Getting the Gig Picture Getting the Gig Picture in Community Science: in Community Science: Methods That Capture Methods That Capture

ContextContextDouglas A. LukeDouglas A. Luke

American Journal of Community PAmerican Journal of Community Psychology, 2005sychology, 2005

IntroductionIntroduction

CP should put context front and center as CP should put context front and center as one of the core values of community one of the core values of community psychologypsychology

Call for contextual methods instead of Call for contextual methods instead of taking context into account just by taking context into account just by theories, models and frameworks.theories, models and frameworks.

Methodologically , need to be in control of Methodologically , need to be in control of the quantitative methods, not vise versa.the quantitative methods, not vise versa.

IntroductionIntroduction

The Goal of this paper: provide several The Goal of this paper: provide several useful analytic methods to capture useful analytic methods to capture community context.community context.

The Review of Statistical The Review of Statistical Practice in Community SciencePractice in Community Science

Figure 1: Statistics usageFigure 1: Statistics usage

The point : if community scientists are The point : if community scientists are seriously interested in understanding how seriously interested in understanding how the physical, social , organizational, the physical, social , organizational, cultural, economic and political context cultural, economic and political context shape human behavior and health, it shape human behavior and health, it better try some other new innovative better try some other new innovative method.method.

The argument of paper is more The argument of paper is more philosophical and political than technical.philosophical and political than technical.

Contextualism and Community SContextualism and Community Sciencecience

Effective interventions based on community Effective interventions based on community science can and should be aimed at the extscience can and should be aimed at the extra-individual level-------contextualismra-individual level-------contextualism

Some empirical work conducted fromSome empirical work conducted from Fewer collected data from extra-individual lFewer collected data from extra-individual l

evels or analyze the data using appropriate evels or analyze the data using appropriate methods for multiple levels.methods for multiple levels.

Contextual thinking Vs. Contextual methodsContextual thinking Vs. Contextual methods

Multilevel ModelingMultilevel Modeling

Hierarchical linear modeling,Hierarchical linear modeling, Mixed-effects modelingMixed-effects modeling Growth-curve modelingGrowth-curve modeling

A Detailed ExampleA Detailed Example

Tobacco control policy study by Luke & KrausTobacco control policy study by Luke & Krauss, 2004s, 2004

Typical single-level regression model would bTypical single-level regression model would be : the percentage of time that a member of ce : the percentage of time that a member of congress voted in a pro-tobacco industry directiongress voted in a pro-tobacco industry direction based on his or her political part and the aon based on his or her political part and the amount of money received from a tobacco indumount of money received from a tobacco industry political action committeestry political action committee

There is cluster effects within independent variaThere is cluster effects within independent variables. bles.

Congress member from same party but different Congress member from same party but different states would vote differentlystates would vote differently

State-level characteristics may influence voting State-level characteristics may influence voting behavior apart from the individual party and mobehavior apart from the individual party and money received.ney received.

Particular the size of the tobacco economy in a stParticular the size of the tobacco economy in a state, operationalized as size of tobacco harvest, is ate, operationalized as size of tobacco harvest, is a type of contextual variable that might influenca type of contextual variable that might influence congressional votinge congressional voting

Not only individual level , but state level.Not only individual level , but state level.

A multilevel modelA multilevel model

A detailed example ( contd)A detailed example ( contd)

GISGIS

DefinitionDefinition 3 illustrative studies3 illustrative studies Wieczorek and Hanson (1997): DWI studyWieczorek and Hanson (1997): DWI study Tobacco control policy studyTobacco control policy study Goldstein (2003) tobacco free school policiGoldstein (2003) tobacco free school polici

es studyes study

Wieczoreck and Hanson (19Wieczoreck and Hanson (1997)97)

Examine the patterns of driving-while-Examine the patterns of driving-while-intoxicated DWI to reveal the geographic intoxicated DWI to reveal the geographic context of DWIcontext of DWI

GIS map shows that contour plots which GIS map shows that contour plots which show that DWI are not distributed show that DWI are not distributed randomly around the metropolitan area.randomly around the metropolitan area.

This type of analysis leads to policies and This type of analysis leads to policies and interventions that can be aimed more interventions that can be aimed more precisely , leading to lower costs and precisely , leading to lower costs and hopefully enhanced effectivenesshopefully enhanced effectiveness

Luke, Esmundo, & Bloom, 2Luke, Esmundo, & Bloom, 2000000

Use GIS to collect the billboards in St Louis and Use GIS to collect the billboards in St Louis and analyze the location patterns of tobacco analyze the location patterns of tobacco advertising.advertising.

Billboards are coded by the type of image found Billboards are coded by the type of image found on the billboard, combined with census data.on the billboard, combined with census data.

Billboards with African American images on them Billboards with African American images on them tended to be concentrated in neighborhoods with tended to be concentrated in neighborhoods with higher proportions of African American residents.higher proportions of African American residents.

Support an argument that the tobacco industry Support an argument that the tobacco industry was targeting African Americans for their was targeting African Americans for their productsproducts

Goldstein (2003)Goldstein (2003)

Identify important factors influencing Identify important factors influencing the successful adoption of tobacco-free the successful adoption of tobacco-free policies in 14 North Carolina school policies in 14 North Carolina school districtsdistricts

GIS analyses revealed that all school GIS analyses revealed that all school districts passing policy were located in districts passing policy were located in countries with relatively little tobacco countries with relatively little tobacco production, although key informants production, although key informants suggested that the local tobacco suggested that the local tobacco economy had little direct influence on economy had little direct influence on policy adoption.policy adoption.

Network AnalysisNetwork Analysis

Social network analysis is a broad set of mSocial network analysis is a broad set of methods for the systematic study of social stethods for the systematic study of social structure ( Degenne& Forse,2004) ructure ( Degenne& Forse,2004)

Network tools are based on relational data Network tools are based on relational data rather than only attributes are analyzedrather than only attributes are analyzed

Relations can be any type of connection bRelations can be any type of connection between actors, like friendship, recognition, etween actors, like friendship, recognition, money exchange, kinship, information excmoney exchange, kinship, information exchange and respect, etc.hange and respect, etc.

Network analysisNetwork analysis Originated from social support studyOriginated from social support study Perceived social support Vs. relationship or structural asPerceived social support Vs. relationship or structural as

pects of social supportpects of social support Strokes’ study (1983)Strokes’ study (1983) Each participant identify up to 20 people who were imporEach participant identify up to 20 people who were impor

tant in their lives and with whom they had monthly contatant in their lives and with whom they had monthly contact, and drew lines between connecting each pair of peoplct, and drew lines between connecting each pair of peoplee

Measure not only the source of support and satisfaction Measure not only the source of support and satisfaction with support, but size and density of density.with support, but size and density of density.

Ego-centric network, determined by the perspective of siEgo-centric network, determined by the perspective of simple person.mple person.

Ego-centric NetworkEgo-centric Network

Complete NetworkComplete Network

Sample studies of Sample studies of Complete networkComplete network

Tausig (1987): for analyze of a community Tausig (1987): for analyze of a community mental health service system in a New mental health service system in a New York countyYork county

Using the presence or absence of Using the presence or absence of interactions between all 45 mental health interactions between all 45 mental health service agencies to identify different types service agencies to identify different types of cracks in the service system, including of cracks in the service system, including missing links and conflicted links missing links and conflicted links

Krauss, Mueller & Luke, Krauss, Mueller & Luke, (2004)(2004)

Evaluation study of 10 state tobacco control Evaluation study of 10 state tobacco control programsprograms

View a state tobacco control program not as View a state tobacco control program not as one activity directed by one lead agency but one activity directed by one lead agency but rather a set of interrelated activities rather a set of interrelated activities coordinated by an organized network of coordinated by an organized network of tobacco control agencies and organizations.tobacco control agencies and organizations.

Help to understand the structure of these Help to understand the structure of these complex state tobacco control programs, to complex state tobacco control programs, to identify control program to identify other identify control program to identify other state characteristics related to program state characteristics related to program structure, and to determine structure, and to determine

From these network analysis, individuFrom these network analysis, individual agencies vary in their centrality in tal agencies vary in their centrality in the communication structure.he communication structure.

This centrality is measured using FreeThis centrality is measured using Freeman’s betweenness indexman’s betweenness index

Network Sample StudyNetwork Sample Study

Centrality of networkCentrality of network Freeman’s index is defined as : for any individual Freeman’s index is defined as : for any individual

actor i, the actor’s centrality is the proportion of tiactor i, the actor’s centrality is the proportion of times that actor I is included in the geodesics of actormes that actor I is included in the geodesics of actors J and K, summing across all j,k pairs. ( Geodesics is J and K, summing across all j,k pairs. ( Geodesics is the shortest network path between any two actors the shortest network path between any two actors.)s.)

So the betweenness centrality measures how often aSo the betweenness centrality measures how often an individual actor I is involved in the communication individual actor I is involved in the communication between other pairs of actors in the networkn between other pairs of actors in the network

High-network centralization scores indicate hierachHigh-network centralization scores indicate hierachical communications structures, whereas low-centrical communications structures, whereas low-centralization scores indicate flat communication structualization scores indicate flat communication structures.res.

To test how States financial and political To test how States financial and political climates influence the structure of state climates influence the structure of state tobacco control networkstobacco control networks

States that had a strong positive climate States that had a strong positive climate tended to have communication networks tended to have communication networks that were relatively hierarchical with the that were relatively hierarchical with the lead agency always being the most central lead agency always being the most central actor in the network (ITPC).actor in the network (ITPC).

States that had challenging climates States that had challenging climates tended to show a different patterntended to show a different pattern

Interpretation: state networks adapt to Interpretation: state networks adapt to their environments.their environments.

When times are good, a lead agency When times are good, a lead agency takes a central role in guiding activities takes a central role in guiding activities and distributing financial resources.and distributing financial resources.

When times are not good, there is less When times are not good, there is less money flowing into the program , and money flowing into the program , and other non-lead agencies step up and other non-lead agencies step up and become more actively involvedbecome more actively involved

Cluster AnalysisCluster Analysis Most methods deal with variables, but there is also tools Most methods deal with variables, but there is also tools

tell how cases are related to each other: cluster analysis, tell how cases are related to each other: cluster analysis, and multidimensional scaling, network analysisand multidimensional scaling, network analysis

Useful tool for uncovering and describing the context pattUseful tool for uncovering and describing the context pattern, especially the diversity and heterogeneity within the ern, especially the diversity and heterogeneity within the datadata

Cluster analysis works by grouping cases ( often people) Cluster analysis works by grouping cases ( often people) based on their similarities and dissimilarities and is an exbased on their similarities and dissimilarities and is an exploratory technique that can to used to reveal unknown hploratory technique that can to used to reveal unknown heterogeneity. eterogeneity.

In traditional modeling method, heterogeneity is handled In traditional modeling method, heterogeneity is handled by using covariates to control or adjust for these individuby using covariates to control or adjust for these individual differences, but controlling heterogeneity is a way to dal differences, but controlling heterogeneity is a way to decontextualize the dataecontextualize the data

Sample StudiesSample Studies Kuhn and Culhane (1998) study of types of publiKuhn and Culhane (1998) study of types of publi

c shelter usagec shelter usage They used cluster analysis on administrative datThey used cluster analysis on administrative dat

a on public shelter use by single adults in New Ya on public shelter use by single adults in New York and Philadelphia and identified three clear tyork and Philadelphia and identified three clear types of homeless persons in the basis of patterns pes of homeless persons in the basis of patterns of shelter usageof shelter usage

Transitional homeless: once and shortTransitional homeless: once and short Episodically homeless: frequentlyEpisodically homeless: frequently Chronically homeless: less frequently, longerChronically homeless: less frequently, longer

Significance of the studySignificance of the study

Not only counter the stereotypes of Not only counter the stereotypes of homelessness( transitional group homelessness( transitional group made up of 80% of shelter use, made up of 80% of shelter use, chronic group only 10%), but chronic group only 10%), but influenced subsequent social policy influenced subsequent social policy at the federal levelat the federal level

Help us to understand the interplay Help us to understand the interplay between poverty , housing and social between poverty , housing and social services.services.

Zapert , Snow and Tebes stuZapert , Snow and Tebes studydy

Zapert, Snow, and Tebes (2002): use cluster anZapert, Snow, and Tebes (2002): use cluster analysis to identify subgroups of teenagers on the alysis to identify subgroups of teenagers on the basis of their patterns of drug use from 6th-10th basis of their patterns of drug use from 6th-10th grade.grade.

Identified six distinctive clusters of substance usIdentified six distinctive clusters of substance usersers

Implication for intervention: interventions can be Implication for intervention: interventions can be focused more specifically on the right type of higfocused more specifically on the right type of high-risk adolescent at the right time given these tyh-risk adolescent at the right time given these types of datapes of data

A sample studyA sample study

DiscussionDiscussion

Using wider array of methods are more Using wider array of methods are more likely to be able to explore and understand likely to be able to explore and understand the complex data patterns of interest to the complex data patterns of interest to community scientists.community scientists.

Tools should be consistent with the values Tools should be consistent with the values and what to be studied------ some real and what to be studied------ some real problems in community psychology.problems in community psychology.

CommentsComments

Implication for suicide studyImplication for suicide study Analysis of context influencing the suicide would Analysis of context influencing the suicide would

facilitate to the understanding of suicidefacilitate to the understanding of suicide We should keeping learning about the method to We should keeping learning about the method to

advance our research skilladvance our research skill Research method should be chosed suitable for Research method should be chosed suitable for

the research purpose.the research purpose. Nested model is one kind of multilevel methodsNested model is one kind of multilevel methods

CommentsComments Implication for trainingImplication for training The phenomena that some training prograThe phenomena that some training progra

m can only affect the knowledge of traineem can only affect the knowledge of trainees instead of their behavior can be regardes instead of their behavior can be regarded as the function of contextd as the function of context

The research focusing on the context can The research focusing on the context can also contribute to the effectiveness of trainialso contribute to the effectiveness of trainingng