REVISED EDITION USEFll. REf1NC fOR! . fiRCHITECTORfiL THEORIESOFDESIGN BY:CiORGE:S. Slll.\JIIN INTERIOR.DESIGNEJ!S ARCHITECTURAL THEORY OFDESIGN THENEW LADDER TYPECURRICULUM GEORGE SALINDA SALVAN... fuap ASSISTANT PROFESSOR College of Engineering and Architecture Baguio CollegesFoundation 1980-1988 First andlone graduateof B.S.Architecture,1963 North ofManila,St.LouisUniversityBaguioCity Former instructor 1965-1969 at St.louis University Recipient of various ACE certificates,Architects Continuing EducationProgram AlicensedArchitect,active practitioner and a licensedbuilding constructor,inventor and a boardtopnotcher. Past presidentofUnitedArchitectsPhils.BaguioChapter1982 and1983 ElectedNationalDirector;UAP,RegionalDistrict. I for theyear1987. Conferredthe title of " FELLOW"United Architects Phils. College of Fellows,October,1988 JMCPRESSINC. 388 QuezonAvenue,QuezonCity Philippine Copyright 1999 by: JMC PRESS,INC. and GEORGES. SALVAN All rights reserved. No part of this book may bein any manner without permission of the publisher. FIRST EDITION,1986 SECOND EDITION,1993 THIRD EDITION,1999 ISBN:971 -11 -1 027-X Published and Printed by: JMC PRESS, INC. 388 QuezonAvenue, Quezon City Tel.Nos.:410-9534 781-9187 Telefax: 712-4929 E-mail Address: jmcpress@info.com.ph Distributed by: GOODWILLBOOKSTORE 388 QuezonAvenue, Quezon City Tel.Nos.: 732-7433/36 410-6070 Fax No.: 7 41 -4289 E-mail Address: wholesale@gbs-one.com Web Site: http://www.goodwillbookstore.com Dedicated to allfuture Architects The hope for a functional,comfortable andconvenient designs for better living. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thecompletionof thisbookwas made into realitythroughthepatientandhardworking artist and graduate of architecture, Mr. Jerry Jun Suyat who spent sleepless nights with the illustrations and allof the layouts of the dummy. Special thanks and mention is also acknowledged to the artists who made all the illustrations notably,ClamorLecitona from NU, who also preparedthe cover,Johnny Camsol,Fermin Balangcod,Roy Pagador,Rey Puno,all from BCF andReesa AngelaPalaganasof SLU. To those who lent unselfishly their books,likeArchitectMikeCaluza,FeOespabil aderas, DeanAvelino Cruz of BCF, and to theBCF library through Ms. Macabiog for understanding my late returnsof borrowed books. To Mr. Luis V.Canave who guided me on the complete process of publishing and printing of booksandtoMr.FranciscoC.Malicsi,TeresitaG.Espinoza,EduardoC.Villanuevaand Enrico P.Gomez for t heir untiring cooperation in preparingthe manuscripts typewrittenby Thelmai. Villareal,in computerized typesetting. The many students of architecture whose curiosity about andinterest inthe Theory of Designandits realizationin book formhave beena sourceof inspiration. v PREFACE The practice of Architecture invol ves both the conceptionof an ideaand its ultimate expres-sion in building materials. The process of developing this idea to a point at which a sol ution of the problem at hand is reached is known as "Architectural Design". Design must concern itself with both the practical and the aesthetic.if the resulting structure is to be satisfactory to anindividual or a community,thetwo must always becombinedandnot separated. For some time, students of architecture throughout the country have felt the need for a book dealing with generalideas concerning the Theory of Design, a book that would be in every senseintroductory, defining the various approaches.outlining the different technicalprob-lems-and relating these two types of material to the creative side of art as well as to its uses ineverydaylife. Contemporary principles are concerned with planning for human needs and are not confined to the field of architecture alone.Science, Sociology, andEconomics also contribute to be successful design of a building.The Architect of Today must be conscious of the character of present-daycultureandits effectsuponthebuildingwhichhousetheactivitiesof this civilization.Hemust designinterms ofhisphysical and social environment. Since.this author has been teaching the Theory of Design subject.way back in1965,there has oeen somany changes,notably new products in plastics and glass which gave us new conceptions of the extent of space,while the abili ty to heat andlight our interiors more effi -ciently hasimparted a different quality to the shelters inwhichwe work.play and rest.All theseinnovationstakentogetherhavemadepossibletheopen,flexibleplan,andthus architecture has changedin character. Realizing this fast growing changes inArchitecturalDesign as seen in the forms,shapes and imageswhichrespondtoproject needs,theMinistry ofEducation incooperation with the United Architects Philippines met sometime in 1979 to revise the Architectural Curriculum to a 5-year step ladder course,andcameup with a more relevantsyllabus for The Theory of ArchitecturalDesign.Scanningthe subject matters,the authors realizedthat not less than 30booksanddifferent topics isneededforreferences.Thisisthereasonthatledtothe author's compiling of notes to suit this new curriculum and infuse the new topics involved. Majorityofthe topicsonarchitecturaldesignarebehavioralrelationsbetweenmanand building,ecologicalinteractionsbetweenbuildingandnatureandtheroleof buildingin man's perceptionof andorientationto the cityscape. VII viii Briefly,the aims of this book are as follows:To outline a number of approaches to Design (Physical,religious, symbolic, historical, etc.). To describe and characterize the different techniques or media in design with their respective limitations and advantages;to conveyanideaofplanninganddesigningof theart object andof thebuilding. Other pur-poses of this bookisto provide practitioners and students of designing andplanning with a review of thenew designmethods and with examples of each.It may alsobeof interest to anyone outsidethedesignprofessions who is concernedwithcreativebehaviour andwith technological change. Thechapters arearrangedin sequence,Part Iis for the first semester which dealsmostly with forms and Part II is for the second semester which deals with spaces. Each topic is sum-marizedinsuchamanner asto guide the instructor to finishanddiscussalltopics in the alloted timeof more than 40 hours per semester. LIST OFCONTENTS -PART ONE-(FORMS- TWO-DIMENSION) Chapter1INFLUENCE ON ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN................. ..... .....1 GeneralInfluence, 2 InfluenceofNature,3 Essentials of the Structure,18 Invisible St ructure,18 VisibleStructure,19 Form,Surface,Texture, Tone andColor,61 Chapter2CHROMATIC ENERGY OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PsychologicalEffectsofColor,70 Color as anExpressionElement of Design,74 69 Chapter3PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION..... .. .............................. .. ......79 Chapter Chapter Contrast,86 ProportionandAntrhopometrics,94 Scale,125 BalanceandGravitational Curves,129 Rhythm,138 Unity andHierarchy,142 Character,151 4PLAN COMPOSITION... ...... ........ .................................... ...... .159 Scheme,160 Secondary Principles,162 5VISUAL AOUITY AND PERCEPTION SpatialPerception,160 VisualorOptical Illusions.180 MonocularCuesto Depth,189 165 Chapter6CONCEPTUALIZATION TECHNIQUES OF DESIGN...............197 ArchitecturalConcepts,198 Creativity,205 Methodology' 210 Chapter7FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND ZONING... .......... ~........... .....215 Horizontal Disposition,216 Activity Analysis .andLinkages,2Z7 ix -PARTTWO-(SPACES -THREE-DIMENSION) Chapter8SPACE ARTICULAnON...... ...... . ....... .. .. .. ...... ..................... ....233 The Concept of Space,234 The Process of Space Organization,242 SpatialQualities,243 Space to Space Relationships,245 Spatial Organization,251 SpaceArticulation,265 KinestheticQualities of Space,275 Chapter9GEOMETRY.............................................. .... .. ........ .. ...............28 Appearance of theStructure,282 Forms andImage, 284 Circulation-Movement ThroughSpace,286 Stairs,299 Semantics,300 Signs,SignalsandSymbols,301 VisualExpressionofFunction, 314 VisualexpressionofMaterialProduction, 322 Chapter 10RESPONSE TO CONTEXT........ ..... . . . . . . . . . .... .. .. . . ...... .... .. ... .. .. .. .327 The BuildingEnvelope, 328 Energy andArchitecturalDesign,336 EnergyConsumptioninBuildings,336 BuildingProcess,337 EnvironmentalPlanning,341 Site Selection,342 Elements of Site Control,343 PassiveSolar Planning,348 BuildingDesign,Configuration, 359 Chapter11ENCLOSURE..... ........................ ............ .......... .. ......................371 Qualities of ArchitecturalSpace, -372 Openings,Structure andEnclosingPlanes,373 Degreeof Enclosure,Light andViews,373 Chapter12SYSTEMS.. . .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..387 X EnvironmentalConcepts andtheInterior,388 Mechanical andElectricalSystems,388 UserRequirementArchitecturalSystem,392 Handicapped Users,399 Structural andEngeneering Concepts,400 ConstructionMethods andStructures as expressionof Architectura I Design, 411 Chapter 13ECONOMIC .. ... .. .. .. . .................... .. . ... ................. ... ....... ......... ....435 TheCost of the BuildingStructures, 436 FirstCosts,436 Maintenance RelatedDesign,437 ArchitecturalSafety,437 Building Materials asExpressionof Design,438 Honesty of Expression,438 Economy of Materials inDesign,439 VisualExpressionof Material,440 New Materials,447 Biotechture and the Nature of Materials,450 Indigenous Materials,451 Chapter 14HUMAN FACTORS ..................................................................457 Socio-cultural Variables,458 PsychologicalConsiderations, 458 PersonalSpace,460 Psychological andSocial Space,460 Territoriality,464 PerceptualQuality of theDesignedEnvironment,465 Human -Architectural Interfaces, 466 HumanNeeds,466 Value,Aspiration andCulture,468 How ValueInfluence The Environment,472 How Environment Influence Value,473 FolkBeliefs inArchitecture,475 Vernacular Architecture andlndiginous Technology,478 FengShui,479 Bibliography,496 Index,497 xi INFLUENCESON ARCHITECTURALDESIGN 2 I.GENERAL INFLUENCES NEEDS OFMAN 1.PHYSICAL NEEDS a.Selfpreservation.... Food,shelter,clothing-basic addto thisbasicneeds: power,water,transportation,ecologicalbalance, education,sports,medical,livel ihood b.Reproduction-for thepopulationto increaseandcontinue in existence. SHELTEA . .. issomethingthatcovers,protects,ordefendsasaroofthatshields one fromthe elements andchanges. The modernman's shelter shalfhave: 1.Necessiti es-warm,dryhousewithglazeddoors,windows,sanitationand permanency. 2.Conveniences- roomsshallbearrangedeconomically.Circulationsare studiedaccordingto functions,suchast hekitchenforfoodpreparation, bedroom for sleepandbathroom for cleanliness. 3.Comforts - thismustcontainthelabor-savingdeviceswhichprovideheat, ventilation,andinstantcommunication.Thefurnishingsaredesignedfor comfort. 2.EMOTIONAL NEEDS The emotionalreactions ofman have to do with ~ h einstincts stirredby the forces of religion and art andwith the desire to indulge inrecreation. Artin its broadest interpretation,assumes the various familiar formspainti ng,sculpture,music,lite-rature. 3.INTELLECTUAL NEEDS Educat ion,scienceandgovernment ,demandaproperarchitecturalsetting.In-tellect or reason alone may erect a utilitarian building; emotion will endow itwith beauty andinterest. ACTIVITIES OF MAN Iflife isto exist andcivilizationisto develop,there aref undamentalor desires' whichmustbesatisfied.Theseforcesmay becalledthe action.Theireffect upon life and architecture,may be designated as ResultingManifestations:RM 1.Desire for Preservation -in obtaining food, shelter, clothing and security, civilized rna n must have commerce, government and religion. These activities call for their accom-panyingstructures,or architecture. 2.Desire for Recognition -thisisa desirefor prestige,pride andambition, social status, physicalsupremacy,intellectual attainment,personal or civic,result in the-struggle for position. Asa result,manbuildpalaces,skyscrapers,or communities may erect cathedrals orpublicbuildingsandmonuments. 3.Desire for Response- This arises from the gregarious nature of man, from his wish for love,friendship,andsociability. Inseekingthecompanionship of his fellow creatures,man congregates.His social instinctscallforfraternalbuildi f)QSandcityclubs.Hissemi -publicbuildingsmust containbanquethallsandballrooms;hishomemust havealivingroomtomake human associationpossible. 4.Desire for Self-Expression-This is the urge of man to as,serthimself as an individual. Todothings inhisown parti cular way. Thisisresponsibl eforaesthoticexpression;f orarchitectureinitshighestforrn, whicfiresultinbuildingof theatres,museums, etc.To show that he is the in sports or recreation, encouraged the building of stadia, bowling alleys, gymnasiums, etc. II.INFLUENCES OFNATURE Climate and topography influence the life and habits of a nation. They decide what foods shallbegrown andwhat occupationsshallbefollowed.Theydetermine what regionswill developfarmers, 88ilors ormerchants.Climateaidsingivingtoracestheirown particular traits. These racesin turn create architecture with local or national characteristics. A.CLIMATE Thisaffect thehabitsandtemperamentsof people.Thosenear theseaarequiet,taCiturn and bold people.They areeasy goingandcare-free and produceanarchitecture different from people in the cold and forested areas,whose .people plan in advance. This requires in-itiative,patience and energy. Inthe arctic,regions, civilization isless advanced asclimatic conditions are so unprotective and absorb so much energy that the natives have little surplus with which to devek>p civiliza-tion or art. In the temperate zones,people are energetic and progress is assured.Here, man may plan and may realize his ambitions without interference from droughts,blizzards,or tropicalf evers. 3 4 EFFECT ON ARCHITECTURE WARMERCLIMATES Thebuildings rnaybemoreflamboyantin theirconceptionandusuallyacloserrela-tions existsbetween the works of man and nature wherevegetationismore luxuriant, more attention is paidto the color and tex-tureof surfacetreatment. Plainwallareasgiveanopportunityfor contrast with thecolorsof the foliage. 1.PLANS WARMER CLIMATES The plans are more open and often include courts or patios. oPENCOURT ! [ ~ \ \ BREt:ZE 2.STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS f COLDERCLIMATES The architecture is more severe and the de-signer dependlessuponthelandscapetor finaleffect.Colorsareusuallymoresub dued. COLDERCLIMATES More compact in arrangement. The severe cold winds is avoided by providing a cover from portion of the buildingto theother. Ill! Inthe past, walls were load bearing,wallthickness werethick,to carry the load of the floors and the roof and also to resist the extremes of temperature and to protect man from his enemies. Today, modern manerectsstructuresto protect hisinvestment from depreciation andhimself fromthe curiosityof hisneighbors.Walls areno longer bearing walls. They no longer carry loads asthin as the material will permit. The development of in-sulation makesit possibleto keep out the heat andthe cold ina highly satisfactory manner. Loadisdi!?triMedtothe beam 1 1 1 l I ~1 I 1 l1 L ~i ... 5 v 1-ttload carried bycolumns Thirtwall thin~ N a i l1 '7' Insulation 3.PROTECTIVEELEMENTS The roof protects the interior fromthe elements of climate like typhoon, heat of the sun,etc. WARMERCLIMATE COLDER CLIMATES - Inthe Past-The roofs areusually rather flat and colour-ful.As in the rich red and brown tile roof of Italy. Theroofsbecome steeper andlesscolour-ful.The necessity of shedding the rai n and snow makesthegreater pitch to the roofs more practical . 5 6 I Entranceporchesare theresultof thedesirefor protection.Thedrivingrainsand coldwinds made these porches a de.sirable adjunct to the entrances. 00u00 0 -Modern Developments-However, with new inventions and innovations, steel and concrete construction. in-sulation,andmodern drainage make almost any kindof utilitarianroof possible. The roof may be flat even incold countries andinvisible from the ground.The roof has now become a terrace, and the accompanying fresh air and sunshine contribute tothehealthof a nation. l -I ~ { I 4.CIRCULATORYELEMENTS Windows- permit the entrance of lightandcirculationof air Doors,9tairs,corridor-circulation of human traffic andmaterials - InthePast -WARMERCLIMATES Windows areusually smallinordernot to admittoomuctlight,whichproducesex-cessiveheat andglare. warm COLDERCll MATES Windows areusually large inorder tocap-ture the greatest amount of light, andheat the interior. ----J \ \ ~ cold -Modern-In the architecture of the 20th Century,there has ceasedto bethe relation between windows andclimatethat existedinthepast.We cannow heat or coolourhouses in a satisfactory manner with less reference to the sizesof openings and windows oftensimply contribute to thecheerfulnessof the interior. In the last few years, there has come a new conception of hygienic and therapeutic possibili-tiesof the window.Atype of glass has been devek>pedwhich does not filter out the ultra-violet raysof thesunshine;asdoesordinary window glass. Man alsoinvented machines for air conditioning, heating, ventilating andthis machine age brought about the suggestionof windowless buildings. 5.DECORATIVEELEMENTS WARMERCLIMATES With brilliant sunshine,pronouncedmould-ings areunnecessary and undesirable. When mouldingsareused,thecurvesshouldbe f latter and more subtle. COLDER CLIMATES Sculpture andmouldings areusually deep-ly curvedandundercut to catchthemax-imum amountof light. 7 8 Color is a decorative element whichin warm countries assumes animportancerivalingthat of carvings.Plainwallsurfacesinwhite or lightpasteltones,withtheirvarioustextures catch the sunlight and allow an interesting play of shadows from projecting roots and adjoin-ing trees.Colored tiles are also conspicuous in the architecture in the mediterranean coun-tries. B.TOPOGRAPHY Inthe earliestperiodsofcivili zation,the elementsoftopography-mountains,deserts and seas-constitutedbarrierstomigration.Thisretardedtheinterminglingof peopleandthe cross-fertilizationof cultures.Ideastraveledslowly,andthecustomsandattsofdifferent countries assumeddefinite nationalpatterns. However, as navigation became more of a science, the seathat had been a barrier became anaidto travelandcommunic_ation. Topography, in its broadest sense, may mean the general terrain or contour of the surface of the entire country. If the country is small and the topography is uniform, there tends to be a similarity of character in the architecture. It may be nationalistic and may assume traits com-monto theentirearea . MOUNTAINREGIONS Ina settingof rocks and cliffs with violent changesin the directionof the contour of the site, the building should appear to grow outofitssurroundings.Thebuildings should be 'informal'. The floor levels of the major parts shouldfollow asfar asiscon-venient,theslopeoftheground.Ifit crownsaneminence.itssteeproofswith verticaleffects may serveasa fitting term-ination to a commandingheight. LEVELCOUN-TRY While an unsymmetrical or informal planis possible on such a site. 'Formal' or balanced scheme is moresatisfactory. sJopiHgsiteinfor-rna lity 0000D LevelSiteFormality C.MATERIALS The gifts of nature for the structures of man are limestone, marble, pine and mahogany, etc. (timber)clay for brick andore for metals. In the past, certain materials have had a local use and have influenced the development of an indigenous architecture.Since there was lack of methods of conveyance. However, they have changed as new contacts were made and asnew developments came intoexistence.Ideaswereborrowed,commerceandindustrygrewandnowmodern transportation has made buildingmaterials international indistribution and use. Ill.INFLUENCE OF MAN 1.SOCIAL CONDITIONS: Architecture, because it is the most permanent and cumulative-reflects the social structure of the periodin which it isdeveloped. The interests of the people dictate the type and ap-pearance of its buildings. Stable government and improved social condition eliminate the necessity of many protective features such as high fences, shutters, wrought iron or steel railings tor doors aRd windows, broken glass and barbed wire on top of fences. Comfort and convenience now control archi-tecture. Example: 1.Periods... Thedifferentarchitecturalcharactersinthedifferentperiodsof ar-chitecture is shown in the interests of man at that time asshown in their build ings. In this 20th Century, our social structure has become so complex that confusion rather than simplicity is its chief characteristic.The automobile has made it pos-sible for us to live many miles from our work but has created atraffic problem. Themovies,radio,t.v.andtransportationhavebroughtusknowledgeof foreigncountries.Standardization is more prevalent thanindividualism. 9 10 Congestion,economicpressurerequiresproximity ofalliedf ieldsofendeavor and adds to the problemsof the architect andcity planner.This complexity of our socialsystemisreflectedinour architecture. 2.Man'sPersonality. By his appearance,something isknown of hisinterests from t hetypeof house inwhich helives.In a similar manner,itis possible to tracea comparison bet weenthepersonalityof anationasreflectedinitsclothinganditsattitude towardarchitecturedSseeninitsbuildings.Clothesgiveanindicationof the simplicity or complexity of the existence of its inhabitants which in turn controls the development of itsarchitecture. GREEK ... .. .. .... ....... ...... ...... ...... .... .. .... ........ ...... .................. DIGNITY Scholarly andphilosophical refinement was characteristic of the lives of people, wefindthecostumeconsistedof a simple, flowing robe.Muchattention was paid to the body and to physical health. The existence of the Greeks was reduc-edto the essentials,and this was reflected in their dress and architecture. They did not build on a grand scale, but rather sought for purity of detail and develop-ment of technical skill. Ornatenessin dress had no placein their simple here ac-tivities. FRENCHRENAISSANCE This was a period of multiplicity of detail in court life, in dress and in archi-tecture. Social etiquette was so complicatedthat all naturalness was aban-doned.Life was artificial andtheatrical.andlikewisethecostumesof the period. Powderedwigs andbrocadedcoats madecongruousthe jeweled canesandlace frills. Thefurniturewascolorful,but thechairswereoften straight anduncomfortable.All this splendor would have beeninappropri ate ina simplesetting.Thearchitecture hadto beornate inorderto har-monizewith the activitieswhichithoused.Buildingswerecrowdedwith rococo details wl;lichhidstructurallinesandoftenpreventedtruth of ex-pression. Thiselaboratearchitecturelinedwideavenueslavishlydecoratedwith fountains and gardens-all designed for the purpose of being ostentatious. VICTORIAN Theflowingwhiskers,beribbonedbonnets,mutton- legsleeves,and bustlesweresimply a reflectionof thejig-saw ornamentandsheet-metal cornicesof thebuildings ofthat period.Again,itwasanugly anddrab variety,without the color of the FrenchRenaissance. CONTEMPORARY Althoughpresent-daycivilizationis complex,we havebeenblessedwith simple attire for both men and women. The dress of today is probably due to the fact that the science of medicine and health has kept step with other developments,andour peoplehavebeenimpressedwith the necessity of freshair,sunshine,andexercise.These were difficult to obtain under the restrictionsof the19thC. The desire for freedom of movement and an interest in athletics is reflected in the contemporary movement in architecture,which,in seeking tointer-pret buildings in terms of the needs of the people,is placing the emphasis uponplainwall surfaces. 11 CONTEMPOAAAV St.&Js1Is . Moscow,10TH0e11tury Alc::a zar, Gegovia.15TH 12 Ta.)Mal1al,Agr.a.11THamtury 6o111icCatHedral.Reint?, 17THcenrury Alr forceC l 1 a ~ Colorado~ ~ ~l90Z 3.Man's Interests. Ithasbeenpointedoutthattheactivitiesand .interestsofmanare directly responsible for the type of architecture which he develops.This is showl'l inthe typicalstructures likethe house-which provides shelter for manduring his hours of rest. factory -offersa placeinwhi chtowork andto produce acommodity of exchange. church- affords spiritual relaxationand opportunity for worship. 1.HOUSE - in the past,houses weresmallandcompact,the hallwas usedasa workroom anddining room.When the scene changed from the farm to the city, wealth and servants, and large houses were easily maintained. This was the age of pretense and show. Plans were complicated and of various sizes, shapes,disorganized and unrelated to human needs. This was the Victorian House The Contemporary house-is called a functionaltype and one of comfort, There is a desire to take full advantage of sunlight .and air. The walls are opened as muchaspossible,andtheinteriorisrelatedto theexterior terracesand gardens in a pleasingmanner. Thus,the principle of comfort prevails In the 20thCentury designs. 13 14 2.FACTORY -in theearlydays,manoftenworkedathome,it wastheageof craftsmanship,the periodof individual effort.Those who createdproducts required by their fellow men took pride in each article. Business was personal rather than impersonaL When the industrialperiodarrived,with the last lialf of the19 century,the small shops grew into factories, and little thought was given to efficient ar-rangementsorpleasantworkingconditions.Laborwasunorganizedwith few windows,light and air was insufficient and theresult was gloom and in-effeciency. Thepresent century-an age of competition and mass production. There must be efficient operationin order to compare favorably inprice and quality.Proper workingconditions have been outgrowth of this kind of business life, and as a result, well-planned factories and pleasant surroundings are often typical of portions of our industrial cities. 3.CHURCH-in thepast,people worshippeddifferent godsandonly thepriests enter the temples. The exterior then received more attention. Then the chris-tianreligionbuilt churchestoholdcongregationtoparticipateinthe wor-shipping of God. For that reason the interior is in many respects more impor-tant than the exterior. The medieaval churches was not only a place for worship but also a center of educationfor themasseswhocouldnot reador write.Thecarvingsand sculptureoftheexteriorandinteriorfurnishedachronologyofbiblical events. When the people learned socially to read and write, especially with the inven-tionoftheprintingpress,-sculpturebecame,insteadofthepictorial,a stresseddecorativequality.Thepreachingtypeofchurchwasdeveloped, causinganauditorium,tobeincluded.Thiswasaparticipationofmental ratherthana physicalone. Modern churchesnow aredesignedtoprovide mental,physical,aswellas spiritualrelaxation.The modem churchhas now classrooms for educational work,halls and parlors for socialgatherings anda gymnasiumfor the exer-cise of the body. 0 0 " 0000000.. 0 .. 0 ..000 _., u 0 0 0 0000 oj_ 0 0 .. " 0 cont-emporarychurch forms 20thCENTURY ARCHITECTURE Thepresentcenturyhasbroughtcountlessinventions anddiscoveries.Oldstandardsof thought andliving havebeenmodified or abandoned.New activities havecalledfor struc-tures to housethem,andnew materials andtypes of construction have made these build-ings possible. a.TRANSPORTATION-made possiblethe carrying of all kindof building materials fromoneendof the earthto the other andhas createdstructures unknowna few generationsago.Theautomobilehasmadenecessarythegarages,filling stations, and bus terminals. It has rendered almost obsolete our narrow streets designed for the horse and buggy. The airplane has brought about the develop-ment of airports,while new types of steamships withincreased tonnagehave givenaddedimportancetodocksandwarehouse.Theexpansionofthe railroadshascreatedthemagnificent passenger andfreightterminalsandhas madepossible our largein.distrial centers. b.COMMERCE- large,complexandtallerbuildingsareconstructedto housethe new business activities likebanking,finance,etc. c.EDUCATION -withmasseducation,schoolsandcollegesarescientifically planned,andtheir functions arenumerous andinvolved. The newspaper is also a powerful agency in the attempt to keep people inform-eduponthecurrentaffairsofthenations,andlibrariesandmuseumsoffer unlimitedfacilities to those who wouldreadandstudy. In the past, museums were designed to resemble palaces with little thought to the education andcomfort of the public.The modern museum is designedto display the art of the past and the present in order that it may be studied and ap-pliedto contemporary needs.Simplicity of arrangement, satisfactory lighting, andeaseof ci rculationareprimaryrequirements. d.REHABILITATION-labor-saving devices have brought about time for leisure and theneedforrecreation.Thereisauniversalinterestinsportsandentertain-ment,bothby spectatorsandparticipants.Asa result,we havetheatres and dance halls,arenas,ballparks,golf andcity clubs. 15 16 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS: The social life of a nation and the resulting architecture are linked closely with the economic conditions under which people live. The nature of trade, commerce,industry and agriculture determines to a large extent the occupations and standards of living within a particular coun-try.These factorsinfluence the types of buildings erected and the materials used. As nations modify their basic economic institutions through changes in manufacture, trans-portation, and communication, new modes of living come into existence, and new architec-ture must bedevelopedto conformto these customs.We are interested,therefore,in the economic status of individuals asthey constitute a nation, and not in their private finances. We are also interested in economy in architecture.Buildings may be so designed that thete is economy of space, of movement, and of materials. These factors control to a large extent thecostof anarchitecturalproject. During the present century the concentration of wealth in our cities has been responsible for our attitude toward certain types of architecture. Investments rule our lives, and the process of building must lend an attentive earto the caprices of finance. We erect structures many stories in height, but mechanical devices render them obsolete in a few years and they must make way for those with later developments. True economy in architecture is not using inte-rior materials but the omission of useless decoration and the inclusion of sensible planning. Man's economic system remained unchanged for centuries-until the present industrial age. Previous to this age of machinery, power and energy were supplied by the hands of man or the backs to animals.Production was relatively slow, and the hours of labor were long. Now electrical or steam power is furnished in almost unlimited quantities,releasingman from the machine and creating new economic and social problems. Man can now work less and pro-duce more. Thefuture promises shorter hoursof labor andlonger hours of leisure.This increasein lei-sure suggests a changed mode of living, It will promote the erection of those buildings which have to do with recreation. relaxation and education. More time will be devoted to the reha-bilitation of themind andbody. Thispossiblechange in our economic structure may thus, have a profound effect upon our sociallife andour architecture. APREVIEW OF THECOMING OF THE 21st CENTURY At this time, man has already reached the moon, our transportation ~ a sbrought us to space. Manhasdevelopedcomputers to solvein aninstant what hasbeensolvedin thepast for hours,daysor evenmonths.New an.dsynthetic materials arebeingdiscoveredanddeve-loped in a fast pace. Thereby making the designs of our building more comfortable, and now comes skyscrapers that are built higher and higher. Intheinitialstages of the computers, man feeds information based from the clients needs, and a schematicsketchcomes out of the computer.This can thenbe fed backto forma massingor a perspective.It can evenbe manipulatedto show the shadesandshadowsat selected different times of the day.In another proble!T', for a subdivision planning, showing the contours of the lot, the computer can show the. different views.altogether.Other func-tions which it can do are showing the weak spots in a design for structural parts .of a building for the structural designer's guidance. The computer can also store with its software all data on materials,specifications,management,schedulings and so many other information that canaidthe designertoproducea better,fasterandmoreaccurate solutionsto designs. FUTUREHOMEby Elizabeth Pennisi ForPortiaIsaacson,acomputer scientist,futurehomeisa fantasycometrue.The white, two storey,stucco,suburbanDallashome,willbe anelectronic showcase,but with spiral staircase,hot tub, art gallery and style. A quick call to-or from-a computer ensures that her hot tub will be warm when she arrives or informs her when her teenaged children have got-tenhome from school.If a business meeting keeps her fromgettinghome intime for her husband'sbirthday,acomputercontrolledscenario,completewithlovingmessages,ro-mantic lighting, favorite music and appropriate videos, willlet him know he hasn't beenfor-gotten. Answeringthe door isobsolete.Acamerashows who it is by sending a close-up view of newcomersto whereverIsaacsonis inthehouse. Thenshecanopenthe door remotely. Can't find the keys or the husband? Vi a video cameras shecanscanshelftops and table sur-faces.Motioncensorstrackeachperson'sroom-to-roommovements. It willtake 13 computers,14 telephones,26 tv monitors,8 miles(13kml of wiring,several videocasetterecordersfor thisfut urehome.Isaacsonhasrobotsforpets,a sculptureof stereo and video components that seem to float in space, futuristic plant stands that are real-ly computer terminals, and a media" commandcenter", that includes four (4)25-inch(60 em.) tv's,a40-inch(100 em.)tvprojectionscreen,2VCFS,andcompact andlaserdisc players. At futurehome,a master computer isin charge. It receivesdata fromtherestof thehouse andsendsout commands,dimminglights, changingthermostat setting, andswitching tv channelsandvolumes.Usingatext-to-speechconverter,thecomputercananswerand make telephone calls.When someone- a housekeeper or tardy teenager, for instance pun-ches intheir individualized codes to get into the front door, the computer can be cued to let Isaacsonknow,either wheresheisinthe homeoratwork. It can tell the condition of the house,not only can lights or favorite music be turned on as a personenters a room,a synthesized voicecanwelcome guests,reminda sonto keephis feet off furniture or wake a husbandintime for dinner. Heatingandairconditioningareregul atedelectronically, andthe computer tracks tempera-turesineachroomsothatthenewoccupantscanassessairflowthroughout thehouse. Once computerized, the entire house can be run from any one of 10 personal computers by pointing with .a light pen to a particular room pictured on the screen, and designating a task to be completed:lights onor off, specificmusic to beplayed,tvshowto berecorded. Or"scripts"canbewrittenthatcoordinateactivitiesforemergencies,normalhousehold maintenance, even family tends to take care of intruders, a security script:If a security sen-sor detects a break-in,the computer could be programmedto flash allthe lights,blast the stereos,wakeup andtellthe residents wherethe stranger islurking,perhaps even inform the burglars that they arebeingfilmed. TheInterior looks likethe tv seriesStar Trek.Instead of a wall-sizedpainting,anelec-tronic sculpture welcome visitors. THe black components of an audio ahd video systems are set into a glosSy, black metal wall on shelves not visible to viewers.Recessedlighting along thewalledges adds to the effect. 'SMART HOUSES' OF THEFUTURE (Turn to page456) 17 18 THEPRINCIPLESOFDESIGN ESSENTIALS OF THE STRUCTURE Thevariousperiodsof historic developments haveleft to this agebuildings which may be identified as temples,cathedrals,factories andbungalows.These have been built to house theactivities of man,andto these structures has been giventhe nameof architecture. Architecture may be a group of buildings or a profession.The term"architecture" isanin elusive one.lt may refer to the process of designing a building and supervising its erection. It may also beregarded as the procedure assisted with the conception of an ideaand its realiza-tion in terms of building materials. Architecture is representedby a building which meets in a satisfactory manner the require ments of logical function, sound construction. and beautiful composition. It is only when all ofthesequalitiesarepresentthatgoodarchitecturecanbesaidtoexist.Initsbroader aspects,architecture is shelter,not only for man during the various hours of his daily exist-ence-work, recreation andsleep-but alsoto protect allthe activities of human race. Manbegins to create shelter by surrounding space with the materials provided by nature and made usable by the ingenuity of civilizedpeopl es. Space,initself isindefinable andintangi-bleandhasno limits.Yetwhenit isenclosedwithstone andsteelaccordingto accepted rules of composition.the resultmay be called" architecture". In providing shelter it is to be observed that buildings have walls and roofs, doors and wind-ows, and that these elements are assembledin a simple or complexmanner. Whatever the type or character of the building, parts of it are more evident to the observer than others-theexteriorismorereadilyseenandunderstoodthanisthearrangementoftherooms, which is called the plan. Thus, there exist the invisible and visible structures, or the plan pat-ternand the apparent volume. THEINVISIBLE STRUCTURE Theplanis the b e ~ i n n i n gof a building.It is the foundationupon whichthe scheme of the structure rests.It relates the various units to each other.It is the most important element of volumeandshouldreceiveearlyconsideration. wheneverthesolutionof aproblemisat-tempted. "We should proceed from within to without" from a satisfactory arrangement of the planunits tothe enclosing of these units by the shell whichis calledthe exterior. fi"ott1WithintoWiii1out THEVISIBLE STRUCTURE By enclosing space,volume or mass is created.If this space has. no relation to the activities of man, there exist only the simple geometric forms of the cube, the pyramid or the sphere. If the surfaces of these vol umes and the enclosed interiors are treated so that the forms are related to human needs, then they may be regarded as architecture. Visible structure is com-posedof form andsurfaceasfollows: 1.FORM MASS or volumeorevidenceof the3dimension direction -verticalorhorizontalaxisofthemass shape- geometricqualities 2.SURFACE AREA - surface with two dimensionsasina facadeof abuilding texture- surface treatment identified with materials whether rough or smooth tone - lightandshadecausedby openings,projections color - inherent or appliedcolorcausedby spectrumhues FORM In an architectural discussion the accepted definition of form deals with shape and when the figure is three dimensional,it becomesmass. In architectural composition, mass is more important than surface.In the designof a build-ing, "we should proceed from the general to the particular". from mass to detail. The approach to designshould not bethroughthe details of a style but ratherthrough a consi-deration of the mass of the building whi ch grows out of the function for which it is planned. Ge11eral (Ma%} part-iculai roof wlrtdows doors walls detai ls MASS canbevigorousor weak;it canhavevitality andstrength,or it may be indecisive and faltering. If it is correctly composed in an arresting manner, mass alone will arouse a de-finite emotionalreaction.It willstimulatethe observer withthesense of itscompleteness. Ornament shouldsimplyenhance abuilding . tn order that mass may be decisive, it should be directional. It should be either'horizontalor vertical.! \ In architecture massisusually volume, andthe surfaces which enclosespacehave area. 19 Horizot1ta\ 'lertical SimplerectsngulartnaS$ Ma JOI a11dtwo111i11orhorizo11tal$ 011tl1ece11treut1it) 20 Domirtat1tverticalwithl1orJzo11taiG MajorHorizontal, Twomajor'lerticats Twot11i11orhorizontals. (ThiSt?reaksup t11epurelyhorizontalquali-tyof the compositiott) Major andrt1it1orhori-zontalScomt:Jined withadominantver-tical Majorandmittorve::.tjcals VOLUME; Aplaneextendedin adirectionother thanits intrinsicdirectionbecomes a volume.Con-ceptually, a volume has three dimensions: length, width and depth. All volumes canbe ana-lyzed andunderstood to consist of: 21 22 - solid l vertices)whereseveral plat1escometogether: ~ - ~ - - - - planes(surfaces)tttelimitsor -lines bour1dariesof avolume. (edges)wheretwoplanes meeT. a v o l ~ m ecan either be solid,space displaced by mass, or VOJd,space containedor enclosedby planes. (voidspace) FORMis the primary identifying characteristic of a volume,it is determined by the shapes andinterrelationships of the planesthat describethe boundariesof the volume. 1.VISUAL PROPERTIES OFFORM a.Shape:Theprincipal identifying characteristic of form; shape results from the specific configuration of a form's surfaces and edges. formof .atree circularlt1shape ~ ~ b.Size: c.Color : light 0 D 0 Since our perception of a plane's shape is distorted in perspective, we seethe true shapeof a planeonly whenwe view if frontally. Therealdimensionsofform,itslength,widthanddepth;while thesedimensionsdeterminethe proportionsof a form,its scaleis determinedby its sizerelative to other formsin its context. The hue,intensity,andtotal value of a form's surface;coloris the attributethatmostclearlydistinguishesaformfromitsenviron-ment.It alsoaffectsthevisualweight of a form. darker dark 23 D d.Texture: e.Position: The surface characteristic of a form; texture affects both tattile and light-reflective qualities of a form's surfaces. Aform'slocationrelative to itsenvironment orvisualfield. leftsideof ariver,leftsideof t+teroad.rtgl1tsideof a tree. frontoFahotel.Backof awarehouse. 24 atthetJac kcf thewarehouse TREIOS f.Orientation: OBJECT .leftsideoftheroad, 20 ttlaway inFrontof thehotel leftsideor therNer orrightsideof tHetrees ort'eforethebuildingorwelcomesigt1 Aform's position relativeto the ground plane, the compass points or to theperson viewingthe form. ThecardinalpointsNESW havesinceremotetimesbeengiven prime importance amongthe factors determiningthestructureof the world. The word orientation comes from"orient" the direction of sunrise. Christian churches were always oriented by the altar to-wards the East. The East asthe origin of light is also the source of life. The west as the place Qfthe setting sun is filled with allthe ter-rors of the earth. NORm AMIANAN- I ~ O C A N O HllA6A- TA6AL06 WESTEAST ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - -LAUD- ILOCAHOC\4YA- lLOCANO I / / I I I / / _....-...... , "\ \ I1 _L_Li TheCircle ----__ .... / / / CircieandSguare Theci rcleandsquarehavebeenfoundtopossesscertainpropertieswhichrecommend them as a baseuponwhich to begina design. See figureabove.It will benoticedthat the diagonals passthroughimportant parts inthe composition. RELATIONS: Oneof the mostimportantphases of proportion andone which should be consideredin the development of a facade isthe relat ion of the solidsto the voids,of the wallsurfaces to the openings.It isnecessary that one clearly dominate theother that the elementof a contrast will be present.If there is a similarity between the width of the windc;,ws andthe spaces bet-ween,indecisionorcompetitionwillexist. In classical ,Romanesque,andRenaissance buildings,whereheavy stone constructi on pre-dominates.Thewindows anddoorsusuall yoccupy aminorportion of thefacadeandthe wallsurfaces are quitedominant. When the Gothic builders learned the art and science of transmitting t he thrust or weight of the vaults to isolated buttresses.the walls of the cathedrais became unimportant. Large areas of stained glass took the place of thesewalls, and regularly spacedpiers carriedthe load of the roofandvaul ts. Incontemporaryarchitecture,the cantil everofconcreteandsteelf reesthedesigner from many restrictions of masonry and construction and there is a tendency to use openings free-ly. This15a ThtsISamore. c..ommon .

99

100 ExampleofLackofcorrectproportiol1 toohigh samedista11cec moreit1teresti11grelatiot1t?etweett? o l i d ~artdv o i d ~ ' a bigger lower ==;=.Grnaller Proportions May be Based on the Following Factors: 1.Natural Material Proportions All building materialsinarchitecturehavedistinctpropertiesof stiffness,hardness and durability. And they all have an ultimate strength beyond which they cannot ex-tendthemselves without fracturing,breakingor coll apsing . stoneusedaG aftx* bridge ...._ ---whenoigartdlot1giltis stone will ul1der- it9 owt1 weight.

""'-.......,. .... .,. -- ,...,-____ wadplank

c whenlortgwillSaj t ) All materialshave rationalproportions thataredictatedbytheirinherent strengthsandweakness.Masonry units like brick,are strong m compres-sionanddependontheirmassfor strength,andarevolumetricinform logs are also volumetric in element and isusedinlogcabinconstruction. Wood is flexibleand is usedasbeams and posts steel are strong both in com pressionandtension. 101 / /"-- -~........ / .- , ~ HollowblocksISstatt:iardi11 .size;;of .10 x. zo x-40 (4''xe'')( 1a,") at1d. 15X .zo X.40 ( t/' X 8" X ~ " ) 102 2.ManufacturedPorportions Many architecturalelements aresized andproportionednotonlyaccording to their structural properties and func-tion,but alsoby theprocessthrough whichtheyaremanufactured.Be-causetheseelementsaremass-- producedinfactories,theyhave standardsizesandproportionsim-posed on themby the individual manu-factures. Whileplywoodiscommonin1.20.!C 2.40or4'x8'sothat the spacingof woodnailersarefittedinto thissizes. 1.20L.eo .!+ tJ siael woodet1P'5t po5t bigger T :@ Iaiiycolumn r------'J ......__---4 -0oo biggerco/umHs OHf1igher w COHcrete.?ma/ler columns OHtower deptk iG alwayGbigger themwidtk .()5 woo:ijoist Doors and window units are sized and proportionedtofitintomodularma-sonryopenings. 3.Mode of Construction or Structural Proportions Thesize andproportions of structural elements such as beams, columns, are directlyrelatedtothestructuraltasks theyperformandcanbe,therefore; visualindicators ofthesizeandscale of thespacestheyhelpenClose. Sincebeams transmittheirloads nori-zontallyacrossspacetotheirvertical supports,itsdepth,thereforeisthe criticaldimension.anditsdepthto spanratio,isagoodindicatorofits structuralrole. Theproportionofacolumnmayde-penduponthespacingor itsheight. 103 Theproportion of atruss may depend uponitstype. CHBw a l l ~are tHickertha11reil1forced concretewafl. I ~ f t.. ~ -....-- .-""' 104 It 4.Requirementsof the Program,Function or Govern-ment Ordinances Lobby a.The proportion of the height of a room is controlled by local building ordinances,logic andartisticsense. b.Auditoriumproportionsareinfluencedbyvisualand acousticalconsiderations. .....-., /1.\1 I I''. .' I." e diameter l 0 classicalorder higherheigHto( door c.Proportionsbetweenheightsandareasofroomsare controlledbythe capacity and lighting requirements of theroom. 5.Traditionsand Generally A cceptedTaste a.Atthe exterior,theheightofanedifice shouldbein proportionto thecharacterth;Htheedificedemanc1s. b.Buildingsofworshipsuchas: hurchesandtemples usuallyhavetraditionalproportions. c.Classicalbuildingsusuallyhaveproportionsbased upontraditionalrules. h i g ~ e rheight ofceili11g 105 WliotE DOOR WHOLE ~ P A R T 106 WHOLE' Distinctionbetween'Relative' and'Ab-solute'Proportion. ii P A R T ~ WINDOW 1.Relative Proportion -dealswiththere lationship betweentheparts of an object and the whole e)(ample ratro between the diameterofaClassicalcol umnandits height or therelationofthe panels ofthe door andthe wholedoor. WKOL.E 2.Absolute - dealswiththerelationship betweenthedifferentpartsof anobject or the whole to thevariousparts. Example-ratiobetweenthesizesof HWHOLEwindows andtheblankwalls. Proportionofacabinetorapplianceto the room. PLYWOOD RJ t---The' KEN'modulargridisaJapanese wayofproportioningthesizeofrooms where one MAT is 3.15 x 6.30 or 1 x 2 ken inKyo-manmethod.ThestandardTata-cni floor mat is 3 x 6 shaku or 1/ 2 x1 1 1-70H

() ()

f) I -

" /

;:

\ I I I I J I I \ It-.... .? p --+--t---i-+--+-+---t-+-+--\--I I r--.. \

1: _.

.,1/ 'e'

) II)

L \. I I ) \\ \ :% -\ J ' o,;v V u V - Po H \ ! I z H \ '\'

:x: ) .\ ) J

';) \ lVJ

'

1--:;:; ..

... I ;EAA \ I \ \ .

:

WJ h J

\, L) T ,( \ I 'l\ v \!)

---

-+--- ..

-f

J \ ' I :I: ) I '

----------;,..!="'V+-+.-:IM"-:i- -. -. -. -... ----f---t--+---+---9YEARS } j :r !J \ \ \ \ ....

J \

) (

--... .. . . . -----. -

.. -- f ' ' f -'\. r----' / '-;,)'i

"'' / '\.. ,