, a greater area for occupation (wider naturallevees), and a lower risk of flooding. Additionally, lowerrates of floodplain reworking increase the potential forcultural materials to be preserved within the floodplainrecord.

Archaeologists and geomorphologists can mutuallybenefit from cross-correlation of cultural materials withgeomorphic surfaces, which enables both disciplines


to extend their understanding of the environment ofa specific place over a given period of time. Theassociation between archaeology and geomorphology,however, is not always straight forward, particularlywhen considering the correlation of cultural materials ina meandering river floodplain environment. Kidder [39],in a comprehensive review of the Lower MississippiValley archaeology, discusses the concept of a ‘relictrule’, which implies the majority of prehistoric flood-plain inhabitants settled on the banks of recently aban-doned channels rather than active channels, whichsubsequently cutoff. Because relict channels are notsubject to lateral migration they are safer. Indeed, fewold cultural materials associated with large and complexsettlements were found along natural levees of activechannels, or were found to predate the meander bendcutoff. Alternatively, Heinrich [24] suggests that fluvialprocesses rather than cultural processes control the ageof cultural materials associated found along naturallevees. Older prehistoric materials are eroded and selec-tively removed from the cutbank with lateral migration

of a meander bend, resulting in much younger materialsto be found by archaeologists. Heinrich [24] notes thatalong the non-migrating Lower Mississippi River southof Baton Rouge, LA, mounds associated with ColesCreek and Plaquemines settlements are located onnatural levees flanking nearly every active meanderbend.

The floodplain topography of a large lowland alluvialvalley is inherently time-dependent, and thus has geo-archaeological significance [21,22]. Fig. 2 can be seen asfairly representative of the range in valley morphologyand floodplain environments represented in large coastalplain fluvial systems along passive continental margins.Within the floodplain units, the model includes threedistinct natural levee surfaces, which have implicationsto the chronology of human occupation within analluvial valley. The suitability of a floodplain for humanhabitation is considered to be a function of floodhazards, rates of lateral migration, floodplain relief,size of features, and also includes natural levees associ-ated with abandoned channels that have not been

Fig. 2. Geoarchaeology and flooding of a large lowland coastal plain river valley characterized by low rates of lateral migration. The active meanderbelt is perched above lower lying floodplain bottoms, which contain poorly drained clayey backswamps. Valley profile shows flow paths associatedwith local (solid arrows) and watershed-scale (dashed arrows) flooding, flood stage and floodplain inundation, and suitable floodplain sites forhuman occupation. (A) Relict natural levees buried by fine-grained sediments (clay) derived from local and upper catchment sources. (B) Naturallevees of a meander neck cutoff (oxbow lake) associated with the active meander belt. The surface is at approximately the same height as the activechannel. Note that the levee surface is partially buried, but remains generally above local flood levels. (C) Natural levees associated with the activechannel. Primitive settlements are located on older surfaces associated with buried relict channels, or higher Holocene terraces. Complex settlementsare associated with higher and younger surfaces. Bounding Pleistocene terrace would also be occupied, but is beyond the scope of this study.Modified from Hudson and Colditz [36].


significantly buried. The model assumes that thelevee framework represents the major depositionalenvironment for occupation and human activity[4,6,10,21,39,40,66]. Point bars may also be occupied [5],but are below the height of natural levees and moresusceptible to flooding. The oldest cultural materialswithin the floodplain are associated with a relictmeander belt (e.g., Fig. 2-A). If not completely buried,these channels would occur as slightly raised surfaces,but flood deposits would bury the natural levees. Relictchannels often function as arcuate sloughs or as part ofa yazoo-style stream (e.g., [57]). Because of the depth(age) of burial, the channels would most likely beassociated with primitive hunter–gatherers rather than acomplex settlement. The location of the materials wouldprimarily be located along the outside of the meanderbend and be constrained to the natural levee. Meanderneck cutoffs and natural levees associated with the activemeander belt are not as deeply buried as the relict system(e.g., Fig. 2-B). Depending on the date of cutoff and rateof sedimentation, natural levees may contain culturalmaterials spanning the greatest period of time. Suchsites could have been occupied by complex culturesbefore and after cutoff. The natural levees of the activechannel would presumably contain more recent culturalmaterials (e.g., Fig. 2-C), although this is largely depen-dent on rates of floodplain erosion and overbank sedi-mentation [21,24]. In river systems with high migrationrates, the entire prehistoric cultural record may havebeen reworked, a possibility seldom considered in

‘sequences’ of Paleolithic alluvial archaeology, such as inEurope or Africa.

4. Physical setting

The Panuco basin (98,227 km2) drains three majorphysical regions, the arid to semi-arid Central Plateau,the north–south trending Sierra Madre Oriental, and theGulf Coastal Plain. The Mexican Gulf Coastal Plainextends 90-km from the coast, and terminates abruptlywith the Sierra Madre Oriental. Coastal plain depositsconsist primarily of Tertiary shale with thin beds offriable sandstone, and Upper Cretaceous limestone–shale [29,30,50]. The Panuco forms at the confluence ofthe Rio Tamuin (33,260 km2) and Rio Moctezuma(42,726 km2), after they cross the Sierra Madre Orientaland enter the coastal plain. River valleys within thelower Panuco basin exhibit systematic variability inwidth, slope, and floodplain style [31]. The floodplaingrades from a narrow and laterally accreting floodplainwhere the Moctezuma exits the mountains, to a flood-plain primarily constructed by overbank sedimentationin the lower portions of the study area.

Precipitation increases towards the east, with thehighest annual precipitation of 2400-mm occurringalong the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental([25], in press). The climate within the Huasteca isclassified as Koppen Aw, which reflects the strongseasonal variation in precipitation between the dry win-ter and wet summers. Precipitation is associated with thenorthern migration of the ITCS [38,49]. Precipitationalone the coastal plain sharply increases north andsouth of the Panuco valley [37], reflecting the Panuco’slocation near the boundary between westerly midlati-tude flow and easterly tradewinds and tropical cyclones.Although there is a dearth of climate change researchwithin the Huasteca region, paleoecological research insouthern Veracruz provides evidence for a drier Classic[19], which coincides with a longer period of reducedprecipitation in central Mexico [11].

5. Data and methods

A variety of data sources and methods were utilizedto characterize the Holocene valley morphology. Thiswas necessary due to the inadequacy of existing pub-lished maps that have a 10 or 20 m contour resolutionwithin the river valleys, and the extensive size of thestudy area. The Holocene valley was delineated byanalysis of 1993 Landsat 5 and 2000 Landsat 7 imagery(30 m spatial resolution), 2002 ASTER imagery (15 mspatial resolution), a digital elevation model (DEM)created from kinematic GPS surveying and syntheticaperture RADAR (SAR) data, black and white pan-chromatic air photos (1:20,000 and 1:40,000) fromInstituto Nacional de Estadistica Geografıa e Informatica

High rates of channel migration

A

Low rates of channel migration

B

Older floodplain

Channel /pointbar

LeveeFloodplainbottoms

Fig. 3. Relationship between rates of meander bend migration andfloodplain topography. A. Higher rates of lateral migration result inpronounced meander scroll topography (ridge and swale) sloping tochannel surface, and smaller natural levees. B. Lower rates of lateralmigration results in larger and more stable natural levee surfaces.


Fig. 4. Lower Moctezuma and Panuco Holocene valley. The figure shows relict channels, meander belts, and the location of survey transects. Relictchannels are most common in the Moctezuma valley downstream of the Rio Axtla. Laguna la Herradura is the only oxbow lake associated with theactive Panuco meander belt.


Hei

ght

(m)

a.

90

95

100

105

0 50 100 150

Holocene

Ple

isto

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Rel

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90

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0 500 1000 1500

c.

Rel

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Res

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Relict meander belt

0 500 1000 1500

Ter

tiar

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lley

mar

gins

Floodplain

b.

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

d.

Ple

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Backswamp basin

Rel

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C. Pánuco

Rel

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l

Res

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wit

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ace

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Point bar

Floodplain bottoms

f.

Inset levee

Natural levee

Distance across floodplain (m)

e.

90

95

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0 500 1000 1500

Point bar Res

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Inset levee

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Natural leveeFloodplain bottoms

0 500 1000 1500

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Backswamp


(INEGI), Total-stations surveying, and field obser-vations from five trips. The Landsat 5 scene wasacquired several days after a major hurricanegenerated flood event and was particularly useful fordelineation of the Holocene surface (e.g., [33]). Thewidth of the meander belt was measured across the zoneof recent meander activity perpendicular to a valley axis,which was defined based on meander bend amplitude,recent channel cutoffs, and the width of natural levees(i.e., as shown in Fig. 2). Channel migration rates,meters per year (m/yr), were estimated by measuring thedistance between successive channel boundaries mappedfrom air photos and topographic maps in a GIS,and dividing the total offset channel distance by thenumber of years. Floodplain sediments were sampled atseveral locations to characterize the range of variabilitywithin different floodplain environments. Methods forparticle size analysis followed standard procedures (e.g.,[18]), and included wet sieving and hydrometer analysisin the Applied Geomorphology and GeoarchaeologyLaboratory in the Department of Geography,University of Texas.

6. Holocene valley morphology6.1. Valley characteristics

The Holocene Moctezuma–Panuco valley within theGulf Coastal Plain is shown in Fig. 4. Along most

portions of the Moctezuma–Panuco valley the Holocenesurface is directly in contact with Tertiary units. Incontrast to US Gulf Coastal Plain fluvial systems, thePleistocene accounts for a much smaller proportionof the overall Quaternary geology. The Pleistocene ismost abundant within the lower Moctezuma valley andincludes three distinct surfaces (field observations). Thelow Pleistocene terrace is 3 m above the relict floodplainof the Moctezuma (Fig. 5a). The Holocene valley in-creases in width downstream of the confluence of theRio Moctezuma with the Rio Amajac, along the bound-ary of the upper coastal plain with the mountains. Theaverage valley width of the upper segment is 3.9 km,while the average valley width of the lower Panucosegment is 17.2 km (Table 2).

The size and complexity of a meander belt representsa basic constraint to human habitation of a river valley[21,39]. In an alluvial valley characterized by lateralmigration, valley slope and accommodation space rep-resents a major control on meander belt size [3,58].Increases in meander belt width occur at tributaries dueto the mutual increase in sediment load and discharge(e.g., [69]), with prominent increases occurring at con-fluences with the Rio Axtla, Rio Tempoal, and RioTamuin (Fig. 6). The width of the meander belt rangesfrom <1.0 km in the upper portions of the study area, toa high of 10 km in the Panuco valley. Maximum

Fig. 5. Survey transects characterizing selected reaches of the Moctezuma–Panuco Holocene valley. Arrows indicate position of active channel bank.Survey transects are referenced to Fig. 4.

a. Survey transect from relict channel bank to Pleistocene terrace. The Pleistocene terrace represents the lowest of three Pleistocene terraces withinthe Moctezuma valley, and is 3 m above the relict floodplain surface.

b. Survey transect across floodplain, from channel bank to Tertiary valley margins in upper portions of study area.c. Survey transect from Moctezuma cutbank, across a residual terrace to the relict meander belt. The bank of the relict channel is clearly discernible

in the survey transect.d. Survey transect of backswamp basin, from Pleistocene valley margins to Ciudad Panuco. The backswamp basin is 11 m below the residual terrace

and contains two buried relict channels. The survey transect ends at the southern edge of Ciudad Panuco, although the surface slopes toward thecity plaza (bold line based on field observations, but not surveyed). Ekholm [15] suggests prehistoric Huastec raised the surface.

e. Survey transect across a Moctezuma point bar to a residual terrace with numerous mounds. An inset levee is burying a pointbar.f. Survey transect across a pointbar on the Moctezuma to the floodplain bottoms.g. Small Rio Moctezuma natural levee, upstream of El Higo.h. Large Rio Panuco natural levee, upstream of Ciudad Panuco.

Table 2Moctezuma–Panuco valley characteristics

Valley segments Valley width(km)a

Meander beltwidth (km)

Accommodation index(%): Wv/Wmb

bMigration rates(m/yr)

Valleyreworking (yrs)

Holocene valleyrelief (m)

Upper Moctezuma: RioAmajac–Rio Tempoal

3.9 3.2 83 10.0 390 5

Lower Moctezuma: RioTempoal–Rio Tamuin

13.3 6.3 47 3.8 3500 9

Upper Panuco: RioTamuin–C. Panuco

15.0 8.4 56 4.0 3750 9

Lower Panuco: C.Panuco–Rio Tamesı

17.2 5.5 32 1.5 11,467 11

aFrom Hudson [31].bWv=valley width, Wmb=width of meander belt.


meander belt width occurs in the middle reaches of thePanuco valley, at the only ox-bow lake (Laguna deHerradura) associated with the active Panuco meanderbelt (Fig. 4). The absence of recent channel cutoffsreflects low rates of lateral migration that must havecharacterized the system over at least the last millennia,and probably longer (discussed below). A departure tothe increasing trend of meander belt width occurs in thelower reaches of the study area. In comparison to theupper Panuco meander belt, the meander belt widthdecreases, from 8.5 to 5.5 km (Table 2). Although therelationship between drainage area and valley widthdisplays a linear trend [31], the relationship betweenvalley distance and meander belt width exhibits a curvi-linear trend. The reduction in migration rates and sedi-ment size in the lower reaches of the valley results in thedata being best fit with a second-order polynomialfunction (R2=0.62).

Because it elucidates relationships between humansettlements and riparian resources, mapping paleo-channels (relict, abandoned) is a fundamental task ofany alluvial geoarchaeological study [3]. There is greatdiversity to the mapped relict channels within theMoctezuma–Panuco valley (Fig. 4) in terms of size,geometry, depth of burial, and relation to floodplainhydrology. Most relict channels are associated with theMoctezuma valley downstream of the Rio Axtla. Farfewer relict channels were noted in the Panuco valley,particularly downstream of Ciudad Panuco. Relict chan-nels within the Panuco valley tend to be hydrologicallyconnected to larger backswamp basins or function as“yazoo” style streams [31]. Based on topographic data,field observations, and remote sensing analysis, the relict

channels within the lower Moctezuma and Panucovalleys are organized into relict meander belts. In thelower Moctezuma a conspicuous relict meander belt islocated west of the active channel (Fig. 4). The Panucoincludes a meander belt south of the active channel,and a less well-defined meander belt in the upperPanuco valley (probably part of the same relict meanderbelt).

Within the river valleys, Huastec material culture isprimarily associated with natural levee environments,which were intensively used for agriculture [56]. Whilenatural levees have coarser sediments than lower lyingfloodplain bottoms (e.g., Fig. 2), most of the sand andcoarse silt is immediately adjacent to the river channel[32]. Within the context of large lowland river systemsnatural levee environments also include fine-grainedflood deposits [32], which is an important considerationfor the recognition of buried levee deposits and eventualrecovery of cultural materials. The median particle size(D50) of natural levee deposits (0.2 m depth at thecutbank) decreases from 0.14 mm downstream of theRio Axtla, to 0.016 mm upstream of the Rio Tamesı.Fig. 7 shows the percent sand (% <0.0625 mm) of a4.0 m section of a “typical” Rio Panuco cutbank.Overall, the increase in % sand reflects a coarsening-uptrend in grain size. D50 varies from 0.007 mm at 4.0 m,presumably representing the former tail of the naturallevee exposed in the cutbank, to 0.044 mm near thesurface. The larger coarsening-up trend can be explainedby the progradational nature of natural levee deposits,associated with the sorting of flood sediments andsimultaneous lateral migration. However, the % sand isuniform between 1.4 and 3.0 m. There are two possibleexplanations for this trend. Hudson and Heitmuller [32]note a disparity between the lateral trend in grain sizeand the morphology of natural levees. Their data foundthat the particle size of natural levee sediments rapidlydecreases from sand to clay from the channel bank tothe mid-slope of the levee. For example, for the leveesurface shown in Fig. 5h, D50 decreases to 0.0085 mmwithin 500 m from the channel. Thus, the sedimentsuggests a clayey backswamp environment, althoughmorphologically the natural levee continues for anadditional 952 m. This may be due to flocculation ofoverbank sediments [23], which would result in claysbeing deposited as larger aggregate particles on leveemidslopes, and thus help to explain the lack of varia-bility between 1.4 and 3.0 m in Fig. 7. Alternatively, thismay be the result of local-scale flood mechanisms, whichresults in an increase in the frequency and duration ofinundation for the lower levee surface (e.g., Fig. 2).Thus, in the case of complex cultures residing withinfloodplains it may be that the height (Fig. 2-B, C)of natural levees is a more important attribute ofthese environments than the sedimentology (drainage).Indeed, prehistoric agricultural systems associated with

Rio

Tam

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ila

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o

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vg.W

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y = -0.0005x2 + 0.0839x + 2.9861

R2 = 0.6232

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0 50 100 150 200

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Fig. 6. Meander belt width, and percentage of valley width occupiedby meander belt for major valley segments along the Moctezuma–Panuco valleys. A second-order polynomial trend line is fit to themeander belt width data.


natural levee environments were typically located at thelower portions of levees to take advantage of seasonalbackswamp flooding [60,62]. It should be noted that, aswith most Rio Panuco cutbanks, there was abundantcultural material and several charcoal layers con-tained within the exposure. Cultural materials weregenerally not noted below w4.0 m, which providesevidence that settlement was constrained to natural leveeenvironments.

6.2. Space, time, and floodplain complexity

6.2.1. Channel and floodplain interactionSpatial variability in rates of floodplain erosion [34]

has implications to the stability of a surface, but also thepreservation and management of prehistoric materialculture [21,24,39,53]. The data in Table 2 show thatmigration rates in the upper study area are higher thanin the lower portions of the Moctezuma and Panucovalleys. Migration rates in the Moctezuma upstream ofEl Higo average 10.0 m/yr, but decrease to 3.8, 4.0, and1.5 m/yr in the lower Moctezuma and Panuco valleys.The low rates of migration in the lower Moctezuma aresurprising because of the increase in drainage area,which usually is associated with an increase in migrationrates [43]. The low rates of channel migration in thelower Moctezuma influence the pattern of sedimentationand floodplain topography, and may represent a regimechange. Survey transects of a Moctezuma point barprovide insight on the linkages between floodplaintopography and the low rates of migration. The surfaceof a typical point bar along the lower Moctezuma slopesaway from the river channel (Fig. 5e, f). Thus, inset

“levee” deposits are capping point bar deposits, and aregraded to the height of the older floodplain deposits.This phenomenon was not noted on pointbars upstreamof El Higo or within Rio Tamuin pointbars. Pointbarsalong the upper Panuco have a couple of meters ofoverbank deposition, while lower Panuco point barsdo not have appreciable “levee” deposits (field obser-vations). Moreover, along the Panuco, meander bendsappear to have been stable during the 20th century, anddid not undergo significant lateral adjustment. Based ona historic map from the 1920s [64], the position andgeometry of meander bends has not appreciablychanged (Fig. 8). When compared with recent data(satellite imagery) this suggests that low rates ofmigration have occurred throughout historical times,and possibly longer. Based on archaeological data theRio Panuco between the Rio Topila and Rio Tamesı hasmigrated 200 m since the Post-Classic [56], which con-servatively averages only 0.4 m/yr. The stability of thelower Panuco is likely due to downstream changes insedimentary and hydraulic controls, specifically lowmean stream power and cohesive channel banks (e.g.,[41,43]).

Based on migration rates and valley width, theamount of time for reworking valley deposits requires390 years for the upper Moctezuma valley segment, 3500years in the lower Moctezuma, 3750 years for the upperPanuco, and increases to 11,467 years for the lowerPanuco (Table 2). Estimating rates of floodplain re-working based on decadal migration rates assumes thatclimate remains constant, which has not been the casesince the mid-Holocene, or even during historicalperiods due to decadal-scale changes in the generalcirculation (e.g., [42]). Nevertheless, substantial differ-ences in rates of floodplain reworking between the upperand lower Moctezuma, and the upper and lower Panucoare evidence that there is an abrupt and significantlongitudinal change in the system downstream ofEl Higo. The major changes in rates of floodplainreworking corroborate with abrupt changes in meanstream power [31] calculated from independent datasources. Thus, the wider valleys of the lower Moctezumaand Panuco valleys are likely to record a much longerhistory of occupation.

6.2.2. Valley profile and floodplain reliefWithin a valley reach, the combination of floodplain

deposits result in a distinctive valley profile with signifi-cant hydrologic implications to human occupants.Between the Rio Amajac and the Rio Tempoal, surveydata and field observations reveal that valley cross-sections of Holocene deposits grade from a concave toplanar profile (Fig. 5b). In the uppermost sections of thevalley, upstream of the Rio Axtla, the meander beltlacks a complex suite of deposits due to constraints onlateral migration and flood sedimentation. Throughout

0

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th(m

)at

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nelb

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9080706050

Fig. 7. Grain size of 4.0 m section of “typical” Rio Panuco cutbankupstream of Ciudad Panuco (see Fig. 4 for reference), showing naturallevee trend (coarsening up). Cultural materials occurred from thesurface to w4.0 m.


much of this section the meander belt is juxtaposedagainst valley walls. On average the meander belt occu-pies 81.4% of the valley (Fig. 6), and in some reaches itapproaches w100%. Because of the narrower valley, theriver is restricted from developing the sufficient sinuosityand meander bend amplitude required for meander neckcutoffs and associated ox-bow lake environments. Thus,in this section of the valley the floodplain is primarilyconstructed by lateral accretion deposits [31]. The valleywidens as tributaries draining the eastern flanks of theSierra Madre Oriental enter the channel, and in thelower portions of this segment w75% of the valley isoccupied, which provides enough space for meanderbends to develop typical meander neck cutoffs andresulting ox-bow lakes (Fig. 4). Meander scroll is moresignificant to the floodplain topography within thisportion of the valley, associated with higher rates oflateral migration. Field observations and surveying didnot note floodplain relief exceeding w3 m, which isassociated with channel scars. There are also remnantsof an older Holocene floodplain surface w3 m above theactive floodplain. The topography and sedimentology ofthis valley segment is not suitable for backswamps, andthus permits agriculture to extend from the active chan-nel to the Tertiary valley margins. Natural levees do notrepresent a significant amount of relief (Fig. 5g), whichis likely due to the flood sediment regime and higherrates of channel migration. The narrow valley andabsence of significant raised floodplain surfaces does notrepresent an ideal setting for human settlement, particu-larly upstream of Tanquien de Escobedo. This settingwould likely require constant site modification or aban-donment due to a dynamically adjusting floodplainenvironment (e.g., [53]). Moreover, the potential for sitepreservation, particularly for sites older than w2000 BPis not promising due to the higher rates of floodplainreworking.

Coincident with a considerable reduction in valleygradient and increase in valley width (Table 2), flood-plain deposits become much more complex in the lowerMoctezuma valley, downstream of El Higo. The widthof the meander belt increases to 6.25 km, and the valleyhas a convex cross-sectional profile. The change inmeander belt morphology is largely a function ofthe higher suspended sediment load producing moreexpansive natural levees and the increase in discharge.Topographic surveys [32] show that natural levees in theMoctezuma average 747 m and result in 3.2 m offloodplain relief. In comparison to the upstream valleysegment, a larger proportion of the active meander beltincludes ox-bow lakes and partially infilled arcuatesloughs, which create a more complex floodplain land-scape and represent considerable diversity in flood-plain hydrology. Additionally, the greater number ofchannel cutoffs in this valley segment suggests that rivermigration rates may have been higher prior to thehistorical period. Relief within the active floodplainincreases to 6 m (Fig. 5e), defined as the difference fromthe pointbar surface to the scarp of the older floodplainsurface. Although the meander belt is much wider in thisportion of the valley, it accounts for only 47% of thevalley width (Table 2). This results in sufficient space forthe preservation of relict channels (Fig. 4). The valleycross-sectional profile is disrupted by the presence of anolder meander belt, separated from the active channel bya residual Holocene terrace (Fig. 5f, c). The greatestamount of relief within this valley segment occurs wherethe residual terrace is adjacent to the active channelbank, which in places creates 9 m of floodplain relief(Fig. 5c). The residual terrace located within the valley issignificant because it is elevated above the Moctezumaflood stage. Not surprisingly there are numerousmounds located on this surface, suggesting that it wasalso above flood stage during time of prehistoric

Trager 1926

INEGI 1984

C. Panuco

km0 20

N

Fig. 8. Comparison of historic maps for the Panuco valley. Older map is from Trager [64], and more recent map is from the INEGI [36]. The positionand morphology of the channel has not significantly changed.


occupation. The older Moctezuma meander belt consistsof several meander neck cutoffs and abandoned chan-nels. The continuity and preservation of the channelsystem suggests that it is not as old as the relict channelsin the Panuco valley (discussed below). Although theabandonment of this channel system likely predatesHuastec culture, relict channel surfaces could have beenoccupied because of providing a stable environmentwhile adjacent to riparian resources (e.g., [21]). Thus, theburied natural levees could contain cultural materialswhich, based on the size of the active channel would beconstrained to w750 m of the channel cutbanks(e.g., [32]). To the east of the active channel the meanderbelt grades to floodplain bottoms. This lower surfacecontains several buried relict channels w3 m below theheight of the active channel belt (Figs. 4 and 5e).

The greatest amount of floodplain relief occurs withinthe Panuco valley, which has a pronounced convexprofile. The Panuco valley has extensive backswampsand floodplain construction is currently dominatedby overbank processes [31]. At the confluence of theMoctezuma and Tamuin valleys the width increasesto 13.6 km, only slightly greater than the averageMoctezuma valley width (Table 2). The average mean-der belt width, however, increases to 8.4 km due to thecontribution of streamflow and sediment from the RioTamuin. In part this is due to the increase in naturallevee width along the active meander belt [32]. Addition-ally, unlike the Moctezuma valley, crevasse channels arelocated at the apex of most meander bends and contrib-ute to backswamp flooding during streamflow eventsbelow bankfull stage (e.g., Fig. 2). Fig. 5h provides anexample of the height that the meander belt is perchedabove backswamp environments. These data show 4.7 mof relief within a 1452 m transect. The median particlesize of the natural levee decreases from 0.029 mm at thechannel bank to 0.0028 mm at the tail of the levee, whichcompares with the grain size for the cutbank profileshown in Fig. 7. Natural levees are intensively used foragriculture (primarily sugarcane), but would have alsorepresented a formidable surface for prehistoric habi-tation. On average the larger meander belt occupies 56%of the valley, although in the lower reaches of thevalley it declines to 32%, coinciding with a reduction inmeander belt width. The narrowing of the meander beltoccurs due to a reduction in coarse sediment required forpoint-bar and levee construction, and the lower rates oflateral migration (e.g., [35]). The fine sediment (clay/silt)is transported further beyond the channel margins,contributing to construction of thick backswampdeposits. Thus, the wider valley provides sufficient spaceto preserve older floodplain deposits, while the thickbackswamp deposits effectively reduce rates of lateralmigration.

As previously noted, there are fewer paleochannelsand oxbow lakes visible on the floodplain surface in

the Panuco valley. However, analysis of air photos,Landsat, and ASTER data reveal infilled meander neckcutoffs and buried channels (e.g., Fig. 4). A surveytransect extending between C. Panuco and thePleistocene valley margins shows 11 m of valley relief(Fig. 5d). The surface at the northern end of thetransect, at C. Panuco, rises an additional w2–3 mtowards the town plaza (located along the river).Ekholm [15] suggests prehistoric Huastecs raised thefloodplain several meters, and indeed it is the onlysurface in the lower Panuco valley above historical floodlevels (field interviews, flood photos and satelliteimagery). The survey transect shows the presence of twoburied channels. Unlike in the lower Moctezuma valley,these channels are at a much lower surface than theactive channel. This implies that the channels are mucholder than the relict Moctezuma channels, and that thePanuco has been more stable over the late-Holocene,which has provided the active meander belt sufficienttime to aggrade. The backswamp basins within thePanuco valley are seasonally inundated due to localprecipitation and a rise in the water table associated withan in increase in river stage, and groundwater sappingfrom bounding terraces. The size of the backswampbasins increase down valley of C. Panuco, where asoutherly plunging anticline may represent a structuralcontrol on valley gradient and result in warping andsagging of the valley floor (e.g., [58]). Near the conflu-ence with the Rio Tamesı, backswamp basins (lakes)become large lagoons and encounter diurnal tidalexchanges [31].

In the Panuco valley prehistoric Huastec materialsare concentrated within the active meander belt. More-over, the presence of a single oxbow lake implies that theentire Huastec cultural sequence is essentially locatedalong the active channel, rather than distributed acrossmultiple meander neck cutoffs (e.g., [21]). The low rateof channel migration implies the preservation potentialfor Huastec materials is favorable. Based on the distri-bution and age of reported prehistoric Huastec materials[15,56], the active channel is at a minimum 2500 yearsold, and probably older. Relict channels had beenabandoned and become unsuitable for habitation priorto the development of Huastec culture, which probablyrelegates these channels to the mid-Holocene. This alsoimplies that the active meander belt had already gaineda topographic (i.e., flood) advantage over the relictchannels by aggradation (e.g., Fig. 2), which requiressignificant amounts of time. These conclusions aresupported by cultural materials from the Laguna laHerradura site (Fig. 4). This site contains a variety ofmounds that represent most of the Huastec culturalsequence [15,56]. The oldest mounds are on the naturallevee surface, which is clearly visible above the lowerlying backswamps [31], and date to about 2000 BP [56].However, there are also mounds located on the point


bar surface, inside of the meander bend. These moundsare younger and date to the Classic (1700–1100 BP),which implies that this surface was probably notoccupied until after the meander bend had cutoff.

In many large coastal plain fluvial systems a deltaicdistributary network compensates for the reduction inmeander belt width in the lower portions of the basin.Deltas contain multiple bifurcating channels, eitherco-functioning or in various stages of abandonment andburial due to subsidence and sedimentation. These sys-tems are remarkably stable (laterally) and are associatedwith broad natural levees [63,66] suitable for habitation[9,45]. Unlike other large Gulf Coastal Plain fluvialsystems, such as in Tabasco [66], Veracruz [59] or northof the Huasteca in Texas [54], the Panuco consists ofa single outlet confined between a ridge of resistantTertiary outcrop.

7. Conclusions

Lower Panuco basin river valleys were an intricatecomponent of the prehistoric Huasteca, a major Meso-american culture region. This study provides an over-view of the geoarchaeological framework of lowerPanuco basin floodplain environments. Changes in thestructure, size, dynamics, and complexity of floodplainsare inherently spatial, and systematically change asdrainage area increases towards the coast. The differ-ences in floodplain environments would have presentedvarying opportunities and challenges for floodplaininhabitants and should be examined within the contextof prehistoric Huastec settlement patterns.

The Rio Moctezuma grades from a concave toa planar profile between the Rio Amajac and RioTempoal, and is characterized by lateral accretion pro-cesses. In this valley segment natural levees are not asignificant component of the floodplain environment,although the absence of poorly drained backswampsenables agriculture to extend across the entire valley.The minimal floodplain relief limits the suitability of thissurface for prolonged settlement because of the concernwith flooding. Combined with higher rates of floodplainreworking, it is unlikely that this valley segment wouldyield significant amounts of prehistoric Huastec materialculture. The valley widens downstream of the RioTempoal and develops a convex profile, which is in partdue to larger natural levees. However, the wider valleypreserves an older meander belt that is separated fromthe active channel system by a residual terrace. The relictchannels are at about the same height as the activechannels but are not extensively buried. The channelsassociated with this relict meander belt would have likelybecome inactive prior to formation of Huastec culture,although the natural levees may have been suitable foroccupation after channel abandonment. The Panucovalley is characterized by a pronounced convex profile

with a single meander belt perched above buriedrelict channels and backswamps. Low rates of lateralmigration result in the meander belt having a singlemeander bend cutoff (oxbow lake). This valley segmentis characterized by considerable local-scale flooding,which constrains agriculture and settlement to naturallevees along the active channel. Buried relict channelsprobably predate the development of Huastec culture,but would likely contain evidence for the oldest andmost primitive floodplain inhabitants within the lowerPanuco basin.

The association of the prehistoric Huastec with theactive channel helps to constrain the age of a meanderbelt for a major river system. The stability of the RioPanuco over the last several millennia is impressive andhas implications with respect to the preservation andfuture study of Huastacan culture. In comparison toother major Mesoamerican culture regions, our knowl-edge of the Huasteca is in its infancy. Results from thisstudy present an optimistic future for the study of theinterrelations between the Huasteca and lower Panucosystem, and ultimately its scientific inscription within abroader geoarchaeological matrix.

Acknowledgements

I thank Karl W. Butzer and William E. Doolittle fordiscussion and suggestions. Support was provided bygrants from the Mellon Foundation, funded through theTeresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin AmericanStudies, and an Interdisciplinary Research Initiativefrom the University of Texas at Austin. The author isgrateful for field assistance from Miguel Aguilar-Robledo, Israel Razzo, and Humberto Reyes-Hernandez from the Universidad Nacional Autonomade Mexico (UNAM)–San Luis Potosi, SLP, and ArturoGarrido-Lopez at UNAM—Mexico, D.F. Rene Colditzworked on the remote sensing end of the study. I amespecially appreciative of the ranchers, farmers, andmany other hospitable residents of the Huasteca.

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