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GEORGE BIRKBECK,THE PIONEER

OFPOPULAR EDUCATION.

21 ZTfemoir anb a IReview.

BYJOHN GEORGE GODARD.

'^ -i'f1 '-

BEMROSE & SONS, 23, OLD BAILEYAND DERBY.1884.

{All Rights Reserved.]


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PREFACE.ALTHOUGH the popular education movement isone of the most important outgrowths of amost progressive era, probably little is known atthe present time concerning him who was itspioneer.No biographer has, I believe, narrated the

career of the founder of Mechanics' Institutions.Repeated reference to his work is made in thepublications of his own time ; encyclopaediasaccord him an honoured place amongst thenames of Britain's worthies ; essayists on educa-tion bestow upon him their meed of praise ; buta volume devoted to him alone does not appearto have been ever written : by the modern worldhe is appreciated to a very limited degreea newgeneration has arisen which knows him not.And yet merit and materials for a biographyare not wanting, and many who have found aBoswell to chronicle their thoughts and deedsaccomplished less than did George Birkbeck.In earliest manhood, in advancing years, theeducation of the hitherto neglected classes was


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vi PREFACE.

made his earnest and anxious care ; and thenoble title he has justly earned is that of thepeople's friend. To his bright conception andassiduous laboursmuch more even than to thephilanthropic exertions of Andrew Bell andJoseph Lancaster, the promoters of NationalSchoolscan without doubt be largely traced thestupendous change the present century haswitnessed in the mental condition of the toilingmultitude.

In truth, the movement which Dr. Birkbeckinaugurated has spread so rapidly and far,and has evoked the co-operation of so manyable and gifted workers, at the time alreadyknown to fame, that there is a possibility of hisbeing obscured by the very light he diffusedthroughout the landa danger that his nationalservices should be forgotten, and the honoursdue to him awarded to others. His name more-over has become associated with various enter-prises of a commercial character, organised afterhis death ; and in these his special mission hasto a large extent been merged in the publicmind. A combination of circumstances has, inthe absence of any chronicle of his life, save suchfragmentary sketches as have appeared in yearsgone by, caused the interest in him to graduallydiminish until it is chiefly local.To show then that George Birkbeck is worthy


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PREFACE, vii

of a more extended fame, to exhibit him as abenefactor to his country and the world, and toindicate when and under what circumstancesknowledge was first offered to the workingclasses, and the manner in - which its influencehas spread, is the object of the present memoir.

Twelve years' participation in the benefits ofthe Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institutionthe most important organisation of its kindhas afforded me opportunities for acquiring someamount of practical knowledge of the subject.For the main facts of the narrative, the principalauthorities are alluded to in the text. Toobtain, however, the requisite information it hasbeen necessary to peruse or consult about threehundred volumes, many of them by this timemusty and decayed ; and to have appendedreferences, therefore, to every statement madewould have been more embarrassing than service-able. Upon some points research has failed,at this distance of time, to throw any lightwhatever ; but these, fortunately, are not verymaterial.

For some of the details of Dr. Birkbeck'sprivate life and incidents in the career of theInstitution after his death, I am indebted to hisson and successor in the presidentship, Mr. W.Lloyd Birkbeck, M.A., who has kindly perused


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PREFACE.

the memoir in manuscript and proof, and favouredme with suggestions on numerous points. Mr.George M. Norris, the present indefatigablemanager, has also been good enough to supplyme with statistical information concerning theperiod of his tenure of office, and to render aidin other ways. Many of the interesting histori-cal and other facts relating to the Doctor'sbirthplace have been communicated by Mr.Thomas Brayshaw of Settle, and the portrait isfrom a mezzotint belonging to that gentleman.His services, most courteously rendered, as alsothe very- valuable assistance of my friends, Mr.Sidney Webb and Mr. J. Seymour Bartlett, Igladly take the present opportunity of acknow-ledging.

I venture to add that, whatever be the defectsof the work, it will at least be found to containmany interesting and important particulars, notat present generally known, concerning a re-markable man and a remarkable movement ;and the hope therefore may be expressed that itwill serve to awaken or resuscitate an interest inhim who is at once its subject and inspirer.

J. G. G.Brixton,

January, 1884.


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CONTENTS,CHAPTER I.

ANCESTRY, BIRTH AND EARLY LIFE.I776I799-

Birthplace and Ancestry. Description of Settle ;historical and commercial associations. The Birkbeck family ;origin of name ; noteworthy members and incidents ; ancestorsof George ; present representatives. Birth and parentage.Early predilections ; influence of surrounding scenes in mould-ing character. Education. First studies; application to theclassics and mathematics. Profession selected ; tutors : dr.GARNBTT. MEDICAL STUDIES. Removal tO EDINBURGH ;interval at London ; further pursuits. Return to Edinburgh ;Societies joined ; honours gained ; degree obtained. Collegefriends : Scott, Jeffrey, Smith and Brougham. Debut atGlasgow, the andersonian institution ; its founder.Appointment to professorship of Natural Philosophy.

pp. 1-16.

CHAPTER II.EARLY EDUCATIONAL LABOURS.

17991823.A Good Genius. Ignorance of the masses. Education

to-day ; growth of the last eighty years. A glimpse of thepast ; approximate statistics. Origin of EducationalWork amongst labouring classes. The tinman's shop ; animportant model. Invitation to lectures ; an original scheme ;its reception. The Mechanics' Class. Extract from pro-


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CONTENTS.

spectus ; crowded audiences. General comments ; practicalinstruction ; homely phraseology. Continued success ; officialrecognition. General Biography. Visit to Paris. Removalfrom Glasgow ; provincial lectures ; settlement in London asa physician. Marriage ; death of wife. Medical and scientificappointments. Second marriage. Old Broad-street ; its asso-ciations. Continued interest in working classes. Promotionof London Institution, Moorfields ; lectures there. Prelude tomore extensive educational labours. pp. 17-33.

CHAPTER III.FORMATION OF THE LONDON MECHANICS'

INSTITUTION.1823 1824.Controversy as to origin of educational organizations for

artisan classes. A Retrospective Glance. The Birming-ham Brotherly Society. The London Mechanical Institution.The Edinburgh School of Arts. Haddington. FURTHERHistory of Mechanics' Class. Address to its founder.The Glasgow Mechanics' Institution. Scheme for London.The Mechanics' Magazine: its editors, hodcsk/x andROBERTSON. Proposals for Institution ; the Doctor's imme-diate co-operation ; Robertson's comments thereon. FRANCISPLACE, the Radical tailor; his interviews with editors andBirkbeck. Meeting for formation of Institution ; extract fromBirkbeck's address ; letter from brougham , resolutionspassed : press reports. OPPOSITION TO SCHEME. Difficultiesstarted ; action of the Committee ; antagonism of Mechanics'Magazine. Second general meeting. The Institutionformed ; election of officers ; Birkbeck appointed President.Continued opposition ; its nature. Opening meeting ; numbersjoined ; President's inaugural address. Sonnet. pp. 34-61.


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CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.RAPID GROWTH OF THE POPULAR EDUCATIONMOVEMENT.

18241825.LOCALE of London Mechanics' Institution ; its historic asso-

ciations. Lecture-hall required ; appeal for donations ;the

President's letter ; amounts received ; inadequate response.Indifference of wealthy classes ; apathy of Government. Anexception: huskisso.vs speech, byrows testimony. Aserious obstacle ; unexpected aid ; advance by Birkbeck 01amount required. The foundation stone ; President's address.RENEWED Opposition. Robertson's repeated attacks in theMechanics' Magazine ; comments thereon. Envenomed articlein St. fames $ Chronicle. Internal difficulties. Progressmade. Opening of lecture-theatre ; duke of svssbx presides ;the Doctor's address ; Brougham's speech. Formation oflibrary, museum, etc. Popular lectures ; the President's topics ;proposed testimonial ; general subjects. A special magazine ;The London Mechanics'1 Register ; its history. Spread ofthe Movement throughout the country ; list of provincialand suburban Institutions, sir EDWARD bainiis. Birkbeck'saddresses and corresponder.ee. Brougham's pamphlet. Othereducational societies ; City of London and Western Institutions.General antagonism experienced ; special instances ; itsfutility. The Movement abroad. Its origin in France ;baron dupix ; his visits to England ; lectures in Paris ;instruction in the provinces; Birkbeck's comments. Extensionto America ; Institution at Philadelphia ; letter from Boston.Holland reached. Higher Class Education, loxdoxuniversity ; the Doctor's connection with it ; Brougham'stestimony. Birkbeck's other Labours. Lectures at Moor-fields. Presidency of Surrey Literary Institution, and of


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CONTENTS.

Medical Society. Addresses at Mechanics' Friendly Institution,and Society for Superseding Climbing Boys. Interest inscientific discoveries; Swan's sculling wheels ; Pope's marinerscompass; Evan's application of steam; Burnett's endless leveraction ; Sheffer's life-belt. Constant activity. pp. 62-100.

CHAPTER V.BY EVIL REPORT AND GOOD REPORT.

1826 1830.The narrative takes more rapid strides. The Parent

Institution. Additions to subjects ; the Doctor's lectures.Untoward accident; sinking roof. Alteration of subscription ;fluctuating attendance ; a generous creditor. Altercations as toletting theatre to obnoxious sects. Further Attacks.Squib in the John Bull; comments thereon. Another satire.Diversified public sentiment. The Mechanics' Magazine again ;failure of its publishers ; their charges against Robertson ; hisrenewed opposition. Continued Progress. Sixth anniver-sary ; the President's testimony ; Robertson's commentary.Good friends and true ; establishment of prizes ; admission ofladies. The Work generally. Provincial features ; newsuburban Institutions ; Birkbeck's assistance. Extension toWales. Further higher-class education ; KING'S college.Other educational measures. society for diffusion ofUSEFUL KNOWLEDGE. Charles Knight's publications; co-workers. The Doctor's illness. Visit to Cambridge. Literaryand General Labours. Translation and publication ofDupin's Mathematics ; extract from preface ; nature of work.The Steam-engine displayed. Meeting for reform of PatentLaws. Publication of portrait in mezzotinto. Lectures to theMoorfields' Institution. pp. 101-127.


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CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.THE MARCH OF INTELLECT.

1830 1841.The London University ; an unfortunate episode ; pro-

fessor pattison : Birkbeck's sympathy and aid. TheMechanics' Institution ; enlargement of scope ; averageattendance ; benefits of extension. Institution's general work ;the President's prize; reduction of debt ; exhibitions and socialfeatures. Continued hostility of Mechanics' Magazine ; natureof attacks ; final notice. Place's testimony ; the good accom-plished. New Institutions. The metropolis. Birkbeck atWestminster. List of additional provincial societies. Liver-pool and Manchester ; Brougham's speech. The Lyceum sys-tem. Conduct of the clergy ; Church of England Institutions.Other Agencies. Charles Knight's further publications ; theBrothers Chambers, central society of education. Educa-tion of the young ; Government grants ; hostile attitude of theLords. Birkbeck's remaining work. Further lectures atLondon Institution. Support of Grote's candidature for London.Investigation of Kyan's process ; lecture to Society of Arts.Other lectures, the nehspaper tax . movement for aboli-tion ; Brougham's letter ; deputations and meetings ; theDoctor's various speeches ; reduction of tax and of paper-duty.Severe illness ; Place's letter. The General Dispensary. Medal-lion portrait. Final lectures at London Institution, union ofthe institutions ; West Riding of Yorkshire. Exhibitions;Lancashire and London Unions. Meeting of delegates ; theDoctor appointed president. Experiments in distillation. Visitto Manchester. Growth of the movement abroad ; Russia ;Australia ; China ; India. Associations at home. Report ofSociety for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge ; number of organi-zations ; position of parent Institution. pp. 128- 171.


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CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.IN MEMORIAM.

1 841.Last Illness and Death. Farewell to the Mechanics ;

the Institution's anniversary. A panegyric revived. Post-humous Honours. A funeral pageant. Medallion at theInstitution, the birkbkck laboratory of University Col-lege ; Brougham's tribute ; public testimony. Memorial atSettle. A colossal monument. A National Reformer.The conservative spirit ; creed of society ; a grand change.Character of the man. Opinions of the press : Gentleman'sMagazine; Morning Chronicle; Times; Standard; Examiner.General Estimate. Political views. Theological tenets ;religious opinions as expressed in lectures ; quotations. Scien-tific and medical attainments ; contemporary testimony.Literary style and oratorical powers. Professional qualities.Private character; the domestic circle. The Pioneer'sLife-work ; difficulty in gauging it ; impossibility of revivi-fying times. A splendid revolution ; its nature. Governmentrecognition. A noble warrior ; a crowning victory. WorthyOFFSPRING. The eldest son \ ir. lloyd birkbuck. Second son.The elder daughter. pp. 1 72- 196.

CHAPTER VIII.RESULTS OF THE DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE.A brief review. Benefits to the Individual. Highest

form of progress. Sight to the blind. Science the knowledgeof most worth ; Herbert Spencer's testimony. Subjective value


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CONTENTS.

of knowledge. An ennobling gift ; a permanent source ofhappiness ; an antidote to idleness and vice ; material rewards.Benefits to the Nation. Nature of progression. Thesinews of the country ; education of the people of paramountimportance ; mental, moral and political progress thereby made.Nation's intellectual status raised ; civilization advanced.Results achieved. Influence of the democracy ; the ReformBill ; a cheap press ; diminution of pauperism ; mechanicalskill ; growth of science ; agriculture ; commercial supremacy ;progressive legislation ; female education ; religious tolerance.Work to be Done. Existing evils; social problems; probablesolutions. Theories of malcontents ; the alarmist cry ; stillechoed ; false in the past. A hopeful outlook. pp. 197-212.

CHAPTER IX.FURTHER HISTORY OF THE PARENT INSTITU-

TION AND OF THE POPULAR EDUCATIONMOVEMENT.1841 1883.

Completion of the record. A Venerable Institution.Change of name ; the new President. A severe loss ; statisticalinformation ; revival meetings ; donations. Birkbeck schools.Further difficulties ; memorial to the Treasury ; J. R. Taylor. Acrisis. Renewed efforts ; meetings and subscriptions ; advanceby Trustees ; purchase of lease. Financial schemes, francisravenscroft. george m. norris. Redawn of prosperity.Continued success ; rapid progress ; a gratifying testimonial.Present Educational Work. A comprehensive curriculum ;quality of instruction ; eminent professors ; a munificent supporter ;prizes and scholarships ; anniversary gatherings. Pleasureand literature ; general advantages. A catholic scheme ; form


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CONTENTS.

of government ; a low subscription. Just appreciation ; theself-supporting principle. A further anxiety ; more room. Newbuilding ; the foundation stone ; the duke of Albany. Archi-tecture ; nature of accommodation ; estimated cost. TheWork generally. Provincial Institutions : enormous growth ;diversified form. The City of London College ; the PolytechnicInstitute ; quintin hogg. The Institute at Settle. The Institu-tions' Unions ; Society of Arts ; Science and Art Department ;other unions. Young Men's Christian Associations : the earlof Shaftesbury. Church of England Young Men's Societies.Recognized legal status ; exemption from rates ; generalenactments. The foreign Institutions. Countries reached ; aworld-wide ramification. The Parliamentary Fiat. Pre-vious agencies ; the Ragged School Union. Tardy assistance :origin

of demand ; Harriet Martineau's testimony. Completionof the reformation ; a national triumph. pp. 213-238.

CHAPTER X.VALEDICTORY.

A GREAT Exemplar. A goodly band; spirit of the age.Permanent institution ; the rising generation ; the workman'salma mater; a well-spring of benefit. Genius utilised ; multitudesblessed. A patriot and philanthropist. Unostentatiouswork ; impartial distribution ; humble gleaners ; food for all.Just homage ; an immortal wreath. pp. 239-242.


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V

GEORGE BIRKBECK.CHAPTER I.

ANCESTRY, BIRTH, AND EARLY LIFE.17761799.

TN the West Riding of Yorkshire, near theborder of the county, and prominent amongst

the districts of the celebrated deanery ofCraven, stands the picturesque market-townand chapelry of SETTLEthe birthplace ofGeorge Birkbeck.

It is a pleasant spot in the peaceful valleyof the Ribble, and the surroundings and asso-ciations are of a romantic character. The river,which rises twelve miles away to the north,flows by the side of the town, and separatesit from the township of Giggleswick, in theparish of which name Settle itself is embraced.Immediately behind, to the height of some three


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2 DESCRIPTION OF BIRTHPLACE.

hundred feet, towers a limestone precipice knownas Castleberg, the pinnacle of which, accordingto a local legend, once served as the gnomonof a gigantic sun-dial, indicating the time tothe world below by its shadow on somerocks which had been placed at intervals bythe ingenious native horologists. The summitis reached by means of a winding path, andcommands an extensive and striking view.Across the river, skirting the main road forupwards. of a mile, stretches a noble range ofescarpments known as Giggleswick Scars, whichare in places decked with ivy, and from theclefts of which grows the indigenous yew. Attheir base, close to the road and a shortdistance from the town, is a far-famed well,long ago described by Drayton in verse as"sometime a nymph," its peculiarity beingthat it ebbs and flows many times a day ina capricious and uncertain manner, so thatWhitaker has alluded to it in his History ofCraven as a spring of extremely irregularhabits. Two miles to the east are the ruggedand imposing Attemire rocks ; the mountainscenery generally is very fine ; and from Rye-loaf, 1794 feet high, an extensive tract of


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HISTORICAL ASSOCIATIONS.

country is seen and a birds-eye view of thetown obtained. There are some very prettycascades in the neighbourhood, and the riveritself has several picturesque falls, notably oneknown as Stainforth Force. Moreover thedistrict, abounding as it does in limestonerocks and caves, possesses peculiar attractionsfor the antiquary and geologist. The wellknown Victoria Cave, in particular, has yieldedsome important pre-historic specimens, includ-ing bones of the primogenial elephant andbear, the hyena, rhinoceros, bison, stag, goat,badger, horse, fox, and dog, and also Romano-Celtic ornaments, coins and pottery.

Settle is a quaint and venerable little town,with a history extending back to a periodprior to the Conquest. Its name is traced backto the Saxon word Setl, a seat or station(of a tribe). The place was probably in thesuccessive occupation of the Britons and Ro-mans ; but the oldest written reference to itis contained in Domesday Book. It has hadseveral market-charters, the first having beengranted by Henry III. in 1249, with the nameof Simon de Montfort appearing as witness.Many indications of age are Visible in the


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INDUSTRIES OF BIRTHPLACE.

town, and some houses more than two hundredyears old yet remain standing. Associationswith antiquity have also been preserved in thenumerous important modern edifices, which arein the early English and Elizabethan styles.The opening a few years ago, by the MidlandRailway, of the new line to Scotland via Settle

has brought the town into general notice oflate ; but it has long ranked as a compara-tively wealthy and important place, althoughexhibiting little growth in the matter ofpopulation and numbering at the present timeonly about two thousand persons. It has formany years been associated with trade andmanufacture, leather and hides being formerlyits staple commodities. These, however, havenow long been superseded by the cotton in-dustry, and there are at the present timeseveral large factories at work, as also atannery and a paper-mill. The town canboast of having established, as long ago as1770, what was probably the first circulatinglibrary in the provinces, and of possessing asthe result a very fine collection of first editions ;whilst its twin township of Gigglcswick iswidely celebrated for its Grammar School,


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ORIGIN OF NAME. 5

which was founded as far back as 15 12, andendowed by Edward VI. forty years later.And, finally, it can lay claim to having* nur-tured at least three remarkable men. ThomasProctor, the sculptor, was one of its offspring ;Archdeacon Paley received his education atthe Grammar School ; and its interest for uscentres in the fact that it was the nativeplace of the founder of Mechanics' Institutions.

The Birkbecks are an old established familyof distinction. They derive their name from thelittle river Birkbeck {i.e. birch-stream), an affluentof the Lune, rising in the mountains of West-moreland, from which the " Birkbeck Fells," inthe same district, also receive their designation.The first known occurrence of the name is in13 18, when William de Birkbeck received fromthe Parliament of Edward II. a pardon fortreasons and felonies committed before a certaindate, he being an adherent of Thomas, Earl ofLancaster. In 15 15 arms were granted toThomas Birkbeck of Carlisle, for his defence ofthat city against the Scotch ; and are described,in heraldic language, as "Argent, a fess chequeyOr and Sable, between three lions' heads, erased


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THE BIRKBECK FAM1L Y.

Gules." Some forty years later, Hornby Hall inthe parish of Brougham, was granted to EdwardBirkbeck by the Earl of Cumberland, and longremained the family-seat. The following cen-tury the name again becomes prominent in con-nection with Simon Birkbeck, an eminentdivine, who wrote an able treatise in defenceof Protestantism. About the year 1700 WilliamBirkbeck, the ancestor of George, migrated toSettle and became a convert to the doctrines ofGeorge Fox; for which change of religiousopinions he is said to have been disinherited.He opened a general shop, and developed anextensive trade as a wool-stapler, extending histransactions to the receipt of money on deposit,the making of loans, and the sale of bills uponLondon. In this way was gradually establishedthe banking business which is still carried onby members of the family, in conjunction withother gentlemen, under the present style of TheCraven Bank. Only recently the Society for Psy-chical Research have published a curious detailednarrative ofan alleged supernatural appearance, in1739, of Mrs. William Birkbeck to her youngchildren in Settle, she having been taken illwhen returning from Scotland, and being then


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NOTEWORTHY MEMBERS.

on her death-bed at Cockermouth. In 1745a member of the family was instrumental inprocuring the arrest for high treason of Dr.John Burton, the Jacobite, by whom in acknow-ledgment of this service he was subsequentlycharacterized as a Quaker abounding

" morewith the evil spirit and malice than meeknessand truth." Other members of the family,living in 1760, are incidentally referred to inthe biography of Dr. Lettsom (a celebratedphysician and writer^ who was intimate withthem in his younger days) ; and it is remarkedconcerning them that they had from a stateof comparative indigence risen to great opu-lence, but had never abused or disgraced theirriches by pride, extravagance, or want ofcharity. Early in the present century oneof their descendants, Morris Birkbeck, emigratedto America, and purchased sixteen thousandacres of land in Illinois, where he foundedthe town of New Albion, and became knownas the Emperor of the Prairies. He publishedthree volumes of travels, and opposed theintroduction of slavery into his adopted homewhen the State was organized in 1818; and aneminent career was untimely terminated by his


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8 LIVING MEMBERS OF FAMIL Y.

death in 1825 from drowning, as he was swim-ming his horse across the Wabash on returningfrom a visit to Robert Owen. A later descentdant, Mr. John Birkbeck, has distinguishedhimself by his daring explorations of the cavesand chasms of the Craven district, especiallyof Helln Pot, a terrible abyss, as may begathered from its designation ; and there is also,named after him, a Birkbeck Gallery in theVictoria Cave. The family is at the presenttime represented at Settle by this gentleman,who is one of the principal landowners, and byhis son (equally well known as an intrepidAlpine adventurer), both of whom are justices ofthe peace. The Rev. William Birkbeck (GeorgeBirkbeck's great-nephew) is the owner of land atStackhouse, a pretty little adjacent village, anduntil recently also owned the family house inSettle, now the Ashfield Hotel. Mr. EdwardBirkbeck, M.R for East Norfolk, and the lead-ing promoter of the International FisheriesExhibition of 1883, is a descendant from thesame stock.

George Birkbeck was born on the icthJanuary, 1776. His father was William Birkbeck


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BIRTH AND PARENTAGE.of Settle, eminent as a banker and merchant,and his mother the daughter of Mr. GeorgeBraithwaite of Kendal. There were five childrenof their marriage, four boys (two of whom diedin infancy) and one girl. The parents werehighly respected in the town, where the socialposition and moral qualities of the bankersecured him considerable influence ; and theygave to their offspring a high-class education,and early instilled into their minds the unosten-tatious religious principles of the Society ofFriends. They appear, however, to have had noother characteristics calling for note ; and, as weshall hereafter see, it was not for the possession ofrare intellectual power, gifted and erudite thoughhe was, that George Birkbeck has rendered hisname illustrious. Of the two surviving sons hewas the younger. His brother William suc-ceeded to an interest in the banking business,became a magistrate, and took a large share inthe management of the Leeds and LiverpoolCanal, and also an active part on the Whigside in the county elections. He greatlybefriended the poor, assisted in the extension ofeducation ; and was widely lamented at his deathwhich occurred in 1838.


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io EARLY TASTES AND INFLUENCES.

Like many others destined to eminence,young Birkbeck displayed signs of genius atan early age, evincing a decided partiality formechanical and scientific pursuits. In child-hood he was fond of visiting the different work-shops and attempting to use the craftsmen'stools. He especially exhibited great interestin a large cotton-mill, which was worked bythe waters of the Ribble without disfiguringthe beautiful river; and with precocious intel-ligence he endeavoured to follow the compli-cated machinery and to understand the manu-facturing processes. Undoubtedly the scenesamidst which his early years were passed gave abent to his character. He was too young whenhe left Settle for them to exercise a paramountinfluence, but it may not be regarded as alto-gether fanciful to trace in part to the busymanufactories and solemnizing natural surround-ings of his early home, that taste for practicalscience and that calmness and modesty of de-meanour which were conspicuous throughouthis later career.At the age of eight he formally commenced

to study, being sent to school at Newton inLancashire, where in addition to the usual ele-


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EDUCATION: CHOICE OF PROFESSION. n

mentary knowledge he acquired the rudiments ofGreek and Latin. He remained here until hewas fourteen, when he became the pupil of Mr.Dawson of Sedbergh, who, although originallyonly a shepherd, had by perseverance made a highreputation as a mathematician. With this gentle-man he applied himself to the study of the" Principia " of Newton ; and at the same timeunder the guidance of Mr. Foster, of Hebble-thwaite Hall, a scholastic relative with whomhe resided, set to work to acquire a thoroughmastery of the classics.

In these subjects he made such rapid progressthat it was soon necessary to decide for whatprofession he should be trained. He had notaste for commercial pursuits, and often expressedhis want of sympathy with those who made theirobject in life to amass a large fortune. Afterconsultation with able friends, he elected to studymedicine, and was placed in the first instancewith Dr. Garnett, who had also been a pupil ofMr. Dawson. To his new labours he devotedhimself with the ardour and assiduity he hadalready shown ; and this early application wassoon to be recompensed.

After remaining some time with Dr. Garnett,


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12 UNIVERSITY STUDIES.

he continued his pharmaceutical studies underthe direction of Mr. Logan of Leeds. He alsobecame an expert in stenography, an accom-plishment far more difficult of attainment inthose days than at the present time, when theart has been brought to a high state of perfectionand simplicity. At eighteen he removed toEdinburgh, where he joined the Royal MedicalSociety and studied for a year. He then wentto London and became the pupil of Dr. Baillie,practising dissection with a view to increase hisknowledge of anatomy, and also attendinglectures by Dr. Fordyce on physic, and Dr.Pearson on chemistry.

In 1796 he returned to Edinburgh and laidthe foundation of future fame. He became astudent at the University, then at the height ofits reputation, and attended and took down inshorthand the lectures of Dugald Stewart andother celebrated professors. Possibly it wasfrom the Edinburgh rhetoricians that he derivedhis taste for the well-rounded periods whichdistinguished his speeches. He joined the Societyof Natural History, and was honoured by fillingthe chairs both of that and of the MedicalSociety. Natural philosophy, his favourite sub-


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HONOURS GAINED: DEGREE.

ject, then engaged his attention, and becomingclinical clerk to Dr. Rutherford, a distinguishedprofessor, opportunities were afforded him ofadding to his scientific knowledge.

Laurels were in store for him thus early in life.The Medical Society called him for the secondtime to the presidential seat, although it wasan unusual event for the same individualto be appointed twice ; and he graduated asDoctor of Medicine at the termination ofhis fourth session in 1799, his inaugural disser-tation being "Tentamen physiologico-cJiemicumde sanguine."He formed friendships too, in addition to thoseof his medical tutors and friends, whilst at themodern Athens, honourable helpful and endu-ring ; friendships which give us a view of hischaracter and exhibit to us the tastes he hadacquired. Professor Bain, in his life of the elderMill, states that he doubts if there were ever atone time gathered together at one spot such ahost of young men of ability as were at Edin-burgh College in the last ten years of the lastcentury ; and it is a satisfaction to be able toadd the name of George Birkbeck to the brilliantlist which the professor gives. " Tell me," says


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i4 COLLEGE FRIENDS: PUBLIC DEBUT.

an old proverb, " the company you keep, and Iwill tell you what you are." The associates ouryouthful student chose were men who have madetheir mark in the world ; men distinguished fornoble qualities and justly famed for intellectualpower. To mention only a few names ; here heenjoyed the society of (the future Sir) WalterScott ; here he made his first acquaintance withthe gifted and indefatigable Francis Jeffrey ; herehe was charmed by the conversation of thevivacious and witty Sydney Smith ; here hecommenced a life-long friendship with his greatco-worker, Henry Brougham.

But his stay at Edinburgh was comparativelyshort. After completing his studies and re-ceiving his rewards, he found an active and anhonourable post, and in the less attractiveGlasgow city made his ddbut into public life.And by a curious coincidence, he who was soonto prove a practical philanthropist was bidden toan Institution the very existence of which wasdue to philanthrophy. One indeed could almostfancy that he was led by a directing hand tothat congenial sphere of labour, where all thesurroundings seemed in harmony with the spiritby which he was moved.


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THE ANDERSONIAN INSTITUTION. 15

Mr. John Anderson, professor of physics, whohad died but a few years prior to this, hadbequeathed his museum of philosophical appa-ratus, books and other property, to establish anInstitution for the scientific instruction of bothsexes ; and it was to the Institution which hadbeen thus founded that Dr. Birkbeck wasappointed professor when at the age of twenty-three. By the will of the founder, the neworganisation was to be denominated ANDERSON'SUNIVERSITY, to be managed by eighty-onetrustees, and to comprehend four colleges,namely, of arts, medicine, law and theology ;the general object being " the good of mankindand the improvement of science." The Institu-tionfor the title of University was notaccorded to it until many years afterwardswas incorporated and formed into a body-politic by charter ; and Dr. Garnett waselected professor of natural philosophy. Herelinquished the post a few years afterwardson obtaining a similar appointment at the RoyalInstitution in London (which he only lived tohold for two years) ; and then it was that,through his assistance, coupled with that ofthe many friends whom Birkbeck had made


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1 6 PHILOSOPHICAL PROFESSORSHIP.

during his stay at Edinburgh, the latter wasappointed to the vacant post.The result justified the choice, and influence

had not been used to promote the unworthy.Young as he was, he proved thoroughly qualifiedfor the post ; his lectures on natural and ex-perimental philosophy and chemistry weredescribed as admirable, and his career atGlasgow was bright and exemplary.


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CHAPTER II.EARLY EDUCATIONAL LABOURS.

1799 1823.F T is now that we first sec the Doctor as the

friend and instructor of the working classesa good genius they had seldom met withbefore, and of whom they sorely stood in need.Probably few persons living in the presentday have attempted to realize the condition ofthe masses up to a period of our history ascomparatively recent as the commencement ofthe present century. Education is now, liter-ally and truly, placed within the reach of all.Schools for the formation of the young mindhave been scattered throughout the country ;colleges for the training of youth are to be metwith in every town ; institutions for the enlight-enment of the operatives have been establishedin all the industrial centres ; scholarships for theadvancement of the gifted have been generouslyand freely granted. Public men have devotedtheir time, talents and money to the move-


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1 8 EDUCATION TO-DAY.

ment ; Government has substantially encouragedthe work ; professors have practically assistedwith their brains. Rich rewards have beenoffered as incentives to study ; legislators havediscussed the subject and sent their fiat forth ;universities have opened wide their doors.There is to-day none in the realm who needbe excluded from the blessings which know-ledge has to bestow ; and few who may not, ifthey will, claim her greatest and most precioustreasures.

But all this has been the outcome of thelast eighty years. Not until the dawn of thenineteenth century was the fact discovered, orfirst recognized, that the working man had anaverage share of mental capacity ; and thatopportunities for its development being given,his intellectual status might be greatly raised.Peculiarly bright stars had undoubtedly arisenfrom time to time, and dazzled even the entireworld ; but within their own immediate orbitmyriads had continued to exist secluded fromevery ray of light.The advantages of learning, in truth, were

during long ages confined to the compara-tively few and favoured. Precise information


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A RETROSPECTIVE GLANCE. 19

upon the subject it is impossible to obtain,for statistical science was almost unknown.But we have sufficient data from which toarrive at approximately accurate conclusions.With the exception of some slight provision forpoor students by means of endowments, theonly instruction available to the bulk of thepeople were the Sunday-schools, established byRobert Raikes of honoured memory, the scopeof which was necessarily very limited ; and theparochial charity-schools, which were of themost inferior character. Not only academic anduniversity instruction, but also elementary tui-tion, were luxuries in which few but the wealthycould indulge. Two-thirds of the populationgrew up without even a rudimentary education,and could not write their own names. Reading,for the majority, would have been little short ofa superfluous acquirement, for books were be-yond the reach of their purse. A heavy paperduty, imposed in 171 1, went a long way tocounteract the benefits conferred by printing ;and a tax on newspapers of fourpence per copyeffectually prevented them obtaining a wide cir-culation. Of science, as a matter of course, thehumbler classes were totally ignorant ; and the


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20 IGNORANCE IN THE PAST.

arts which they pursued as a means of liveli-hood were practised in a manner that reducedthe workman almost to an automaton ; whilstimpolitic and vicious laws forbade him to leavethe country or enter into trade combinations.

In brief, to the"vulgar herd

" the vineyardof knowledge was as far removed as the distantshores of some oriental land. And naturalobstacles were not sufficient : jealous guardskept rigid watch lest any but the superiorcaste should enter, and unfriendly handsthrew impediments in the way when any lowlytraveller passed. Thus, those only who pos-sessed competence, time, perseverance andcourage, could ever hope to reach the goaland enjoy the pure and luscious fruit.

Such then was the condition of things whenDr. Birkbeck appeared upon the scene asprofessor of natural philosophy at the Andcr-sonian Institution.The lectures he was in the habit of delivering

required to be illustrated by means of apparatus.But there was at this time in the whole of thelarge city only one maker of the necessary instru-mentsand he apparently was not reliable


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ORIGIN OF EDUCATIONAL WORK. 21

a fact which exemplifies how little had beendone towards the general diffusion of science.Ordinary workmen had therefore to be em-ployed, superintended by the lecturer himself.And out of this apparently untoward circum-stance arose the scheme which he after-wards developed for the intellectual eman-cipation of the mechanics of the town. Adverseconditions have in the end frequently provedhighly beneficial ; and to-day we may bethankful that in the Glasgow city of 1800science took up her abode at a tinman's shop.For the spark that flew from the workman'sanvil kindled a flame of knowledge for theworkman himself, which has been burningbrightly from that day forth ; and to it canbe traced, directly or indirectly, the educationalbenefits which multitudes enjoy.The professor entered the mechanics' shop,

and became at once their foreman and friend.He visited, we are told, " the smith at hisforge, the glass-blower at his furnace, thecarpenter at his bench, and the turner at hiswheel ; and by describing to each what hewanted done, and how it was to be done,


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AN IMPORTANT MODEL.curious and delicate piece of mechanism, of theprinciple and purpose of which they knew littleor nothing." In particular, it appears that herequired a model to be made of a centrifugalpump, the construction of which createdamongst the workmen an interest borderingupon excitement. They listened to his in-structions, they plied him with questions, theyfollowed his actions and almost devoured hiswords ; until his heart was touched at the thirstfor information evinced by these untutoredsons of toil, and he determined to ministerto their craving intellects and enlarge thescope of the Institution.He procured admission for the more intelli-gent of the men to the lectures he was delivering,and was amply repaid by the satisfaction andgratitude they showed. Naturally, however,but few could be accommodated where anaudience was already secured, and great dis-appointment was expressed by those who werenot privileged to obtain admission. This led toa decision to attempt greater things ; and afterdue reflection the Doctor resolved to devote aportion of his time entirely to the mechanics, bydelivering a course of lectures for their exclusive


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AN EDUCATIONAL SCHEME.benefit. Professor Anderson had himself tosome extent endeavoured to popularize educa-tion by establishing an " antitoga " or " gownlessclass," but it was chiefly patronised by manu-facturers and higher-class operatives; andalthough some free tickets were distributed, thefact that one guinea was the stated charge, andthat the class met at an hour inconvenient tothe majority of men employed during the day,prevented him reaching the bulk of those whomDr. Birkbeck desired to instruct.The new plan was submitted to the trustees ofthe Institution, and as might have been expectedit experienced at their hands opposition andcondemnation. They smiled paternally at theadvocate's eagerness, looked upon him as ayouthful enthusiast, and pronounced his schemevisionary and absurd. "If invited, the mechanicswould not come ; if they came, they would notlisten ; if they listened, they would not com-prehend." Thus spake the

" wise in theirgeneration," and speaking vetoed the beneficialproject.But though repulsed for the time the young

man was not defeated. He returned to thecharge, and rested not until he succeeded in


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24 77/E NEW DESIGN.carrying his point, the trustees apparently evenformally thanking him for his " liberal offer."

During his vacation, spent at his Yorkshirehome, the professor prepared his prospectus forthe next session, and in it the new designreceived careful and prominent attention.

" I shall deliver," he says, " a series of lectures uponthe mechanical properties of solid and fluid bodies,abounding with experiments and conducted with thegreatest simplicity of expression and familiarity ofillustration, solely for persons engaged in the practicalexercise of the mechanic arts ; men whose situationin early life has precluded the possibility of acquiringeven the smallest portion of scientific knowledge, andwhose subsequent pursuits, not always affording morethan is necessary for their own support and that oftheir dependent connections, have not enabled themto purchase that information which curiosity, too activefor penury wholly to repress, or the prevailing bias oftheir natural genius, might prompt them to obtain.I am by no means sanguine in my expectation thatby~a course of instruction such as I have now pro-posed, one artist will be directed to the discovery ofanything which is essential or important in his parti-cular department, how much soever it may be con-nected in principle with the subject to be discussed.I am too well aware that the best contrivances in everybranch of the mechanic arts have resulted, and muststill continue to result, from the observation of prac-tical defects, and from the gradual application of


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EXTRACT FROM PROSPECTUS. 25suitable means, dictated by practical maxims, toobviate or remove them. But whilst my slightacquaintance with the subject has afforded this infor-mation, I have become convinced that much pleasurewould be communicated to the mechanic in theexercise of his art, and that the mental vacancy whichfollows a cessation from bodily toil would often beagreeably occupied by a few systematic philosophicalideas, upon which at his leisure he might meditate.It must be acknowledged, too, that greater satisfactionin the execution of machinery must be experiencedwhen the uses to which it may be applied and theprinciples upon which it operates are well understood,than where the manual part alone is known, the artistremaining entirely ignorant of everything besides ;indeed I have lately had frequent opportunities ofobserving with how much additional alacrity a pieceof work has been undertaken when the circumstanceswere such as I have now stated.

"Perhaps to some it may appear that the advantagesderivable from these lectures will be inconsiderable, or

even that they will be disadvantageous, on account ofthe extent of the subjects they embrace, and becausethose to whom they are addressed do not possess themeans or enjoy the opportunities calculated for engraft-ing upon the elementary truths they learn theextensive researches of the illustrious philosophers bywhom the boundaries of science have been enlarged.Whatever the arrogance of learning may have advancedin condemnation of superficial knowledge, and how-ever firmly I may be persuaded that the people cannotbe profound, I have no hesitation in predicting thatvast benefit will accrue to the community by every


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26 THE MECHANICS' CLASS:successful endeavour to diffuse the substance of greatworks which cannot be perused by the. people atlarge, thereby making them reach the shop and thehamlet and converting them from unproductivesplendour to useful though unobserved activity."The prospectus was distributed in the chief

manufactories, and invitations given to attendthe lectures; the Doctor affording further proofof his earnestness and generosity by himselfcomposing and printing with a simple pressthe tickets of admission. The invitations wereeagerly- accepted, and in the autumn of 1800was inaugurated, with an attendance of seventy-five members, what for long after was a notablefeature of the Andersonian Institution, namely,The Mechanics' Class.

Saturday evening was wisely chosen for thelectures, and the first gave such great satisfac-tion that its fame soon spread. On the succeed-ing week there was an audience of two hundredworkmen ; on the third the numbers had swelledto three ; and exactly one month after hecommenced his course, Dr. Birkbcck was listenedto with rapt attention by five hundred workingmechanics ! Ay, and even now the demand wasgreater than the supply. The accommodationof the lecture-hall was taxed to its utmost ; and


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ITS GREAT SUCCESS. 27

many applicants had still to be refused. Weekafter week the lectures proceeded ; the men werethere eager and attentive ; letters were receivedevidencing their intelligent appreciation ; andthe most sanguine expectations were realized.So highly indeed did they esteem their privi-lege, that their gratitude assumed a practicalform, and at the close of the term they pre-sented their benefactor with a handsome silversnuff-box.

It will be noticed that the information thelecturer imparted was of a character speciallysuitable to his audience. He wisely thoughtthat to instruct the mechanics in the sciencesthat pertained to the occupations in which theywere engaged would be the best mode of con-veying benefit; and that the knowledge whichthey thus acquired would become to them of realutility. The workman would cease to be a meremachine, toiling on from day to day, accomplish-ing he knew not what. Now he would under-stand the laws on which his operations werebased ; now he would comprehend the reasonsfor the results he saw attained. And by thesemeans would he perfect himself in his calling.


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28 COMMENTS ON SCHEME,

become qualified for higher branches, and reapadvantages in many ways.

Further, the teacher judiciously sought toreach his end by the surest and most direct road.What would have been to his humble pupilsmerely grandiloquent language and bewilderingterms he unhesitatingly cast aside. The truthsof science were proclaimed, as far as possible, inunscientific phraseology. He aimed, not atdazzling his hearers by brilliant speeches whichthey could not understand, but at explainingto them in homely Saxon facts which they couldbe made to grasp.

This, of course, added to his work ; for it ismore difficult in many cases to be simple thanprofound. To discard at once the terms of thelaboratory and the familiar diction of theschools is not accomplished without an effort ;whilst with fervid youth, rich in imagination andpanting to be eloquent, the inclination is oftenwanting. That the young lecturer, however,succeeded in this is shown by the satisfactoryresults of his labours, a success far beyond hisown expectations, and the more remarkablewhen it is borne in mind that his audience wasnot possessed even of that elementary general


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CONTINUED APPRECIATION 29

knowledge which is lacking in few sciencestudents of the present day. His tact andability in this direction are not unworthy,therefore, of passing notice.

Similar satisfactory results attended thelectures which were delivered during the suc-ceeding sessions. A sense of honest independ-ence led the mechanics to subscribe a shillingeach to meet the incidental expenses. This theysubsequently increased to half-a-crown ; andtwenty pounds of the amount thus raised waspaid to the operator who assisted, and the re-mainder given to the Institution. Later on, thetrusteesready, now the movement prospered, toco-operate in and benefit from it

resolved thatfive shillings should be the charge, but as itseemed probable this would prove too great atax upon the humble members, the lecturerstrongly resisted the attempt, and again prevailedover those in office.

His vacation of 1802 the Doctor partly spentabroad, availing himself of the brief suspensionof hostilities following the conclusion of thePeace of Amiens to visit France. He spent sometime in Paris, where he saw Napoleon (already


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30 GENERAL BIOGRAPHY: MARRIAGE.

at the age of thirty-three holding the destiny ofnations in his hands) surrounded by his generals ;and viewed with much interest the public workswhich were being carried out by the great civil,not less than military, commander.

A sad bereavement now awaited the mechanics.After three years' service in the AndersonianInstitution, the professor decided to relinquish hispost and remove to another sphere of action.He quitted Glasgow in 1804, and after deliver-ing courses of lectures on science in Birmingham,Liverpool and Hull, which acquired for himsome fame and many additional valuable ac-quaintances, he finally settled in London, estab-lishing himself first in Finsbury Square andsubsequently in Cateaton Street, as a physician.In May 1805 he married Catherine, theyoungest daughter of Mr. Sampson Lloyd of" The Farm," near Birmingham, described as anintelligent and accomplished young lady. Buthis domestic happiness was of short duration.The birth of a son in March 1807 robbed himof his wife, to whom he was deeply attached, andhe remained a widower more than ten years.

Active occupation is the best anodyne for


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MEDICAL APPOINTMENTS.

grief; and he endeavoured by an increaseddevotion to medicine, his first love, to assuage thesharp pang of bereavement. He made steadyprogress in his profession, and established asound reputation and a large practice. Soonafter his arrival in London, he became oneof the presidents of the Physical Societyof Guy's Hospital, a post to which hewas annually re-elected. In 1808 he wasadmitted licentiate of the College of Phy-sicians ; and shortly afterwards was appointedphysician to the General Dispensary in AldersgateStreet, the earliest institution of the kind inLondon, and one with which he remained iden-tified throughout the greater part of the remainderof his life. He joined the Medical and Chirur-gical Society, formed about the same time, andwas elected on the council in 1808, and one ofthe vice-presidents in 18 18. The ChemicalSociety appointed him their president ; and onthe formation of the Meteorological Society in1823, he was called by its members to a similarexalted position. The list of his connections withthe learned bodies was completed by his joiningthe Astronomical and Geological Societies.

In July 1 8 17 he married again, his wife being


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32 SECOND MARRIAGE: NEIGHBOURS.

Anna Margaret, the youngest daughter of Mr.Henry Gardner of Liverpool, an amiable ladywhom he predeceased, and by whom he hadthree sons (one of whom died in infancy' andtwo daughters.-About the year 1819 he removed to Old Broad

Street, where he resided for nearly twenty years.The locality, now abandoned to the mysteriesof la haute finance, was then associated with thenames of many of the advanced thinkers of thetime. Close to the Doctor's house, Mrs. Grotcwas giving those dinners at u Threddle," as sheplayfully called the bank in Threadncedle-street, at which the economists and radicalleaders used to gather. Ricardo and JosephHume were frequent visitors, as was also JamesMill, who had then entered upon his duties atthe India House ; whilst the still greater geniuspf his son found philosophical training withinthe same walls. To the small but brilliantassembly of young men which about this timebegan to meet every morning at Grote's house,can be traced the origin of much of the politicaleconomy, logic and metaphysics current at thepresent time. With Grote himself Dr. Birkbcckformed a lasting friendship.


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THE LONDON INSTITUTION. 33Meanwhile the Doctor's interest in the

working classes, and his desire to extend tothem the benefits of scientific knowledge, hadnot in any degree abated; but his largemedical practice and professional engagementsleft little scope for other employment, and thisportion of our chronicle therefore can be verybrief. He was active, nevertheless, in the causeof education, and was one of the originalprojectors of the LONDON INSTITUTION estab-lished in 1809 in King's Arms Yard, and after-wards in Moorfields, (now Finsbury Circus), forthe diffusion of science, literature and the arts.In 1820 he delivered at the Institution an hono-rary course of fifteen lectures on natural andexperimental philosophy to large and enthusiasticaudiences, and in the spring of 1823 seven lectureson the atmosphere and its modifications.The prominence acquired by the achieve-

ments of his later life have somewhat obscuredthese labours of his earlier years. They form,however, a fitting prelude to that magnificentand imperishable work with which his name isespecially associated ; the rise and progress ofwhich will now engage our attention.


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CHAPTER III.FORMATION OF THE LONDON

MECHANICS' INSTITUTION.1 823-1824.

THERE has been some amount ofcontroversy,now long since forgotten, as to the preciseorigin of Mechanics' Institutions. Little would begained by reviving this controversy, or enteringin detail into the merits of the question concern-ing which it was waged ; but the topic is one sonearly affecting the subject of our memoir thatit cannot be altogether passed by. A few words,therefore, may be devoted to the various societiesexisting prior to the London Mechanics' Institu-tion, with which Dr. Birkbeck is more especiallyidentified, and which, in whatever esteem its pre-decessors may be held, was the first to excite awide-spread public interest,or to give any distinctimpulse to the popular educational movement.

The earliest organization claimed as aMechanics' Institute was "The Birmingham


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EARLY EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES. 35

Brotherly Society," originally formed in 1789by Sunday-school teachers, under the title of"The Sunday Society;" but adopting the formerdesignation seven years later. Its objects wereto afford instruction in reading, writing, arith-

metic, drawing, geography, natural and civil his-tory and morals ; and in addition to these beingto some extent attained, a library was formedand some free lectures were delivered, with aview to diffuse a taste for scientific pursuitsamongst the artisans. The Society, however,appears to have been of a transient character,and rather limited in its operations, the sub-scription of half-a-crown per annum scarcelyallowing of great efficiency, whilst it was ham-pered by a rather peculiar rule excluding anymember who might habitually neglect publicworship.

In August 1 8 17 a small society, known as* The Mechanical Institution " was establishedin London by an enterprising operative, Mr.Timothy Claxton ; he and a few artisansmeeting once a week in different places, whenlectures were delivered by the members relatingto the arts and sciences, upon which discussionsensued. The meetings came to an end in 1820


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36 TIMOTHY CLAXTON.

when the promoter went to Russia ; and until hecalled attention to the subject many years after-wards, the existence of the society was onlyknown to a few. It was, however, a praise-worthy effort to afford mutual instruction, and itis deserving of note that at a much later date Mr.Claxton published a homely little work entitled"Hints to Mechanics" in which he pays anhonest tribute to Dr. Birkbeck as the " father ofthe modern system of diffusing useful knowledgeamong our class," and gives a woodcut of the"birthplace of Mechanics' Institutions " being theGlasgow tinman's shop.A more successful attempt to promote theextension of knowledge was made at Edinburghin the year 1821 ; when, chiefly through theagency of Mr. Leonard Horner, a system, sug-gested by and based upon that which Dr. Birk-beck had originated at Glasgow, was introducedunder the title of " The Edinburgh School ofArts." It was founded with the object ofimparting to the working classes a knowledge ofscientific principles ; but one of its special featureswas that the mechanics had no voice in themanagement, the idea being that persons ofeducation were better able to determine what


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EDINBURGH SCHOOL OF ARTS. 37course of instruction would be most advan-tageous to those whom it was intendedto benefit. More than half of its revenuewas derived from subscriptions of the middleand upper classes ; and the whole manage-ment was vested in fifteen directors, chosenfrom the subscribing body. The artisanspaid fifteen shillings a year for permission toattend the lectures and use the library; butthere their privileges and responsibility ended.The Edinburgh School of Arts differed thereforein its form of government from the Mechanics'Institutions by which it was succeeded, andobjection was taken on this account to its beingranked amongst them. Probably, however, itsown educational work was not the less bene-ficial, if more prescribed and restricted ; but itdid not awaken any general enthusiasm orinterest.A somewhat similar School of Arts was formedat Haddington shortly afterwards, but this com-manded little attention, and no informationconcerning it appears to be now extant.

Contenting ourselves with this brief notice of


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38 THE GLASGOW MECHANICS.once more to Glasgow, where an unquestionablygenuine and enduring Mechanics' Institutionwas established in the year 1823, as the directoutcome of Dr. Birkbeck's former labours inthat city. Although he had never again madeGlasgow his home, his memory was cherishedby the people there, and of this he receivedstriking proof more than eighteen years afterleaving.The Mechanics' Class had been continued by

his able successor Dr. Ure, at a remunerationwhich, though inadequate to the services rendered,was sufficient to show that the benefits obtainedwere considered worth paying for. A librarywas added in 1808, and a committee ofmanagement chosen from members of theClass. The attendance for a considerable periodwas good, but in time a falling off took place.The managers of the Institution relapsed intocomparative indifference to the interests of thehumble students, and the lectures were given atwider intervals. The members, however, in thespring of 1823, made a temporarily successfuleffort to revive the Class; and with long sustainedgratitude to their first practical friend, theyresolved to enter into a subscription for the


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ADDRESS TO THE DOCTOR. 39

purpose of procuring a portrait of Dr. Birkbeckwith which to adorn their place of meeting, andto acknowledge his labours as the " liberal-minded founder of the Mechanics' Class " bypresenting him with a suitable address. Fourhundred signatures were affixed to this document,of the salient portions of which the followingis a copy :

" We members of the Mechanics' Class, Anderson'sInstitution, Glasgow, impressed with a deep sense ofthe benefits resulting from the course of lectures forinstructing artisans in the scientific principles of artsand manufactures, beg leave, in this respectful manner,to tender our grateful recollections to you, by whom thatplan was first projected, and carried into execution."..." It was your distinguished lot, sir, to lay open morewidely than had been previously contemplated theportals of philosophy, and to invite artisans of everydescription to enter them, however scanty their meansor obscure their condition. For this truly philanthropicdeed we present you thus publicly with our mostheartfelt thanks ; and while from your approvingconscience you will derive the purest satisfaction, youwill not disdain the homage now offered you, after aninterval of nearly twenty years, by the students of thatclass which you first called into being."Upon receiving Dr. Birkbeck's acquiescence to

the proposal with reference to his portraitwhich was accordingly paintedthe mechanics


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4o LETTER FROM GLASGOW.

forwarded him a letter through their secretary,an extract from which is introduced as a suitableaddendum to the address :

" Perhaps when your philanthropic mind firstsuggested the idea of diffusing useful knowledgeamongst mechanics, it did not occur to you that yourbenevolent scheme would be crowned with sucheminent success as subsequent events have proved.But the oak springs from the acorn ;the triumphs oftruth over prejudice though slow are neverthelesscertain, and if properly directed permanently beneficialto mankind. You formed your scheme of improve-ment from an intimate acquaintance with humannature ; and it must be gratifying to you to learn thatyour philosophic foresight has not been disappointed.You judged that the apparent mental lethargy of theoperatives towards science arose from no infirmity oftheir mental powersand you judged right. Youtraced it either to a total neglect, or an improperdirection of their faculties to objects unworthy of theirnotice. You undertook the generous task of givingthe first impulse, and of directing their attention tostudies worthy of their pursuit ; and the experience oftwenty years has proved beyond doubt the beneficialeffects resulting from your system of education."

Shortly after these events a disagreement againtook place between the members of the Class andthe managers of the Andersonian Institution. Itis not very clear what were the points in dispute,but the general opinion seems to have been that


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FIRST MECHANICS' INSTITUTE.

the artisans were justified in the course theypursuedwhich resulted in their leaving theInstitution. But they only withdrew to find amore congenial home. They met togetherand arranged their plan, and in July 1823the Glasgow Mechanics' Institution wasformed ; their early friend and instructor con-senting to become its patron.

At the time Dr. Birkbeck was presented withthe unexpected testimonial just referred to,he wasengaged in the preparation of an essay on thescientific education of the working classes with aview to the introduction into London of somescheme of practical utility. His labours atGlasgow had been most favourably reviewed inthe Encyclopaedia Britannica as long after-wards as 18 17, and a letter on the subjectappeared in the Morning Chronicle in the year1822. The Doctor had long desired that themetropolitan artisans might receive instructionof a similar character to that which he hadimparted to their Glasgow brethren. But cir-cumstances, as he subsequently tells us, had notseemed favourable to the accomplishment of thisobject, and he had hitherto been deterred from


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42 SCHEME FOR LONDON.

offering any plan. Now, however, he feltconvinced, amongst other reasons from the" unequivocal declarations and proceedings ofthe mechanics of Glasgow" that the time wasripe for conferring knowledge on the workmenof the great metropolis ; and despite the heavydemand made upon his time by his professionalpractice, we find him entering heart and soulinto a scheme for the formation of a LONDONMechanics' Institution.

In August 1823 a weekly periodical had beenestablished under the title of " The Mechanics'Magazine" the editors and part proprietors beingThomas Hodgskin and Joseph Robertson,to whom, the latter especially, repeated referencewill have to be made. The object of themagazine was to spread amongst those employedin the different manufactories a knowledge ofthe history and principles of their arts, andinformation as to inventions and improvements.Apparently the publication was the first of itskind ; and the sale it at once commandedindicated that a spirit of inquiry had begun toprevail amongst the working men, and that suit-able means alone were needed to raise them to ahigher intellectual position.


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THE MECHANICS' MAGAZINE. 43In its seventh number this magazine, in an

article from the pen of Robertson, after reviewingDr. Birkbeck's labours at Glasgow and the recentmovements of the mechanics there, issued pro-posals for the formation of a London Institution ;and invited correspondence on the matter as ameans of testing the probability of success. TheDoctor at once appeared upon the scene with amost hearty and encouraging letter, and in thenext number Robertson announced that the firstgentleman who responded to the invitation wasthe public-spirited and philanthropic individual,who, to adopt the language of the mechanics ofGlasgow, "had the honour of unfolding first ofall, with the commencement of the nineteenthcentury, the temple of science to the artisan."This led to a more lengthened notice of theClass at the Andersonian Institution, in thecourse of which the writer forcibly inquired :" Who but a man of a great and a generous mind,flinging aside all the prejudices of education andhabit, soaring above most of those around himin his views of human capability, could have beenthe first in the long lapse of ages to step forwardand invite the humble artisan 'however scantyhis means or obscure his condition' to come and


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44 FRANCIS PLACE:

draw water at the same stream from which aGalileo, a Bacon, and a Newton had drunkimmortality."

Further correspondence on the subject ensued ;the original proposals for the formation of theInstitution were printed on separate sheets andfreely distributed, and the press generally tookfavourable note of the scheme.

Amongst the earliest co-operators in the move-ment was one of the most conspicuous men ofhis dayFRANCIS Place " the radical tailor ofCharing Cross." His name is now almost for-gotten, but as it will frequently appear in thesepages a description of him from Professor Bain'swork before referred to is here transcribed :

" Reared as an apprentice tailor in the end of lastcentury, he had not much education, and to the lastwas deficient in culture. He took a part in advancedliberal politics from his earliest years, and bore thestamp of the men that have achieved for us ourliberties. His house and shop in Charing Crossbecame the resort of all liberal politicians. Hecollected a considerable library which he made avail-able to his friends. Although not either profound inthought, or in any way accomplished or refined, he wasan admirable man of business, precise and methodicalin all his transactions. He was also very generous


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THE RADICAL TAILOR. 45

both to the public and to individuals. He kept a fulldiary of what he saw and did, and preserved theinteresting pamphlets, squibs, and newspaper cuttings,connected with all the exciting events. Fifty volumesof MSS. now in the British Museum, are the result ;and are essential to the historian of the first third ofthe present century."To this may be added that Place, who was

undoubtedly an indefatigable worker, appears tohave been fully impressed with his own meritsand importance, to have been very sensitive toany slight whether real or imaginary, and tohave been peculiarly sharp in detecting theweaknesses or faults of others. He was keenand satirical, his language was strong and vigor-ous, and frequently quaint and witty ; and hewas one whose friendship was worth having, andwhose opposition was by no means desirable.Although taking part in most of the publicmovements ofhis age, he appears not to have beenprominent as a speaker, but to have contentedhimself with attending to the important dutiesof organization.

Hodgskin, one of the editors of the newmagazine, had long been on intimate terms withPlace, and had consulted with him both as to thestarting of the journal and the formation of the


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46 FIRST LONDON MEETING.

proposed Institution. The latter, who hadrecently had several conversations with Dr. Ureas to the Glasgow Mechanics' Class, enteredheartily into the scheme, revised the originaladdress before it was published in the magazine,and became the chief man of business in con-nection with the movement. Several interviewstook place between him and the two editors,when it was decided he should draw up sug-gested resolutions, and with the approbationof Dr. Birkbeck a public meeting was convenedand notified in the magazine, the newspapersvoluntarily copying the announcement.

This meeting was held on November i i.th, atone of the then largest rooms in the metropolis,belonging to the Crown and Anchor Tavern ;and such was the interest which the subjectexcited that upwards of two thousand personswere present, chiefly consisting of working men.The editors acted as secretaries for the timebeing, Place rendered unofficial assistance, andthe Doctor occupied the chair and delivered along and interesting address. After stating thatif the important project which had occasionedthem to assemble resulted, as had been declared,from the formation of the Glasgow Institution,


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THE DOCTOR'S ADDRESS. 47

which was confessedly derived from the originalMechanics' Class, he might be permitted to con-sider himself qualified to delineate the rise andprogress of that branch of public instruction ; hegave an admirable sketch of the history of theClass, alluding to the opposition shown to theplan, dwelling with gratification on its success,paying a high compliment to the intelligenceand attention of the mechanics, and rejoicingthat they had now provided for themselvesmeans of obtaining scientific knowledge. Asthese facts have already been referred to, it isunnecessary to quote from this the larger partof the address, the concluding portion of whichwas as follows :

" There may, perhaps, be some amongst the largenumber of mechanics whom I have now the gratifica-tion of addressing, who may entertain doubts whetherthe objects of science may be within their reach, orif within their reach whether they are available forpractical purposes. To them I would say, thatalthough the august temple of science has generallybeen represented to be situated on a rugged moun-tain, accessible only by thorny paths to the privilegedfew, yet it is really to be considered as situated on awidely extended plain, approachable with ease in allpossible directions, and opening innumerable doors forthe admission of its votaries. So far from sciencebeing inapplicable to the ordinary purposes of life, I


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48 THE DOCTOR'S ADDRESS.

will assert with Lord Bacon, one of the wisest of men,that 'it comes home to men's business and their bosoms.'To prove to you that the objects of science are to befound scattered around us, I need only remind youthat the illustrious Galileo, by observing the oscillationsof a lamp suspended from the ceiling, was conducive tothe discovery of some of the most important laws ofmotion ; that our immortal Newton, whilst contem-plating the descent of an apple from the tree, laid afoundation for the discovery of the law which connectsand regulates the motions of the planetary systemand pervades the most distant parts of the universe ;that Cavallo by means of a soap-bubble, the amuse-ment of pur boyhood, was enabled to exhibit the mostsuccessful mode of aerial navigation ; and that Frank-lin, who, for his honour and your encouragement, Imay remark was himself an operative, by means ofa common paper-kite achieved one of the greatestdiscoveries of the last century, and secured for hisname a place ' amongst bards and sages old, immortalsons of praise.' For instances of the applicability ofscience to the purposes of the mechanic, I may referto the improvements of the steam-engine by the cele-brated Watt, in consequence of his acquaintance withthe laws of heat ; improvements which have identifiedhim with the splendid achievements of the most extra-ordinary, if not the proudest, period of British history :I may refer to Bramah, who, by the application of aproposition in hydrostatics commonly known by thename of the hydrostatic paradox and often producedto amuse the learned and make the unlearned stare/

has constructed a machine, the hydro-mechanicalpress, which for convenience and power has never


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LETTER FROM BROUGHAM. 49

yet been equalled; and I may likewise refer to thesteam-engine invented by the distinguished mechanic,Mr. Perkins, which, although time has not yet estab-lished its merits, exhibits in a simple tube an ingeniousapplication of a principle respecting the transmissionof heat through fluids, discovered by Count Rumford,and which shows in what manner ingenuity may applythe refinements of science to the purposes of mechanicsand of civilised life. These are the results which con-firm the declaration of Professor Dugald Stewart, that' when theoretical knowledge and practical skill arehighly combined in one person, the intellectual powerof man appears in its full perfection.'" But I will not detain you longerknowing thatthere are around me gentlemen who may address youwith much greater effectthan to add that by yourproceedings this evening it will be decided whether thefirm and powerful voice of science shall pervade allthe workshops of the kingdom, or the feeble anduncertain vote of experience shall in them still con-tinue to prevail."At the termination of the address, which was

enthusiastically received by the mechanics, along letter was read from Henry BROUGHAMto the Doctor, expressing his sympathy withthe object of the meeting and enclosing a chequefor ^"20. It concluded as follows :

" As you were the original author of this admirablescheme above twenty years ago, and then carried it ona large scale into execution, allow me to congratulateyou on the prospect of its adoption in this great city,


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50 PROVISIONAL ARRANGEMENTS.where its benefits and its examples are likely to proveof such inestimable value."

Various speeches were then made; but not-withstanding the Doctor's complimentary allu-sion to gentlemen who would address themeeting with greater effect, there appears tohave been present to sustain him no person ofnote ; if we except Cobbett, ' who said a fewwords at the end.

Resolutions were passed of a somewhat elabo-rate character, dealing with the formation, objectand development of the Institution, and fixingthe subscription at not more than a guinea ayear ; a provisional committee was appointed,consisting of seventeen persons, chiefly mechanics,but including Place ; and it was arranged thatRobertson and Hodgskin should continue secre-taries ad interim. At the close several hundredof the operatives present gave in their names asmembers.The Times devoted half a column to a report

of the meeting, and the Morning Chronicle, thepowerful press exponent of advanced liberalthoughtthen directed by the radical politician,John Blackhad a verbatim record extending tonearly five columns. The Examiner, a weekly


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UNEXPECTED OPPOSITION,

paper of similar views, also gave a very fulland prominent report.

Thus far everything had proceeded smoothly,but the new project was not to be launchedwithout first overcoming difficulties and obsta-cles ; and these arose from a quarter whence theymight have been least expected, namely fromtwo of the original promoters, the editors of theMechanics Magazine. From their later proceed-ings, these individuals, Robertson in particular,may well be suspected of having had ulteriorobjects in view in giving prominence to thescheme, probably of making it subservient tothe interests of the journal.A sub-committee was appointed, consisting ofDr. Birkbeck, Mr. Place, and a Mi\_Bailey, anironmonger; and of this the two secretaries weremembers ex officio. Place drew up suggestedrules, which were ultimately agreed to by the sub-committee and submitted to the general body,together with a proposal for raising money.Hodgskin, however, to the surprise of the leadersobjected to this, and was supported by themajority of the mechanics; and Robertson, whofollowed, by his language seemed to suggest that


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52 ANTAGONISM OF ROBERTSON.

the Doctor and his friends intended to use theInstitution for sinister purposes. Place openlyaccused Robertson of duplicity, and withhaving influenced the mechanics privatelyacharge he did not explicitly deny. It after-wards appeared that his antecedents were notgood, and his subsequent ceaseless and syste-matic attacks justified the strong strictures whichPlace passes upon him, including an accusationof a " design to break down the Institution to amere club, which might be under his control,"and alsoin characteristic language" of havingsucceeded in making a fool, if not a rogue, ofMr. Hodgskin." Objections were raised to theruleswhich had previously been agreed to insub-committeewith a view to the adoption ofanother set, with which Robertson had comeprovided ; but in this design he failed. Themeeting was prolonged until two in the morning;was then adjourned to the following evening,when it was continued until one the nextmorning, and once more adjourned. Ultimatelythe mechanics, whom Place exonerates fromblame on the ground that their minds werepoisoned, grew alarmed at the threatenedrupture, and the rules originally suggested


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FORMATION OF INSTITUTION. 53were adopted, with some alterations not ofprimary importance.A general meeting of the entire body was nextconvened, and it was decided as a matter ofpolicy that the disputes which had arisen shouldnot be made public, especially as the intendedappointment of a paid secretary would relegateMessrs. Robertson and Hodgskin to the positionof private members. The meeting was held onthe 2nd December, when the Institution wasformally constituted, the rules and orders wereadopted, and arrangements concluded for theelection of officers. This election took placeby ballot, and Dr. Birkbeck was appointed presi-dentan appointment he held to the time ofhis death. He was also named as one of thefour trustees, Brougham being another. Anofficial committee was elected, consisting of thirtymembers, of whom more than two-thirds wereworking mechanics. Place had intimated thatalthough he would continue to render assistancehe could not devote all his evenings to theInstitution, and he was therefore not nominated ;nor was either Hodgskin or Robertson.The committee met from time to time, but two

months before


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54 CONTINUED OPPOSITION.

done, owing largely to the evil geniuses of themovement, aided by a few kindred spirits, con-tinuing to create distrust. It was felt by nearlyall the friends of the cause that there was noprobability of the object they had in view beingaccomplished without public aid ; and the Doctorhad pertinently remarked, at one of the earlymeetings, that if it had been possible, or if themechanics had thought it possible, that they couldof themselves commence and establish such an In-stitution, the matter would have been left to them.Under pretence, however, of promoting a spiritof independence amongst the working classesRobertson, with great inconsistency, made thisthe chief ground for repeated attacks; although hehad previously concurred in the opinion of Placethat unless money was procured the Institutioncould not be commenced with any reasonablehope of being established, and had subsequentlyapproved of the resolutions of the public meetingrequesting donations, joined in the report whichannounced that a banking account had beenopened to receive contributions, expressed hisunqualified gratification at one handsome sub-scription which had been made, even warmlyreplying to an unfavourable newspaper comment


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OPENING MEETING. 55

upon this gift and upon the Institution not being"self-supporting, and finally put himself downjointly with his co-editor for the sum of fiveguineas.The committee, however, we are told, disre-

garded the attacks made upon them, andadvanced towards their purpose in spite of theimpediments and insinuations which divided themembers, being " greatly aided by the steadyattention and imperturbable temper of theirexcellent president."At length on February 20th 1824, an opening

meeting was held at a commodious chapel inMonkwell Street, London Wall, of which thetemporary use was obtained on favourable terms ;and so ready were the working men to availthemselves of the advantages offered them thatnearly thirteen hundred had already been en-rolled as members, of whom all but two hundredhad paid their subscriptions. Dr. Birkbeck wassupported by Brougham, Professor Millington,and other gentlemen.From the president's inaugural address one is

constrained to quote somewhat freely, as it ex-plains his views, unfolds his character, and

his oratorical


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56 OPENING MEETING:"With feelings," he says, "of exultation unutterable,

I rise to offer my warmest heartfelt congratulations onthis momentous occasion. This hour is witness tohopes, long, ardently and anxiously cherished by me,now rapidly realising in the visible and effectiveexistence of a Mechanics' Institution in theemporium of the world." Had you, gentlemen, beheld the small number ofartisans who in a large and flourishing city werewilling to accept the earliest invitations to enterthe temple of science, this striking scene would becontemplated with gratitude and delight still morelively and enthusiastic; with gratitude arising from thepermission to behold the extended impulsive operationof the growing appetite for knowledge, one of thenoblest propensities of man ; with delight, from per-ceiving that the mighty spirit of the age, which hasbeen pervading the whole rational creation, has atlength fructified the intellectual mass, and roused itfrom death-like slumber to animation and activity.The inquiring spirit of the age has loudly demandedthat the door of science should be thrown open,and that its mysteries should be revealed to all man-kind. This demand has been answered, here as wellas elsewhere, without reference to age, occupation, orcondition ; and, judging from the aspect of thisthronged assembly, the result must be most auspiciousto the progress of knowledge. ' There is a time ' thewisest of mortals has declared, 'for all things'; andthe ardour with which the present project has beenembraced proves, beyond the possibility of question,that this is the time for the universal diffusion of theblessings of knowledge. 'There is a tide in the


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INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 57affairs of men,' one of the most s

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