GGR 390F 2015-2016

University of Toronto

Physical Geography Field Camp

Sutton, Québec - August 23-29, 2014

Jing Chen Anna Marie Megens TA: Pamela Tetford

Department of Geography University of Toronto

COURSE OUTLINE

GGR 390H1F- Field Methods in Physical Geography

2015-2016 INSTRUCTORS

Jing Chen PGB3xx chenj@geog.utoronto.ca 416-978-7085 Anna Marie Megens ES3095 anna.megens@mail.utoronto.ca TA: Pamela Tetford ESxxxx pam.tetford@mail.utoronto.ca COURSE DESCRIPTION GGR390 consists of an introduction to basic field methods in several areas of physical geography including: climatology, hydrology, biogeography, soils and geomorphology. The field component of the course occurs in late August prior to the start of term. The course content is directed towards research design, data collection and analysis in the context of a group research project. The data collected during the field camp will be analyzed during the fall term. We have scheduled three formal meetings during the fall term at times we hope are convenient for everyone as attendance is required. There are no other regularly scheduled meetings during term time, however we expect that you will be meeting with your group members on a weekly basis to conduct your research and write-up.

LOCATION/DATES

Parc Sutton, Eastern Townships, Quebec. Departing Saturday August 29 at 08:00 (arrive no later than 07:45 am at 22 Russell St.) returning Friday Sept. 4 at around 16:30 (depending on traffic). MARKING SCHEME AND REQUIREMENTS The grade for the course will be based on: Weighting (a) Assignment 1 (individual assignment): Analysis of climate data 15 % DUE Tue. Sept. 15th, 2015 (b) Assignment 2 (individual assignment): Analysis of hydrology and water quality data 15 % DUE Tue Sept. 29th , 2015 (c) Research project outline and literature review --- Outline DUE Tuesday October 6, 2015 Literature Review: DUE Tuesday October 13, 2015. These are group assignments

(d) Project – group presentation and final group report Oral Presentation Thursday November 5th, 2015, 3-6 pm 10% Final paper DUE Thursday November 19th, 2015 60%

A late penalty of 5 % per day will be imposed on assignments. Don't let this happen on something worth 60% of your course grade! We will not accept any assignments handed in more than 6 days after the due date as papers will be returned one week following due dates.

All assignments are to be submitted to the Earth Sciences main office (Rm 1066), at the Earth Sciences Department, 22 Russell St.

No extensions will be granted unless you have an official UofT medical certificate signed by your physician.

You will be provided with a field guide on the day of departure. The field guide provides instructions on what is expected for the project outline, literature review, project presentation and final report.

SCHEDULED MEETINGS

Tuesday, September 22nd , 2015; 4-5 pm. Hand back first assignment and review of key findings. Tips for completion of assignment #2. Review laboratory procedures for projects with on-going lab work.

Tuesday October 6th, 2015 4-5 pm. Review of 2nd assignment and submission of project outlines. We will also review progress on lab work, and research write-ups. Come prepared to give a brief group update (5 mins).

You are responsible for scheduling a mid-term meeting(s) with your project supervisor for review of progress (must take place before the end of October). A work plan signed by all group members can be discussed at this meeting.

Thursday, November 5th, 2015, 3-6 pm. Group Presentations. Attendance is required.

Meeting locations are TBA.

**What is expected for the project outline (Due Oct. 6/15) This only needs to be ~ 2 pages in length. Please type and hand in one outline/group.

Project title

Group member names

Key research questions – what are you asking and why is it important

Brief summary of methods used (field, lab, statistical)

A few (2-3) citations from peer-reviewed scientific journals or relevant texts

Timeline for completion of project and breakdown of tasks between group members

At our class meeting on Oct 7 at 4 PM, each group will be asked to give a ~5 minute verbal update on the project title and objectives to everyone (no power point required). ** What is expected for the literature review (Due Oct 13/15)

Annotated bibliography: key citations with descriptions (1 paragraph each) of how they are relevant to YOUR research questions/your project (do not summarize the articles - connect them to what you are doing).

Discuss ~6 citations (but you can list additional key references as appropriate).

Please type. Please hand in one per group. You will not be given a mark for the outline nor for the literature review – your overall project grade at the end of the course will reflect your effort throughout the term. ** What is expected for the oral presentations (Nov 5/15)

- Presentations are 13-15 minutes of talking, with Power Point or equivalent. - Practice your talk. Make sure it is the right length. We have a tight schedule so talks

cannot go over-time. You will not be given more than 15 mins. for your presentation. - Each talk will be followed by 5-7 mins of questions from peers and professors. - Organize your talk into these sections: 1. Brief introduction to the research problem and key questions, and briefly, place your

project into context (why it is important) 2. Brief overview of methods, study area 3. Summary of results (show graphs and key data slides and photos as appropriate) 4. Discussion - interpretation of the results, return to the research questions, discuss

any limitations or avenues for further research. Discuss your results in the context of the relevant literature.

- Note that only 1/3 of your presentation should be spent on points 1 and 2. The

main emphasis should be on your results and what they mean (points 3 and 4). - Note that your attendance is expected for everybody's talk. We will finish at 6 PM. You

must arrive at 3 PM as we will be doing course evaluations at that time. There will be a 20 minute break half way through the session.

- We expect good questions from the audience during the question period. - We will give you feedback afterwards on the content, the critical thinking in your work,

and the presentation style. - We will forward to you beforehand a schedule for your talks.

** What is expected for the final project report (Due Nov 19/15) - Your final reports should be written in the style of a scientific paper. - They should contain the following sections: Abstract Keywords (6) Introduction Methods Results Discussion and conclusions References cited - You should include tables and figures throughout to show your data and relevant

results. All tables and figures that are included must be referred to and discussed in the text.

- Any data tables or figures not directly related to your main findings should be placed in an appendix

- Use a consistent citation and bibliographic style (see instructions for Assignments #1 and #2).

The project will be assessed for:

Clarity of objectives Quality of processed data and its presentation Reference to the literature that addresses the problem and the contributions

your study makes to the understanding of the research question Strength of the arguments and conclusions you draw from all of the above Quality and clarity of the presentation you make in front of your peers

For all assignments in this course, please use appropriate referencing and bibliography. We strongly encourage students to make use of the RefWorks Bibliographic software, or other system, offered by the U of T Library system. http://guides.library.utoronto.ca/citationmanagement There are comprehensive tutorials available for the use of RefWorks or other systems. http://guides.scholarsportal.info/refworks http://www.refworks-cos.com/refworks/tutorials/basic.shtml We will also post on Blackboard a primer titled “Graphing/Plotting with Excel” to assist you with preparing graphs for Assignments 1 and 2.

GGR 390F Itinerary (August 29 to September 4, 2015)

Sat August 29 - Depart 08:00, Coffee Break @ Port Hope rest stop, just after exit 448 (9:30) - lunch @ Cornwall, ON (13:00), Exit 789 (Brookdale Ave – go 3 km south to near

Burger King on right) - read field guide en route to Sutton, look out the window, observe the landscape, get

to know your classmates, talk about project topics of interest. - arrive @ Sutton, Quebec (16:00), dinner (~18:00) followed by group meeting - prepare for next day by reading sections in field guide on weather, stream discharge

and water quality procedures For each day to follow, make sure to pick up your packed lunch at breakfast. We will eat lunch outside every day. Sunday August 30 - breakfast @ 08:00, - split into three groups for orientation to daily observations of weather, stream

discharge and water quality observations (am) - tour of the Sutton area (general discussion of geology, geomorphology, vegetation,

settlement history, etc.) (pm) - dinner @ 18:00, evening observations after dinner - prepare for next day by reading sections on vegetation, soils and survey methods Monday August 31 - morning observations before breakfast (consult schedule), breakfast @ 08:00 - depart for hike up Mt. Roundtop, discussion of vegetation and soils along trail (am)

**Bring extra water and wear hiking gear** - introduction to equipment and sampling methods for vegetation, soils and basic

surveying (pm) - dinner @ 18:00, evening observations after dinner - group meeting @ 19:30 - selection of project groups and topics (group sizes of 3 or

4 students) Tues., Wed., Thurs., September 1-3 - morning observations, breakfast @ 08:00, sign out equipment - data collection for group projects - dinner (18:00), evening observations. - return equipment and evening conference on the 29th Friday September 4 - breakfast @ 07:00, depart @ 07:45 sharp, (*NOTE EARLY BREAKFAST*) - Arrive Toronto (only at PGB) approximately 16:30, depending on traffic.

Hazards and Risks Involved in Field Work Field work can be an enjoyable and often exciting experience. However, sometimes conditions beyond control of the individual (e.g., unknown health conditions, weather, slippery or unsafe surfaces, unstable slopes or cliff faces, etc.) can become hazardous. In most cases, common sense tells you when to be concerned about your situation. At other times, it requires input from your instructors or others who have had substantial experience in evaluating hazardous field conditions. The University of Toronto has instituted a policy which stipulates a set of “Requirements for Reasonable Care” of which both students and instructors must be aware. Relevant sections of the policy are listed below. You are advised to read the following carefully and ensure that all of the following apply to you. Please also see Section 7 of: http://www.ehs.utoronto.ca/Assets/ehs+Digital+Assets/Guidelines+on+Safety+in+Field+Research.pdf

Requirements for Reasonable Care

The following are areas in which those involved must exercise reasonable care to secure safety in field research: 1. Assurance of a satisfactory state of health and of immunization of the participants for

purposes of travel to and participation in field research at the particular location. You must evaluate your condition constantly and report immediately to any instructor abnormal health effects associated with field activities. You must notify instructors in advance of health conditions that might require assistance (e.g., Epi-pen for allergies).

2. Availability of first-aid supplies and expertise, as appropriate. Basic medical supplies

are available in selected field vehicles, and are carried by each instructor. If you are in need of even minor medical attention, please advise your instructor.

3. Availability of appropriate personal clothing, personal equipment and field equipment

to support the research. It is your responsibility to evaluate site and weather conditions. The best strategy is to come prepared for the worst conditions (wet, cold, very windy). Do not work in unsafe weather conditions and be aware of signs and symptoms of hypothermia and heat stress. If you are unsure about operating procedures for field equipment and sampling, ask your instructor.

4. Arrangements for appropriate transportation to, at and returning from the location of

the field research. At the start of each day, make sure you are aware of pick-up times and bad weather contingency plans. Write it down if you are forgetful.

5. Availability of appropriate food and accommodation on site and during travel to and

from the site. Report any food allergies before we get to camp. Remember to bring

water and snacks into the field. We are staying at facilities where there should be no concerns regarding living conditions. If you think otherwise, please talk to your instructor.

6. Provision of information about requirements of foreign governments and other

jurisdictions concerning travel to and research at the site. We are traveling within Canada so no special documents are required.

7. Provision of information prior to departure to the study area on the character (to the

extent known) of distinctive local risks and dangers. We will brief you on any potential hazards.

8. Provision of information prior to departure about insurance needs, availability and

limitations. As indicated in the letter sent to you, you must have OHIP or its equivalent coverage. See your instructor immediately if this is not the case.

9. Arrangements for continuous responsible leadership of all field teams. Some

independent work is necessary but supervision is close by – take advantage of it. You will be working in groups of several students. When in the field, stay with your group.

10. Definition prior to departure, and on a continuing basis on the site, of the tasks and

responsibilities assigned to each participant. Assignment of tasks should be done so that the capabilities of the individual are not exceeded. If in doubt, ask for advice from your instructor.

11. Recognition of the right and responsibility of an individual to exercise personal

judgment in acting to avoid harm in situations of apparent danger. If in doubt, always make your concerns known right away.

12. Availability of procedures for contacting the University to obtain assistance in a crisis

situation. In a crisis, call 911, contact local authorities. In a non-crisis situation, always seek assistance from your instructors.

You must sign and return the field safety form to acknowledge that you have read the above requirements, understand their implications, and that you can meet the requirements for reasonable care. (We will do this Saturday Aug 23rd evening)

Guidelines and Approaches to Group Work How to Form a Group

Groups will be self-selected. During the first few days of camp discuss possible topics with potential group members. On the evening of the second day you will be asked to select a topic and a group. Instructors will be available for extensive consultation regarding project themes, field methods and important literature, as well as group composition. An ideal group size is three members for working in the field and back on campus. No one will be allowed to work alone. Membership is not exclusive. If a student colleague is interested in a topic that is being discussed you should extend all courtesy to invite that individual to join. The course instructors will assign students to groups if they have been unable to settle on a particular topic. How to Organize Your Group

You must give some thought as to how you will work together. Even if some group members are friends you may not have worked together before in this kind of relationship.

In the field, laboratory or on campus, you can organize tasks democratically. Field work and data analysis need to be allocated equitably. The exercise should not be viewed as competition, but rather as the execution of a well-conceived plan.

It is a good idea to identify one person who is a good organizer. Then once you are back on campus the organizer can assign tasks, call meetings and so on. The organizer must be careful not to assign too much or too little work, and the rest of the group should recognize that this takes effort and time and thus should give the organizer credit for the work. What if Your Group Runs into Trouble?

The field data collection part of the projects usually runs smoothly. However, you can consult with your project supervisor on the organization of labour and on the most efficient approach to collecting reliable data. Report troubles early. Back on campus groups are responsible for conducting data analysis and interpretation and for producing the final report. There are two scheduled meetings and you must meet with your project supervisor during the term (see the course outline) to resolve any difficulties.

One objective of doing group work is to learn how to organize contributions. When things go wrong this can be unpleasant and the project (hence grade) suffers. In the past you may have left many of your assignments to the last minute. The same approach will not work in a group, and you owe it to your colleagues to complete your portion of the work in good time. It is not good enough to assure them that something is coming and that you are competent to undertake the task. You must accommodate others’ expectations. In setting your work plan, set achievable deadlines early enough so that there is time to resolve any difficulties. In the first instance you should discuss

this with the entire group. If this does not succeed then a meeting with the project supervisor should be called immediately after you recognize a problem exists.

Working in a group is harder than most students anticipate. Take seriously issues of coordinating work, negotiating tasks and setting a manageable schedule. It is unfair to the entire group if a single member has other priorities and fails to meet his or her obligations. To this end you should set up a work plan that everyone agrees to. If necessary, you can have everyone sign the agreed-upon work plan (which will come early in the project) and submit this as a reference document along with your project. How the Project is Graded The project will be assessed for:

Clarity of objectives Quality of processed data and its presentation Reference to the literature that addresses the problem and the contributions

your study makes to the understanding of the research question Strength of the arguments and conclusions you draw from all of the above Quality and clarity of the presentation you make in front of your peers

The project will be marked on all the above criteria, except that some allowance will

be made for the size of the teams and in some circumstances for the distribution of the work among team members. As a first step, group assignments will be marked as a whole and a global mark will be assigned.

To enable us to evaluate individual contributions, you must indicate in an appendix how the work was divided between group members. One way of recording these is to keep a logbook, including attendance at group meetings, e-mail exchanges or other group interactions. If your group has signed-off on a work plan, then you can also compare your final contributions against what was agreed upon (recognizing that there will always be some need to adjust schedules and fine details of the tasks).

Section A

Route Guide Toronto, Ontario – Sutton, Québec

Compiled from: Chapman, L.J. and Putnam, D.F. 1984. Physiography of Southern Ontario. Ontario Geological Survey Special Volume #2. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Toronto. Ochietti, S. 1989. Quaternary Geology of the St Lawrence Valley and adjacent Appalachian sub-region. In Fulton, R.J. (Ed.) Quaternary Geology of Canada and Greenland. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa. Van Diver, B.B. 1985. Roadside Geology of New York. Mountain Press, Missoula, MT.

Section B

Instructions for Daily Observations

Weather Observations Stream Discharge Observations

Water Quality Observations Note: Observations are to be made in groups of 3 or 4 students twice daily at 0700 and 1900. A schedule will be posted in the common room at our field station. It is your responsibility to know when you are scheduled to take which observations, and to do so ON TIME.

Weather Observations

(Prepared by S. Finkelstein)

The instrumental weather record in Canada dates from 1840 when the first climate station was established at the Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory in Toronto (U of T, northeast of Engineering). At present the instrument array is located at the east side of Trinity College along Philosopher's Walk, and has been recording climate data continuously for >160 years. Volunteers read the instruments twice daily until July 2003, when the station was automated. Data are now sent via the internet to Environment Canada. Century-old data exist for every province and for 80 years in northern Canada. There are over 1500 recording stations across the country. Some are automated, and others require twice-daily observations. Observations are made at standard times, usually 7 AM and 7 PM local time. An ordinary (standard) climatological station consists of an array of instruments in and around a white, louvered box known as a Stevenson Screen. The station should be sited so that it is meteorologically representative of the area in which it is located, and be clear of large buildings, trees, and other obstructions. The screen should be located at least 1.2 m above the ground and should be facing north (in the northern hemisphere) to avoid the effects of radiated or reflected heat. A number of instruments are housed in or around the Stevenson Screen – analogue devices to track temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure (for GGR390, this is kept in the common room, not in the screen), precipitation, wind speed and direction. A digital climate station that is continuously logging data is also set up on site. You may use both the digital and analogue data sources for your analyses. Students are expected to know how to operate each instrument, and will assist with the setup of the Stevenson Screen. Operational manuals or technical guides will be available in the common room for more information on the instruments.

Clouds

Cloud types

Clouds form when moist air cools, and water vapour condenses into droplets. Clouds tell us about atmospheric conditions, and are useful in understanding or predicting weather. Three major types of clouds are recognized. Cumulus clouds are heaped, globular clouds that form as warm air rises. Stratus clouds have less vertical development, but are horizontally extensive, blanket-like, and can cover the whole sky. Cirrus clouds form high in the atmosphere; they are wispy and filamentous. Intermediate forms are common – e.g., stratocumulus, cirrocumulus – and clouds are further classified based on their heights – e.g., altocumulus (high cumulus), altostratus. Consult Ludlum (1991) in the common room for more information and illustrations.

Cloud cover

Observations of cloud cover can be placed into four categories based on the amount of clear visible sky.

Clear: Up to 1/10 cloud cover. Scattered: 2/10 to 5/10 cloud cover. Broken: 5/10 to 9/10 cloud cover. Overcast: More than 9/10 cloud cover.

Temperature

Standard climatological stations have maximum and minimum thermometers which are read at 0700 and 1900 hours local time. The maximum for the day is the highest temperature recorded for a 24-hour period and the minimum is the lowest temperature recorded for the same 24-hour period.

Maximum temperature

The maximum temperature can be measured with a mercury filled maximum thermometer. The tube has a constriction above the bulb which allows the mercury to pass from the bulb to the capillary tube but prevents its return. Thus the mercury will remain at the highest point that it has reached since it was last reset. The thermometer is reset by gently swinging it, bulb down, so that the mercury is forced back into the bulb.

Minimum temperature

The minimum temperature can be measured with an alcohol filled minimum thermometer. The capillary contains a glass index. As the temperature falls, the meniscus of the alcohol column pushes the index along the tube, but as the temperature rises, the spirit flows past the index leaving it in the position of the lowest temperature reached. Note that the thermometer is installed with bulb end slightly lower than the top. To reset the thermometer, incline it reservoir up until the glass index stops at the meniscus. ** Your maximum and minimum temperature observations will be made with the U-shaped min-max thermometer. This thermometer contains a tar based oil that expands or contracts with temperature variations. These expansions or contractions force a short column of mercury to move along the tubes. Sliding iron indexes ride on top of the mercury columns and remain at the extreme positions reached by each one. The maximum scale (on the right) reads from low to high. The minimum scale (on the left), reads from high to low. The iron indexes are reset using the small magnet. Reset only in the evening as by convention, the minimum and maximum temperatures are recorded for a 24-hour period.

Humidity

Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air. Air at a given temperature and pressure can hold a finite amount of moisture – beyond that, saturation occurs and the air can hold no more water in gaseous form. Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour actually in the air to the amount that could be held at the saturation point for the current temperature and pressure. Humidity is measured with a hygrometer.

Hygrothermograph

The hygrothermograph measures temperature and humidity. The instrument consists of a clock-driven drum for continuous recording over one week. The hygrothermograph

records the response to temperature of a bimetallic strip. Readings should be checked against the station thermometers. Humidity is measured using a Hair Hygrometer. This instrument translates humidity-induced changes in the length of human hair into movements of the pens on the chart.

Sling Psychrometer

Two thermometers are mounted in a metal frame. One, the wet bulb thermometer, has a covering of muslin over its bulb. The muslin must be wet with distilled water. Then, stand back and whirl the psychrometer for a minute. Then, note the temperature of each thermometer (wet and dry bulb temperatures). The depression of the temperature of the wet bulb reflects the latent energy lost through evaporation from the muslin. The amount of evaporation is a function of the amount of water vapour in the air (the humidity). The swinging will not affect the reading of the dry bulb thermometer, which records current air temperature. Psychrometric tables are used to convert wet and dry bulb readings to values of dew point temperature, vapour pressure and relative humidity. Using these tables, determine the relative humidity at the time of your observations.

Pressure

Air pressure is the same outside as it is inside, so to protect the instrument, the digital barograph is kept inside in the common room. A barograph should be calibrated with a station mercury barometer and for comparisons with other stations, corrections for the instrument’s elevation are required. The digital barograph scrolls through various screens (you can't control the scrolling so be patient!). Record the current air pressure (in mb) and also the 1-day pressure tendency (direction and magnitude of change).

Wind

At climate stations, wind speed and direction are measured by a combination wind-vane and cup-type anemometer. Values are indicated on a dial and are usually recorded automatically on a chart or in a data logger. The device should be mounted 10 m above the ground and away from natural and human-made obstacles. For your daily measurements, we'll use a hand-held unit housed in the Stevenson Screen. Make sure the propeller is oriented perpendicular to wind direction (look at the wind vane).

Precipitation

Standard non-recording precipitation gauge

In this gauge, a plastic cylinder funnels precipitation into a narrow-necked, graduated plastic container.

Tipping-bucket recording gauge

In this gauge, rain collects in a small chamber which tips when full. Each tip denotes 0.2 mm of rainfall. Note that the tipping-bucket gauge, unlike the standard one, allows measurement of rainfall intensity. The design minimizes problems of splash-in splash-out. Gauges should be mounted on a flat surface with no nearby obstacles to influence the catch.

Digital Climate Station

While analogue climate instruments provide useful instantaneous readings and/or paper records, they are limited in terms of easy analysis of the data. To provide a better record

for analysis, when we return from camp you will also plot and interpret a digital record of climate collected during the week that includes: temperature, RH, wind speed/direction,

barometric pressure and rainfall using automated instruments connected to a HOBO data logger. The data logger will be programmed to receive readings every 5 minutes from each instrument so there will be a near continuous record of each parameter. The data will be downloaded into an Excel spreadsheet for easy plotting. You will be expected to plot and interpret hourly to weekly trends in this dataset for your first assignment. More details about the HOBO Weather Station can be found at: http://www.onsetcomp.com/products/weather_stations

Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)

PAR is defined as the flux (flow per unit area) of photons in the wavelength range of 400 – 700 nm. This is the spectral band that plant cells are able to access to power photosynthesis. There is a PAR sensor on the digital climate station – allowing an approximation for the receipt of incoming solar radiation at the surface. Standard units for PAR are µmolphotons m

-2 second-1. Note that an "Einstein" (abbreviated E) is defined as a mole of photons.

How to take weather observations

Weather observations will be taken at 0700 and 1900 hours daily. At each reading, record the following into your notebooks:

Cloud cover (using the 4 categories above), cloud type and approximate cloud height (high, medium, low – estimate based on cloud type/observations of the sky).

Current conditions. Is any precipitation occurring as you are making the observations? If so, what type (thunderstorm, rain, hail, drizzle, fog)?

Current temperature. For all of your temperature readings, use the U-shaped min-max thermometer.

Maximum temperature (only record at 1900 hrs), then reset using the magnet at the top of the instrument. Do not reset at 0700 hrs.

Minimum temperature (only record at 1900 hrs), then reset. Do not reset at 0700 hrs.

After evening observations, compute the day’s mean temperature by taking the average of the minimum and maximum temperatures for the preceding 24-hour period.

Relative humidity, using the sling psychrometer. Record the wet bulb temperature depression, and determine relative humidity at base camp using psychrometric tables available in the common room.

Current pressure (from the barograph inside) and the pressure tendency (is it increasing or decreasing). Example: -0.06 mb

Wind speed and direction. Remember that wind direction is the direction from which the wind is coming. Wind direction should be assigned to one of eight points of compass (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW).

Precipitation. Check the standard gauge, record the amount of precipitation. If precipitation has occurred but is less than the lowest graduation, record “Trace”. Save the catch by pouring it into a sample bottle for measurement of

pH back at base camp. The amount and intensity of precipitation will be calculated at the end of field camp from the data logger.

Other remarks. Record any phenomena you noticed during the day, such as haze, thunder or lightning, or any issues with any of the instruments.

Make sure you promptly and accurately transfer all of your observations onto the wall chart in the common room.

Further reading

Aguado, E. and Burt, J. 2010. Understanding Weather and Climate, Pearson, New Jersey, 608 p.

Introductory textbook addressing all aspects of weather. Ludlum, D. M. 1991. The National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American

Weather. Knopf, New York. A well illustrated field manual to weather and clouds in North America.

Data sheet for weather observations

Day Time Cloud cover

Cloud type

Cloud height

Current conditions

Temp (°C)

Min. Temp (°C)

Max. Temp (°C)

Mean Temp (°C)

Rel. humid-ity (%)

Pressure (mb) and 12-hr tendency

Wind direction

Wind speed (m/s)

Precip (mm)

pH of precip

Notes

Sat PM

Sun AM n/a n/a n/a

Sun PM

Mon AM n/a n/a n/a

Mon PM

Tue AM n/a n/a n/a

Tue PM

Wed AM n/a n/a n/a

Wed PM

Thur AM n/a n/a n/a

Thur PM

AM observations should be made at 0700 hrs and PM observations at 1900 hrs. Do not record min, max or mean temperature at 0700 hrs. These observations are made at 1900 hrs only, for a 24-hour period. Only reset the U-Shaped min and max indices at 1900 hrs.

Stream Discharge Measurements

(Prepared by J. Desloges)

Measuring water quantity is an important component of understanding landscape change and for managing water resources. Stream discharge is the measure of quantity and is reported in units of volume per unit time – most often in cubic meters per second (m3 s-1 - or in spoken short form, “cumecs”). Given the hydrological variability and size of Canadian rivers and streams, it is not possible to measure or “gauge” discharge in every system. Currently, there are 2868 active streamflow and water level stations throughout Canada being operated under the federal-provincial and federal-territorial cost-sharing agreements. About half of these transmit data in real-time. There are another 5572 gauges that are no longer active but for which archival data are available. For a complete summary of the Canadian hydrologic network, and for access to all real time and archived hydrologic data, see:

http://www.ec.gc.ca/rhc-wsc/default.asp?lang=En&n=894E91BE-1 The purpose of this exercise is to familiarize students with the procedures and errors involved with monitoring streamflow. Using standard stream gauging equipment, student groups will take twice daily measurements of stream discharge in the “east branch” (unofficial name) of Sutton River. This will require the construction of a cross-sectional profile of water velocity in the active area of flow. Stream discharge measurements taken throughout the week can be used to plot a hydrograph (flow rate of water vs. time). Analysis of stream discharge patterns provides insight into soil and watershed properties (e.g., infiltration capacity), stream channel form, flood conditions, riparian vegetation and land use considerations. Each individual student is responsible for calculating the results of the discharge measurements, but the measurements themselves will be taken by the respective group. Group results for discharge (Q in m3 s-1) are to be recorded on the discharge summary sheet (see the data sheet below and the copy in the common room) on the same day the measurements are taken. Plots and calculations are to be handed in to Professor Desloges that same evening.

Equipment

1. FlowTracker ADV (acoustic doppler velocimeter) (or Ott current meter). 2. Wading rod 3. 30-m tape for measuring increments across the stream 4. 3-m tape for measuring depth 5. Survey pins for securing tape 6. Rubber boots or waders 7. A calculator is convenient but not essential at stream side 8. A watch/timer 9. Umbrella (for record keeper) if raining 10. Discharge data sheet (this booklet) to record readings 11. Headlamp and/or flashlight for observations under dark conditions.

It is important that all equipment be checked before departing for the field site and after the fieldwork is complete. Also, return equipment to the central storage location ready for the next group to use.

Field procedure

Measurements are to be made by each group (2-4 people – see schedule in the common room) in the morning before breakfast and in the evening after dinner. Undertake a reading at the prescribed station and record systematically the following data for each vertical measuring point (see figure (a) below): - Distance from left bank (w) (left bank is always as facing downstream) - Depth of flow (d) - Depth of flow meter (place at about half the distance below the surface in shallow

water; where water is deeper place the meter at 0.6 x total depth below the surface; record this to make sure you have calculated correctly)

- direct readout of velocity from the FlowTracker ADV in m s-1. Assuming the ADV is correctly oriented (see demonstration on first day of camp), the Vx-value is the appropriate number to record.

At about 5 second intervals manually record a velocity from the FlowTracker and continue for this for 6 consecutive measurements (i.e. about 30-seconds). Repeat this a second time. Scan the two 30-second sets of measurements for consistency. The averages of the two sets of readings should agree within about 10% of each other. Describe the channel noting areas of fast or sluggish flow, prominent rocks that perturb flow, etc. A good way to record this is to sketch the site. These notes will help you draw your specific discharge profile. Make sure to stand downstream of the current meter. Do not disturb the flow around the instrument. Gather up, wipe-dry and inventory your equipment. Figure (a): stream cross-section showing measurements taken for discharge

Calculations and plotting “specific” discharge results

Complete the following calculations on the same day the measurements were taken. Record velocities (v) at each vertical measurement point. Use the average of your 10-12 observations at each vertical.

w

d

Left bank Right bank

(facing downstream)

- Plot specific discharge “q” (flow in m2 s-1) on the vertical axis vs. cross-stream width “w” on (m) on the horizontal axis. Use mm-ruled graph paper anduse your notes to aid in the interpolation of a smooth graph plot

- Graphically integrate (determine the area under the curve by counting the # of squares).

- Each square represents a unit of discharge (m2 s-1 x m = m3 s-1); compute a multiplier value by multiplying the x-axis unit length by the y-axis unit length (for example, if a 1-mm square on the x-axis represents 0.02 m and on the y-axis it represents 0.03 m2 s-1, then each mm square is equal to 0.0006 m3 s-1). The unit lengths depend on what scales you have selected for the data plot.

- the total discharge is the number of squares counted times the multiplier. - This can also be expressed as:

width)unit per s(mm' x q) unit per s(mm'

mm in graph under areaQ

2

Report total Q in m3 s-1. Hand in your plots with calculated results to Professor Desloges no later than mid evening of the day the measurements were taken.

Further Reading

Black, P. E. 1991. Watershed hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Buchanan, T.J. and Somers, W. P. 1976. Discharge measurements at gaging stations. US Geological Survey, Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, Book 3, Chapter A8, (available at: http://pubs.usgs.gov/twri/twri3a8/html/pdf.html)

See also: http://www.sontek.com/flowtracker.php and the Quick Start Guide below.

Flow Tracker Quick Measurement Instructions

1. Hold the Yellow (O) power on key for 2-3 seconds 2. Press “Enter” for the main menu 3. Press “2” for System Functions 4. Press “Enter” to see menu items 4, 5 and 6 5. If you wish you can check the water temperature by pressing “4” or

the battery level by pressing “5” – Press “Enter” to exit either of these 6. Press “6” to show Raw Velocity Data

The ADV will display instantaneous velocities as follows: Vx Vy Vz Velocity in m per second SNR1 SNR2 SNR3 Signal to Noise Ratios Assuming the ADV sensor is correctly placed, x is the downstream velocity, y is the cross-stream velocity and z is the vertical velocity. Positive values are in one direction and negative in the opposite direction. Note that if the upper arm of the ADV is out of the water the Vz values are not relevant (and will be much larger positive or negative numbers compared to Vx and Vy)

7. Press “0” to exit/abort the raw velocity readings 8. Press the Yellow (O) power button for 5 seconds to turn off the ADV 9. Wipe all the gear and return them to the storage cases.

Stream Discharge Observations (observations at ~07:00 and 19:00) Day Actual

Time Average Depth (cm)

Average Velocity

(m/s)

Total Width (m)

Discharge (from graphical integration

method) m3/s and L s-1

Comments (turbidity, unusual stream

conditions, instrument problems, etc.)

Sun. AM

Sun. PM

Mon. AM

Mon. PM

Tue. AM

Tue. PM.

Wed. AM

Wed. PM

Thur. AM

Thur. PM

Water Quality

(Prepared by S. Finkelstein, T. Largo, R. Phillips)

A catchment (= drainage basin, watershed) can be characterized by its geology, geomorphology, soils, vegetation, land use and hydrology. Some of these attributes do not change on short time scales (< 1 yr) but others, such as hydrology, may show large changes over time scales as short as hours or days. Hydrographs (outlined in the previous section) established for different time periods can produce information on the behaviour and response of a catchment to changing environmental conditions, including climatic or land use changes. Quantifying the chemical composition of stream water, groundwater or rain can provide important information on biogeochemical processes operating in the catchment. These processes include nutrient cycling (e.g., decomposition of forest litter), chemical weathering of soils and bedrock, and pollution. The amount of information obtained about watershed processes from water quality analyses depends on the spatial and temporal scale of the water sampling program. Sampling the chemistry of stream water at the catchment’s outlet will provide information on the net outcome of biogeochemical and hydrological processes operating within the whole catchment. Eventually rain will exit the catchment as stream flow derived from run-off (overland flow) or infiltrated water (shallow interflow or deep groundwater flow) (see figure (a) below). Rapid contributions of water to the stream during rainfall or snowmelt events through run-off and shallow interflow are termed storm-flow or quick-flow. Contributions of water to the stream from deeper groundwater sources typically occur at slower flow rates over longer time periods. Deep groundwater is recharged gradually through downward infiltration of soil water to the water table (the depth at which pore spaces in soil, sediment, or rock are completely saturated with water). Continuous groundwater contributions to the stream, even during dry weather, is termed base-flow. Streams which flow at all times of the year (including dry weather periods) due to continuous base-flow contributions of water are called perennial streams. In contrast, streams which only receive water during rainfall or snow melt events (i.e., quick-flow) are called ephemeral streams. The channels of ephemeral streams do not typically contain flow during dry periods (i.e., no base-flow contributions). Streams with larger drainage areas (i.e., higher stream orders) tend to be perennial, whereas streams with smaller drainage areas (such as low order headwater channels) tend to be ephemeral; however, the relative contributions of groundwater through base-flow to perennial streams are actually controlled by catchment geology, topography, and climate, more so than simply drainage area. The water quality of a stream may be described by measuring specific parameters of the stream’s water chemistry (e.g., Temperature, pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, and Dissolved Oxygen). Numerous factors affect water quality, but generally the types of materials which the water comes into contact and the length of time the water is in contact with those materials will produce variations in water chemistry. The water chemistry at any point in the stream is an integrated signal (or net outcome) of all the hydrological and biogeochemical processes operating within the catchment upstream of that point. Variations in stream water chemistry are derived from various sources, including geological, biological (vegetation and soil microbes), atmospheric (seasonal), and anthropogenic (human impacts).

Figure (a): Catchment hydrology, illustrating various flow pathways of water between precipitation and stream flow. Wetzel and Likens, 1991. Limnological Analyses, 2

nd edition. Springer, New York.

The local geology of bedrock and of overlying glacially deposited materials is an important factor in determining stream water chemistry as different minerals produce different weathering products. For example, in southern Ontario, limestone bedrock weathers easily, resulting in more alkaline soils and ion-rich waters. Further north on the Canadian Shield, bedrock is predominately crystalline granite and/or metamorphic rock, resulting in more acidic soils and dilute lakes and streams containing few ions. Vegetation can also affect stream water chemistry. For example, coniferous needles produce acidic leaf litter. Rates of nutrient exchange between plants and soils, as well as biogeochemical processes (e.g., soil microbes) can also affect water quality. Time of year is also an important factor affecting water quality. For example, annual variations in precipitation with the seasons will cause changes in water quality (e.g., snowfall, rainfall, or dry weather). Vegetation growth and biogeochemical microbial process may also vary at different times of year, thus producing variations in water quality. Finally, human impacts due to land use in the catchment are an important determinant of water quality. If vegetation is removed, soil erosion may increase and surface water will contain more dissolved materials (and/or increased turbidity). If more efficient drainage systems (e.g., sewers, paved surfaces) are put in place, run-off will increase and the water storage capacity of the catchment will be diminished. Pollution will also affect water quality, and may be a local point source (e.g., landfill or sewage outfall) or distributed more broadly across the landscape (e.g., application of fertilizer across agricultural areas, salt application on road surfaces, or acid rain). Considering the various sources and materials which will change water quality, the hydrological controls of stream water chemistry may be summarized as the chemistry of precipitation inputs (e.g., direct run-off), the biogeochemical interactions with vegetation and soils (e.g., interception and infiltration), and the weathering of geological materials (e.g., interflow and groundwater flow). As such, the water chemistry in the stream is controlled by the different flow pathways and residence times of the water which is entering the stream.

For example, rainfall which enters the stream quickly as overland flow may have a different chemistry compared to water which was intercepted by vegetation, was infiltrated into the soil, and then was slowly transported towards the stream by groundwater flow. Longer or more varied flow pathways, and/or longer periods of residence time interacting with materials within those pathways, can increase the potential for changes to the water chemistry.

Water Temperature

Water temperature is measured in degrees Celsius. The temperature of stream water varies on daily or seasonal scales, and often follows air temperature closely. Stream water temperature can also vary spatially. For example, the shading of the edges of the stream by riparian vegetation causes local cooling. Water temperature and its spatio-temporal variability is an important factor in the abundance and distribution of stream biota. In the mid-latitude summer months, groundwater is typically cooler than surface water, with base-flow signatures in the range of 10-15 oC.

pH – Acidity and Alkalinity

The pH is the log of the hydrogen ion concentration in the water and is a measure of acidity. The pH scale ranges from 1 (most acidic) to 14 (most alkaline) with the mid-point, 7, corresponding to neutral pH. Since pH is measured on a logarithmic scale (base 10), the difference between one pH unit is an order of magnitude (e.g., pH of 3 is 100x more acidic than a pH of 5). Rain is weakly acidic (pH ~ 5.7) due to dissolution of atmospheric CO2 in water droplets in clouds, forming carbonic acid. Stream water can be naturally weakly acidic due to rainwater inputs, and due to the inputs of humic acids from the decomposition of organic material in soils. However, anthropogenic emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides have led to acid rain and acid fogs. In water bodies with minimal ability to neutralize the acid through buffering, acidification can occur, with severe impacts on the biota.

Electrical Conductivity

Electrical conductivity (= specific conductance) measures how easily electric current can pass through a substance. Conductivity is measured in µS/cm. (µS = microsiemens). Siemens are the SI unit for electrical conductance; these units are derived from the number of amperes (the unit for electric current) passing through a given volume. Electrical current needs free electrons to flow, therefore, de-ionized (DI) water passes very little current. Water becomes a better conductor the more ions are present in solution. Hence the measurement of conductivity tells us how many ions are in solution. The ions that may be present in stream water include the cations (positive ions) Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Al and the anions (negative ions) Cl, NO3, PO4, SO4.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

TDS expresses the concentration of materials dissolved in the water. TDS is measured in grams/liter (g/L). Conductivity (above) is a good predictor of TDS but some ions are better conductors than others, increasing conductivity, but not TDS. Also, some compounds found in water do not conduct well. Large disturbances result in high inputs to streams, and elevated values of TDS. Our devices measuring TDS and conductivity do not tell us what substances exist in the water. More sophisticated analyses are required to determine the specific chemical makeup of stream water.

Other Water Quality Parameters

Other variables that are also often measured in water quality analyses include alkalinity (compounds that make the water alkaline and provide buffering capacity), hardness (concentration of Mg and Ca), trace metals, nutrient loadings, dissolved oxygen, organics (including pathogens, e.g., E. coli). Qualitative assessments of water quality include flow conditions (still vs. moving, rapid vs. tranquil), turbidity (cloudy vs. clear), colour (brown: sediment-laden; chocolate-brown: just rained, silty; green: algal blooms, water may be high in phosphate).

Water Quality Sampling

Analyzing water samples involves a careful procedure, as samples are susceptible to many forms of contamination.

Select clean sample bottles (rinsed with DI water).

Familiarize yourself with the procedure for calibrating the pH and conductivity meters. Meters should be calibrated once per day.

Make your measurements in the stream if possible. If this is not possible, collect stream water into sample bottles and make measurements very soon after you collect them.

If the water is still, do not enter the stream as you do not want to cause contamination.

If the water is flowing, you may step in the stream to sample, but be sure to sample upstream from where you are standing to avoid contamination.

If you are using sample bottles, you must condition them by rinsing them three times with stream water and dumping downstream from where you are working.

Make measurements at two sites (note if sites are shaded or sunny) – one in quiescent water and one in flowing water.

Record water temperature, pH, conductivity, TDS at each of the two sites.

Temperature can be measured with the handheld pH meters.

pH, conductivity and TDS can be measured with the handheld meters.

Transfer your data to the group datasheets in the common room when you return to base.

Further Reading

Black, P. E. 1991. Watershed hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Likens, G. E. & Bormann, F. H. 1995. Biogeochemistry of a forested ecosystem, 2nd edition.

Springer, New York. A summary of the biogeochemical research at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire.

Government of Canada, 2008. Turkey Lakes Watershed (TLW). http://www.ec.gc.ca/eblt-tlws/ [accessed August 2011]. These pages provide detail on the Turkey Lakes site - an experimental watershed designed to examine biogeochemical and hydrological processes, located north of Sault Ste. Marie, Ont.

Data Sheet for Water Quality Observations (AM observations at 07:00 and PM observations at 19:00)

Observation Time

Temperature (oC)

pH Electrical

Conductivity

EC - (μS/cm)

Total Dissolved Solids

TDS - (mg/L)

Comments Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2

Sun. AM

Sun. PM

Mon. AM

Mon. PM

Tue. AM

Tue. PM

Wed. AM

Wed. PM

Thur. AM

Thur. PM

Hanna Pen (HI98130) Operational Guide – Hand-held meters for Temperature, pH,

and electrical conductivity

- Turn on instrument by holding power button - Calibrate instrument before use - Hold probe in sample until the stability symbol (the clock) on the top left of the

LCD display disappears o Hit “SET/HOLD” button to switch between ppt, pH and mS o Hold “SET/HOLD” button for several seconds to freeze screen

- After each use, clean probe thoroughly by rinsing it with water, then rinse the probe with some of the sample that needs to be tested next to eliminate cross-contamination

- Turn the instrument off by clicking the power button twice

Setup and Calibration

- To change temperature unit o Click and hold the “POWER/MODE” button until the LCD display reads

TEMP o Change between ˚C and ˚F by clicking the “SET/HOLD” button o Hit the “POWER/MODE” button twice to return to the measuring mode

- pH Calibration

o Make sure the instrument is in pH mode (Switch by clicking “SET/HOLD”) in the measure mode

o (This step not usually necessary) Hold “POWER/MODE” button until the LCD display reads TEMP, then hit the “POWER/MODE” button again, the LCD display should now read BUFF, use the “SET/HOLD” button to switch between 7.01 and 6.86 depending on the buffer solutions that are being used

Select 7.01 if the solutions being used are pH 4.01, 7.01 and/or 10.01

Select 6.86 for NIST set, pH 4.01, 6.86 and/or 9.18 Return to Measure mode by clicking the “POWER/MODE” button

o Hold the “POWER/MODE” button until the LCD display reads CAL, place the instrument in the calibration solution, the instrument should recognize the solution and return to measuring mode when the calibration is finished

o If using two-point pH calibration, place in the pH 7.01 (or 6.86) calibration solution first, the instrument will then display “4.01 USE”, rinse the probe thoroughly before placing the instrument into the 4.01 or 10.01 calibration solution.

- EC/TDS Calibration

o Make sure the instrument is in EC or TDS mode (Switch by clicking “SET/HOLD”) in the measure mode

o (This step not usually necessary) Hold “POWER/MODE” button until the LCD display reads TEMP, then hit the “POWER/MODE” button again:

the LCD display should now read CONV, this allows you to change the conversion factor

Hit the “POWER/MODE” button again and the LCD display will read BETA, allowing you to change the temperature compensation coefficient (β)

o Hold the “POWER/MODE” button until the LCD display reads CAL, place the instrument in the calibration solution (only 12.88 mS/cm calibration solution will work), the instrument should recognize the solution and return to measuring mode when the calibration is finished

o Since there is a known relationship between EC and TDS, only one calibration is necessary

Notes - Clear previous calibration by pressing the “POWER/MODE” button until the LCD

display reads CAL (for calibration), then hit the “POWER/MODE” button again, the LCD display will display ESC and previous calibration will be erased

- When not in use, rinse electrode with water and store electrode with several storage solution

- If electrode has been left dry, soak in storage solution for 1 hr before use

<<insert YSI guide>>

Climate and Synoptic Weather Patterns (Assignment #1)

DUE Tues Sept. 15 by 4:30 PM. Hand in to the Earth Science main office (Rm 1066) at 22 Russell St.

During field camp, you made observations pertaining to the weather and local and regional controls that effect changes in weather. In this first exercise, use the daily observations to analyze the weather variability in during the field camp period (Tuesday AM to Saturday PM). The purpose of the exercise is to provide some context in which to interpret longer term climatic trends. In addition, these observations can help to assess which climatic factors are important determinants of local physical processes such as stream discharge, vegetation growth, soil development, mass wasting and others.

Data sources

Summary of morning and evening weather observations

Digital record of relative humidity, temperature, wind speed and direction, barometric pressure and rainfall trends from the climate station

Any other automated or analogue records as required

Synoptic scale weather maps (available at: http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/dailywxmap/index_20100101.html)

Notes from your field notebook

Canada Climate Normals available at: http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/Welcome_e.html

Your assignment is to write a paper that is no longer than 1200 words (tables, figures and/or references along with their captions are in addition to this word limit) covering ALL of the following:

Weather

Outline key patterns in temperature, humidity, pressure, wind and precipitation for the period of observation. Briefly explain the relationships between these climatic variables and account for any differences in the measurements taken with different instruments.

How are these patterns related to synoptic scale weather changes (i.e., regional trends in frontal movement – you can get some indication of frontal activity from the weather maps)?

How do the temperature and precipitation observations differ from average values for this time of year at Sutton?

Please carefully note all of the following expectations:

Title pages are unnecessary. Just put your name at the top of pg. 1.

Number all of your pages.

Use double spacing and 12 pt font.

We expect you to refer to relevant citations, to properly reference these within the text, and to include a complete bibliography (alphabetized by author surname) at the end of your paper. Follow the reference style of the Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences or the Canadian Journal of Botany (now called “Botany”) (see: http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/page/cjes/authors and go to the section titled: Examples of types of references, including electronic references).

We suggest you use citation management software available through UofT Library (e.g. RefWorks): http://guides.library.utoronto.ca/citationmanagement

You may include figures and their captions (graphs or other images) which must be labeled consecutively and appear on the page with or following the text where they are first referenced. Tables should be labeled and used the same way. However, include these only if they are relevant to the points you are making. Do not simply append figures without discussing them. You have a lot of data to analyze; only include what is most important in your report.

Ensure that all graphs have been carefully edited – see the “Primer on Graphing” we have provided for you.

Add titles or captions to figures or tables.

Proofread your paper carefully for spelling, grammar, and above all, clarity. Effective scientific writing demands great attention to detail. Proofread your figures as well – are the axis labels readable?

All figures, references, and tables are in addition to the 1200-word limit.

Remember that your assignment is not to describe the data. You must examine the data and figure out what's important before you begin to write. In your report, provide an analysis of the data, report on patterns, explain relationships between variables measured and provide analytical explanations for the observations.

Hydrology and Water Quality: Environmental Controls (Assignment #2)

DUE Tues Sep. 29th by 4:30 PM Hand in to the Earth Science main office (Rm 1066) at 22 Russell St.

During field camp, you made observations pertaining to variations in water quantity and water quality in the east branch of the Sutton River and the watershed and climate conditions that likely control these variations. In this second exercise, use the daily observations to analyze the variability in stream discharge and water quality parameters (Tuesday AM to Saturday PM). The purpose of the exercise is to provide some context in which to interpret longer term trends in river flow and the environmental controls on these trends. Like your interpretations of the weather, these observations can help to assess which climatic and watershed factors are important determinants of local physical processes such as stream discharge, vegetation growth, soil development, mass wasting and others.

Data sources

Summary of twice-daily stream discharge and water quality measurements

Digital record of pH, EC and water temperature from the stream

Any other automated or analogue records as required

Notes from your field notebook

Interpretations of climate trends from your first assignment. Your assignment is to write a paper that is no longer than 1200 words (tables, figures and/or references along with their captions are in addition to this word limit) covering the following:

Hydrology/Water Quality

Using the data collected during our stay at field camp, identify and explain trends in discharge, water temperature, pH and conductivity. Consider potential errors in the measurement, particularly those related to low flow situations.

Relate these patterns to those observed in the weather data, to the local hydrologic cycle, and to drainage basin characteristics (geology, soils, vegetation, topography, etc.).

All the expectations from Assignment #1 apply to Assignment #2 (see Assignment #1)

Section C

Vegetation Sampling Methods

Vegetation Mapping and Analysis

Vegetation surveys for biogeography, ecology or forestry usually require some combination of (a) identification of species, (b) assessment of the abundance and size distributions of each species, and (c) mapping of the distributions of individuals. One key to data collection for vegetation analysis is the selection of an appropriate sampling procedure.

Quadrat Method

The normal sampling unit for vegetation analysis is the quadrat. These are often square, but may be rectangular or circular. To be representative, quadrats should contain most of the species found throughout the stand or community. Size will be determined by species richness, the size and morphology of the plants under study (trees vs. shrubs vs. herbs), and by their distributions. Some "standard" quadrat sizes are shown below.

Vegetation Type Quadrat size Moss and lichens 0.5 x 0.5 m Forest ground cover 1 x 1 m Shrub, tall herbs in grassland 2 x 2 m Forest shrubs/understorey 4 x 4 m Forest canopies 20 x 20 m Suitable quadrat sizes can be determined more systematically by constructing species-area curves. To do this:

Select a small quadrat and inventory species richness Double the quadrat size, and inventory cumulative species richness Continue until number of species levels off Use a series of nested quadrats (Fig (a) below) to construct a species-area curve

Fig (b)). Figure (a): Nested quadrats Figure (b): Species-area curve

Note that quadrat size must be tailored to local conditions as tree size, density and species richness vary across our field area. For example, at the summit of Roundtop, where species richness is low, trees are small and stem density is high, smaller (~ 8 x 8 m) quadrats may be most suitable for canopy vegetation. At lower elevations, larger quadrats will be needed to capture representative samples (up to 20 x 20 m).

Setting up quadrats and taking measurements

To fully characterize a representative area, a series of nested quadrats will be necessary because of the layered nature of the forest. Trees, arbitrarily defined here as any stem over 3m tall, will require a relatively large quadrat. The shrub or understorey layer can be sampled using smaller quadrats. Finally, the herb or ground cover layer can be sampled with very small quadrats. The following procedure is an example:

Tape out a 15 x 15 m square for the tree quadrat Mark out (using stakes, flagging tape) a 4 x 4 m square within the larger square

for the shrub/understory quadrat Mark out at least two 1 x 1 m squares within the shrub quadrat for the ground

cover quadrat Do not trample the plants in your smallest quadrats

Tree layer

Identify and measure all trees (stems >3 m tall) in the 15 x 15 m quadrat using the standard measurement of diameter at breast height ("dbh"). The dbh is the diameter of the tree at 1.2 m above the ground and can be measured using a special dbh tape measure or a regular tape measure (requires conversion from perimeter to diameter). For smaller stems, the caliper can be used (the calipers have a Vernier scale - see How to Read a Vernier Scale, in Section E below). Estimate height of individuals. Age the individuals using an increment borer (if appropriate for your research questions). (See below for detailed methods). You may want to map the distribution of individuals.

Shrub layer

In the 4 x 4 m quadrat, identify the species, estimate cover. It may be feasible to count individuals, to age them, and to measure heights and diameters at a standard height (ie. 30 cm).

Ground cover layer

Identify the species in your 1 x 1 m quadrats. Estimate percent cover for each species. You can use one of the frequently used number scales such as the Braun-Blanquet (BB scale) if you find it useful (see below). If you are interested in species recruitment patterns or performance, you may want to count and age seedlings. BB value Percent cover + <1% 1 1-5% 2 6-25% 3 26-50% 4 51-75% 5 76-100%

Other measurements and observations

In addition to the above, you should make notes on stand location, aspect, elevation, slope angle, soil type and depth, microtopography, signs of disturbance, and/or degree of canopy openness, for each site.

Take copious notes in the field; make sure your writing is legible, and that you have a system to keep your notebook dry. Enter the data into your computer promptly to prevent the loss of irretrievable field notes.

Bring a field guide with you to make identifications on site if possible. Use your camera and sketches as much as possible. Only collect plants for later identification if absolutely necessary. Remember that plants are best identified using reproductive parts (flowers, fruits).

Sampling design

Quadrats should be arranged according to a strategy for sampling design. The random arrangement of quadrats is ideal from a statistical point of view, although this approach can be time consuming and impractical to set up in some situations. To set up a random sampling grid for your quadrats, use a random number table/generator and a large grid over the sampling area (Fig (a)).

Vegetation may alternatively be sampled at fixed intervals in a systematic sampling procedure (Fig (b)). This approach has practical advantages as it can be implemented using transects (simple lines along which quadrats are sited).

A combination of the two approaches can be used in a stratified random sampling strategy (Fig (c)). In this case, systematic transects are divided into sub-sections in which quadrats are randomly sited.

Systematic sampling approaches are particularly appropriate in the presence of a vegetation gradient (perhaps related to topography, lithology, hydrology, disturbance, or soils). A line transect may be used to record vegetation data across the gradient using a taped line or compass bearing to site quadrats either randomly or systematically along the line. A belt transect is usually composed of a contiguous line of quadrats.

Plotless sampling techniques

Quadrats can be time consuming. Plotless sampling can provide a rapid way to characterize forest communities. One common plotless technique is the point-centered quarter method. This method involves sampling points located at regular (perhaps 20 m) intervals along a transect line or compass bearing. Each sampling point is situated at the centre of a circle of radius 10 m. The circle is divided into four quarters (called quadrants – not quadrats). For each quadrant, only the nearest tree to the centre sampling point is identified and measured (dbh, height, and distance from the sampling point). Thus, four trees are measured for each sampling point, and this is repeated across the stand. See Fig (d) below.

(d) Point-centered quarter method

Quantitative measures of forest composition and species dominance

The following measures can be calculated from quadrat data:

Density of species i (Di): the number of individuals of species i per unit area Di = ni / A Where ni is the total number of individuals counted of species i and A is the total area sampled

Relative density of species i (RDi): the number of individuals of a given species (ni) as a proportion of the total number of individuals of all species, ∑n RDi = ni / ∑n

Frequency of species i (fi): the number of samples in which a particular species is recorded fi = ji / k where ji is the number of samples in which species i is found and k is the total number of samples taken

Relative frequency of species i (Rfi): frequency of a given species (fi) as a proportion of the sum of the frequencies for all species (∑f). Rfi = fi / ∑f

Basal Area (BA): a measure of stand density corresponding to the cross-

sectional area of trees (or of a given species) in the stand at breast height (units are square metres per hectare, or equivalent). The calculation is based on the area of a circle (A): A = π∙r2 BA = π(dbh/2)2

Where dbh = diameter at breast height

Coverage of species i (Ci): proportion of the ground occupied by the species Ci = BAi / A Where BAi is the basal area of species i and A is the total area sampled

Relative coverage of species i (RCi): coverage of species i (Ci) expressed as a proportion of the total coverage for all species (∑C) RCi = Ci / ∑C

The sum of the above three relative measures of forest composition for species i corresponds to an index called the importance value (IV). IVi = RDi + Rfi + RCi

What to record on your vegetation datasheets

Date sampled

Who sampled

Plot ID number (use a logical system)

Location (Use GPS for coordinates)

Elevation (Use altimeter)

Notes on habitat, aspect, slope, any other observations Make sure to indicate the sizes of your tree plots, shrub/ understory plots and ground cover plots as you will need that information for calculating importance values. Keep careful notes of all plants identified and measured (see above for quadrat descriptions) and whether trees were aged using whorl counts or by taking tree cores. Note the labeling of your tree cores.

References

Kent, M. and Coker, P. 1992. Vegetation Description and Analysis. CRC Press, Boca Raton. Shiver, B.D. and Borders, B.E. 1996. Sampling Techniques for Forest Resource Inventory. Wiley, New York. Watts, S. and Halliwell, L. 1996. Essential Environmental Science: Methods and Techniques. Routledge, London.

Community Dynamics and Vegetation Change

Vegetation changes can be assessed on various timescales. The sampling techniques outlined above and year-to-year observations provide some information on successional processes and tree demographics, allowing us to characterize the forest, but longer-term perspectives are needed to understand what controls forest dynamics.

Stem and Tree-Ring Analysis

One way to provide historical context to the forest dynamics we currently observe is to collect age information. This will give data on the past and present status of woody species in the stand and may give insight into their future trajectories. To assess the ages and growth histories of trees (on scales of 10s-100s of years), careful analyses of stems and tree-rings can be used. The standard method for aging trees is to count annual increments (tree-rings). Differences in tree-ring widths from year to year reflect changes in growing conditions which may be constrained by some external control such as climate or atmospheric chemistry, or from some internal control such as a change in forest structure caused by a disturbance. An increment borer is used to collect tree cores, which are then mounted and studied under the microscope to age the tree. The use of an increment borer does not harm the tree.

Image by L. Jozsa Image by J. Speer

Conifers (Spruce, Fir, Pine, Hemlock) have well marked seasonal changes in cell size and structure so their rings are prominent. These softwoods are easy to core. Hardwoods (Oak, Ash, Maple) are difficult to core and have complicated cell structures that make their rings less pronounced than those of conifers.

Image by J. Speer

Small trees, shrubs and seedlings cannot be aged using an increment borer. Small conifers can be fairly accurately aged by counting stem segments: both fir and spruce put on annual whorls of leaves/branches. Small hardwoods may need to be cut and their increments counted on a whole cross section under a microscope. We will avoid this type of destructive sampling. By aging and measuring all individuals of a species in a forest stand, an age-structure graph can be constructed. This graph shows the pattern of tree recruitment and survival over time. The diagram below shows some results from past GGR390 students on the age distribution of Viburnum alnifolium at mid-elevations on Mt Roundtop. What is the typical tree lifespan? How healthy is this population?

(Largo, Nerona & Postnikoff, GGR 390, 2001)

Tree rings can also help to characterize and date geomorphic processes. Mass movement on slopes and erosion of stream banks may result in tilting of trees. Trees attempt to return to the vertical by forming extra thick cells which push or pull the tree upright. This reaction wood is not easily seen in tree cores but is often obvious on stem disks (cross-sections – require destructive sampling). The rings provide an absolute time scale for such events.

Pollen Analysis

To assess changes in forest composition on longer timescales (100s, 1000s to 10000s of years), sediment accumulating in lakes and wetlands can be used. Plant remains (stems, leaves or seeds) and pollen grains are preserved in these sediments. Sediment cores can be taken, and processed in the lab to concentrate these micro- and macro-scopic plant remains, which can then be dated and identified on a microscope. Pollen analysis has been used for over a century to provide paleo-vegetation histories. Below is the nearest published pollen diagram for Sutton, Québec – generated from the sediments of a nearby lake named Mont Shefford. The diagram shows Holocene vegetation succession. As the ice age ended around 11,000 years ago, the forest was composed of Populus, Picea then Pinus. Deciduous species become abundant later, notably Betula and Fagus after 5000 years ago and Alnus as the climate became cooler and wetter after 3000 years ago.

Percent Pollen Abundance Pollen diagram from Mont Shefford, Québec (45.4°N; 72.6°W, 282 m asl) The y-axis shows the age of the sediment, and its depth in a sediment core, with older sediments towards the bottom of the page. The x-axis shows the percentages of pollen grains from different species. The grey silhouette is a 5x exaggeration curve, to make rarer types appear more clearly.

Reference: Richard, P.J.H. 1978. Histoire tardiglaciaire et postglaciaire de la vegetation au mont Shefford, Quebec. Geographie physique et Quaternaire 32:81-93. Data available in the North American Pollen Database: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/napd.html Lac Spruce, our lunch stop, offers a site with potential for paleoecological analyses. Here, two kinds of pollen-bearing sediments are available: lake sediment (an organic

mud) and peat (poorly decomposed, waterlogged plant remains) around the lake margin. The lake sediment probably offers a continuous record of vegetation change since deglaciation, but there may be some problems – what are they?

Disturbance

The arrangement and abundance of plants in the woodlands covering Mt Roundtop are determined in the long term by climate and substrate, but in the short term, disturbance plays a key role. There is sufficient altitude here to induce a distinctive vegetation zonation. The Great Lakes – St Lawrence mixed forest of the lowlands is replaced by more boreal species, notably Balsam Fir and Red Spruce, at higher elevations. The highest peaks in the Appalachians (notably Mt Washington in New Hampshire, USA) have alpine zones where trees are replaced by shrubs and herbs. Within each of the altitudinal vegetation zones, human and natural disturbances are important in explaining vegetation dynamics.

Anthropogenic disturbances

On Roundtop, the most obvious anthropogenic disturbance is the cutting and maintenance of ski trails. These fragment the natural forest cover, and create edges. Before the ski resorts, the whole area had been logged for timber or agriculture. Thus, few old trees remain, particularly in the more accessible areas. The oldest trees we have found on GGR390 are Red Spruce. A few large, isolated specimens have been found on the valley bottom or middle slopes aged to ~200 yrs, but the oldest (over 300 yrs) was a stunted tree near the summit. With the decline in agriculture over the past century, significant reversion to forest has occurred across the Eastern Townships.

Acid deposition is a major contemporary disturbance in this region. Elevated atmospheric concentrations of nitrous oxides and sulphur dioxide due to emissions associated with factories, metal smelters, and the burning of coal and oil are the cause of acid rain. These pollutants react in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acids, which are deposited in all forms of precipitation, with numerous consequences for biota. The pH of precipitation at Roundtop was as low as 3.5 in the 1980s, with particularly low values associated with cloud bases (fog). Roundtop frequently sits with its head in the clouds. The increased acidification with elevation is reflected in the declining pH of forest soils with increasing elevation on Roundtop (see Hendershot et al., 1992. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 61:235-242).

A regional dieback in sugar maple has been linked to physiological stress caused by acid rain, and resulting in increased susceptibility to pathogenic infection. Red Spruce is also sensitive to acid rain and population declines have been recorded over the past 3 decades. Red Spruce tree-rings for this period are narrow, indicating very low growth rates, and mortality rates have been high. Red spruce decline is related to its ecology – it is a long-lived species and produces few seedlings. This contrasts with its co-dominant – balsam fir – which is short lived, but regularly produces large seed crops. Notice that almost all of the seedlings in the spruce-fir zone are balsam fir.

Natural disturbances All ecosystems have suites of disturbances associated with them. Some are climatically determined (wind, frost, drought, fire…) while others are biological (insects, browsers…). These disturbances operate at different magnitudes and frequencies. At Roundtop, a very common disturbance is wind throw. This usually involves the toppling or snapping of one or a few trees. These low magnitude, high frequency events create small gaps, allow light to penetrate to the forest floor, and trigger successional processes. Less frequent, higher magnitude events impact over larger areas and the effects may be more substantial. Between Jan 6 and 9, 1998, freezing rain brought chaos to eastern Ontario and southern Quebec. Woodlots and forested areas across the region were severely damaged. Sugar bushes throughout the Townships were badly impacted. At Roundtop, ice damage was confined to intermediate altitudes, mostly between 600 and 750m. Ground temperatures were too warm below this level. Above it, ice accumulated but damage was slight because the conifers there were not susceptible. Deciduous hardwoods sustained the most damage, but response varied with species, age, size and other morphological characteristics. The ice storm caused major openings of the forest canopy and triggered replacement processes. Numerous trees were destroyed and others made more susceptible to pathogen attack. The accumulation of trunks and branches on the forest floor has produced a new suite of microhabitats, but could make the forests more susceptible to fire by increasing fuel loading.

Vegetation Structure and Biomass

In forest mensuration, many parameters are used to describe the stand structure. In addition to tree-based structural parameters, such as tree height, diameter at the breast height (Dbh), crown radius, crown-base height, crown shape, etc., canopy-level structural parameters are commonly used for vegetation studies at landscape, regional and global scales, such as leaf area index (LAI) and foliage clumping index. LAI is defined as one half the total leaf area (all sided) per unit ground surface area (Chen and Black, 1992), and clumping index quantifies the degree of the deviation of leaf spatial distribution from the random case (Chen, 1996). For a canopy with a random leaf spatial distribution, the clumping index equals unity. Leaf distributions in forests are usually clumped, with the clumping index being smaller than unity. Biomass is usually divided into above-ground and below-ground components. The aboveground component consists of stem and foliage, and below-ground component is often separated into coarse and fine roots (diameter < 2 mm). Coarse root biomass is proportional to the stem biomass, while fine root biomass is proportional to foliage biomass. These proportionalities vary with tree species and growth conditions (White et al, 2000). Foliage biomass can be calculated as the product of LAI and specific leaf weight, which is the ratio of leaf dry weight to leaf area. Stem biomass (usually including branch biomass) can be estimated from Dbh and tree height using allometric equations. These equations are usually species specific and depend on site conditions to some extent. When a site is located on a slope, the slope and aspect is needed in the calculation of structural parameters and biomass, and they need to be recorded.

LAI and clumping index measurements

Both LAI and clumping index can be measured with optical instruments. Two instruments will be available during the field trip. One is the Tracing Radiation and Architecture of Canopies (TRAC), and the other is Digital Hemispherical Photography (DHP). TRAC measures LAI and clumping index based on a gap size analysis theory (Chen and Cihlar, 1995). It is a hand-held instrument recording the irradiance of solar beams transmitted through the canopy at a high frequency (20 Hz) while being walked along a transect beneath a forest canopy. The time series of the transmitted solar beam irradiance recorded by TRAC is converted into a series of gaps of different sizes, and these gaps are then used to calculate the gap fraction of the canopy and several canopy structural parameters including LAI and clumping index (see Appendix X1). For this calculation, the average leaf size is a required input, and several samples of leaves need to be collected to determine the size. This calculation also requires solar zenith and azimuth angles, and they can be calculated from the time of data acquisition as well as the geographical location of the site (longitude and latitude). The time used in this calculation is solar time, which depends on the local time and its adjustment (e.g. daylight saving time), longitude and the reference longitude of the time zone in which your site is located. The solar azimuth angle is used relative to the direction of the transect to determine the average width of leaf shadows projected on the transect (if the transect is perpendicular to the sun’s direction, the projected width is the smallest, while

it is the largest if the transect runs in the same direction as the sun). All these calculations are made in the software TRAC.com (see Appendix X1). While TRAC measures the canopy at one angle at a time, DHP provides hemispherical records of the canopy. Hemispherical photographs acquired by DHP can also be used to calculate both LAI and clumping index, but it is not as accurate because it is not easy to determine the photographic exposure that does not cause overexposure (loosing leaves) or underexposure (loosing small gaps) at all angles (Chen et al., 2007). However, the DHP system is inexpensive compared with TRAC and other similar instruments and has the advantage of hemispherical records of the canopy, which are useful for not only LAI and clumping estimation but also for many other purposes such as studies of canopy angular variation and heterogeneity. The DHP measurement protocol (mostly concerning the exposure setting) and processing methodology using the software DHP.exe can be found in Appendix X2.

Biomass measurements

Foliage biomass estimation requires LAI and specific leaf weight. In addition to LAI measurements described above, specific leaf weight needs to be measured from a sample of leaves. For each leaf, the leaf area and dry weight are to be measured. The area of a broadleaf is easily measured by drawing the outline on a sheet of paper, but the area of a needleleaf is difficult to measure because it can have different forms. So far the most accurate method is the volume displacement method (Chen et al., 1997), by which a sample of leaves are submerged into a jar of water placed on a sensitive balance and the volume of water displaced by these leaves is measured from the increase in the total weight. A species-specific equation is used to convert the volume into area to avoid the influence of leaf shape on this conversion. The dry weight of leaves is obtained through weighing the leaves after drying in an oven for 48 hours at 75 °C . In a forest stand, the specific leaf weight varies significantly among trees and at different heights, so samples of leaves should be taken from dominant, co-dominant and suppressed trees and at three heights (upper, middle, and lower canopy) at least. Obtaining a reliable value of the specific leaf weight is rather time-consuming work, and published values for the tress species involved can be used as the first approximation. Stem biomass estimation can be made using allometric equations published in the literature for the same types of forests (species specific equations may be difficult to find). These equations require at least the stand average Dbh and tree height, and therefore they need to be measured during the field trip. A plot of 20 m x 20 m can be established in a forest, and the Dbh and height of all trees within the plot need to be measured. Reading:

Chen, J. M., and T. A. Black, 1992. Defining leaf area index for non-flat leaves. Plant, Cell and Environment, 15: 421-429.

Chen, J. M., and J. Cihlar, 1995. Plant canopy gap size analysis theory for improving optical measurements of leaf area index. Applied Optics, 34: 6211-6222.

Chen, J. M., 1996. Optically-based methods for measuring seasonal variation in leaf area index of boreal conifer forests. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 80: 135-163.

Chen, J. M., P. M. Rich, T. S. Gower, J. M. Norman, and S. Plummer, 1997. Leaf area index of boreal forests: theory, techniques and measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102: 29,429-29,444.

Chen, J. M., A. Govind, O. Sonnentag, Y. Zhang, A. Barr, and B. Amiro, 2006. Leaf area index measurements at Fluxnet Canada forest sites. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 140: 257-268.

White, M. A., P. E. Thornton, S. W. Running, and R. R. Nemani (2000), Parameterization and sensitivity analysis of the BIOME–BGC terrestrial ecosystem model: Net primary production controls, Earth Interact., 4(3), 1–85, doi:10.1175/1087-3562(2000)004<0003:PASAOT>2.0.CO;2.

LAI and Clumping Index Observations Using TRAC and DHP

Site Information

Species Longitude Latitude Slope Aspect Mean Leaf Width

Measurements on a transect

Transect length

Transect direction

Time

(watch time)

File name Note (cloud conditions, length between distance markers, etc.)

How to use an increment borer and mount tree cores

Read the article: Grissino-Mayer, H. D. 2003. A manual and tutorial for the proper use of an increment borer. Tree-Ring Research 59:63-79. (copies are available in the common room)

Increment borers are high-precision instruments, and easily damaged. Please handle with care.

Select your tree. Put the borer together by removing the extractor, putting it in a safe place (so that you won't step on it or lost it), then inserting and securing the auger onto the handle.

Place the auger tip between bark furrows, apply pressure, and rotate clockwise (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 (Image by L. Jozsa)

Once the threads have engaged, use both hands to rotate the auger handle.

Once you have reached at least the middle of the tree, slide the extractor underneath the core.

Turn the handle counterclockwise one or two turns to break the core free of the surrounding wood matrix.

Remove the extractor carefully and pass it to your partner for insertion into a labeled straw.

Remove the borer from the tree right away by rotating the handle counterclockwise. If you wait too long the auger may get stuck in the tree – the wood rebounds where the core hole is and will hold the auger tightly!

NEVER remove debris from the auger by sticking the extractor into the auger tip as this will damage the blade.

To obtain a minimum age for the tree, you must obtain as many rings as possible. Unless you can see ALL the rings, all you know is that your tree is AT LEAST as old as the number of rings you can see (minimum age). Trees grow from the top – the top of the stem is the youngest. In order to recover as many rings as possible, you must core the tree from a point as low to the ground as possible (see Fig. 2). Make sure you can still rotate the borer handle.

Fig. 2 (Phipps, 1985)

Once you have extracted the core, carefully place it into a straw, avoiding the loss or mixing up of any parts of the core.

Label the straw immediately with species name, sample number, date and your initials.

At the end of the field day, each borer must be cleaned with the gun cleaning kit, a bit of cloth and WD-40.

As soon as you return to campus, at the lab, you will remove your cores from straws and place them inside wooden mounts, secured with flagging tape. Label the wooden mount with black marker right away. Leave to dry at least 24 hours.

Glue the cores down using white glue. Make sure the “dull” side is face up.

you will then sand your cores and examine them under the microscope to count rings and to measure the ring widths.

For more information on tree-rings, see the comprehensive web pages developed by Dr. Henri Grissino-Mayer (University of Tennessee): http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/

Tree-Ring References

Fritts, H. C. 1976. Tree rings and climate. Academic Press, London. Grissino-Mayer, H. D. 2009. Ultimate Tree Ring Web Pages [online]. Available from

web.utk.edu/~grissino/ [accessed August 03 2009]. Grissino-Mayer, H. D. 2003. A manual and tutorial for the proper use of an increment

borer. Tree-Ring Research 59:63-79. Josza, L. 1988. Increment Core Sampling Techniques for High Quality Cores. Forintek

Canada Corp., Special Publication No. SP-30. Phipps R. L. 1985. Collecting, preparing, cross-dating and measuring tree increment

cores. US Geological Survey Water Resources Investigation Report 85-4148, Reston, Virginia.

Schweingruber, F. H. 1988. Tree rings: basics and applications of dendrochronology. Kluwer, Boston.

Speer, J. 2005. North American Dendroecological Fieldweek, Idaho. Unpublished Field Guide.

Common plant species in the Sutton area

Learn to recognize the more common species in our study area. Field guides are available in the common room, as is a plant checklist for the Sutton area, “Les plantes vasculaires de la MRC Brome-Missisquoi et du massif des monts Sutton” (Marineau et al., 2000). Do not collect plants aggressively. If a plant is common and abundant in a particular area, you can take one sample for identification back at base camp. Otherwise, try to take good field notes and drawings, and use a digital camera to photograph individuals you don’t recognize. It is a good practice to research any known rare or protected plants in your study area so that you will recognize them if you happen to find them at your site (and avoid accidentally harming or sampling them).

Forest trees and shrubs

Abies balsamea (Balsam Fir) – flat looking branches, underside of needles with 2 white bands. Soft needles. Upright bluish cones. Young bark with blisters filled with aromatic resin. Acer pensylvanicum (Striped Maple, Moosewood) – shrub/small tree, bark with pale vertical stripes, opposite leaves with three long-tapering sharply pointed lobes Acer saccharum (Sugar Maple) – opposite leaves, U shaped depressions between leaf lobes, fruits are pairs of nearly parallel winged samaras Acer spicatum (Mountain Maple) – tall shrub/small tree, opposite leaves with 3 prominent pointed lobes Betula alleghaniensis (Yellow Birch) – leaves alternate, bark dark yellowish and ragged on older trees and does not peel easily, twigs have wintergreen taste Betula papyrifera (White Birch) – older bark white, papery, peels easily. Twigs without wintergreen taste. Leaves egg-shaped to triangular. Fraxinus americana (White Ash) – opposite, compound leaves (5-9, usually 7 leaflets) Picea rubens (Red Spruce) – needles pointed and more or less curved above the middle. Sharp, spiky needles ("Friendly fir, scary spruce"). Tsuga canadensis (Hemlock) – small needles in flat sprays. Needles with two white bands on undersides Viburnum alnifolium - shrub, opposite, simple oval to round leaves

Woodland herbs

Aralia nudicaulis (Wild sasparilla) – Perennial herb, long stalked leaves, twice compound, 3-5 leaflets per leaf.

Clintonia borealis (Blue Bead Lily / Yellow Clintonia) – 2-4 tongue-shaped, dark green, leathery basal leaves, dark blue bead-like poisonous berry Maianthemum canadense (Canada Mayflower) – small herb, 1-3 alternate leaves, berries are hard, green and round, ripening to specked pale red Lycopodium lucidulum – Club Mosses. Leaves are narrow, very small, spiky, and densely clustered on the stem

Ferns

Dryopteris spinulosa (Spinulose Wood Fern) – lower inner pinnae (subleaflet) on each leaflet is noticeably longer (most pronounced on the lowest pair of leaflets on the stalk). Onoclea sensibilis (Sensitive Fern) – large leaves, deeply pinnatifid, winged stalk Thelypteris palustris (Marsh Fern) – Fronds grow singly, and are twice divided. Leaflets do not taper much at all towards the base; leaflet edges curl under.

References

Chambers, B., Legasy, K. and Bentley, C.V. 1996 Forest Plants of Central Ontario. Edmonton: Lone Pine. See the other field guides in the common room.

Section D

Soil Sampling Methods

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of a soil description is to document the morphological field characteristics of a soil representative for a particular area. This gives the reader a first impression of a soil occurring in a particular area and allows us to recognize a particular soil in the field. The preceding implies that, once we have established a particular soil to be representative for a particular area, a soil description is used to document that soil. As properly describing a soil can be a tedious job, it is important to select a representative soil by carefully surveying the area of interest in advance of the detailed work.

Once a representative soil has been described, it can be classified according to a

particular classification system which allows for comparisons between different soils from large areas (e.g. Soil Classification System for Canada). Together with other information (e.g. geology, geomorphology, climate, vegetation and present land use) a soil description and classification can be used in land use planning (agriculture, geotechnical suitability, etc.). 2. SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION

Selecting a representative soil for a particular area is sometimes difficult,

especially for those with limited experience. The best way to start is to examine the natural landscape and vegetation. Slope steepness, aspect and type of (natural) vegetation are often good first indicators of homogeneous areas with respect to landscape processes affecting soil development. Information on the local geology (rock type) and hydrology (drainage conditions) are also important.

Once a particular area is suspected to be homogeneous with respect to the various landscape forming processes, the general characteristics of the soils in that area have to be explored by hand augering. The general soil characteristics which deserve particular attention are: soil depth and soil “layering” in terms of texture, colour and mottling. Once a particular area has been explored (after many augerings), a first general impression of the soil (depth, texture and layering), most representative for the area can be established using exploratory (shallow) soil pits. This information can then be used to select a representative site for a larger soil pit to describe the soil in much more detail. After digging a soil pit (e.g. 0.5x0.5x1m deep), a straight vertical face of the pit is used for the soil description. Make sure that you don’t pile soil from the pit on top of the face of the pit you want to use to examine the soil. 3. PRELIMINARY SOIL PROFILE EXAMINATION

To prepare the vertical face of the soil pit for examination, “roughen” its surface by gently removing soil clods (insert knife into wall) to expose the soil structure. Start at the top and do not use excessive force to remove soil clods, otherwise you will end up with an artificial structure created by your knife. While preparing the vertical face of the pit you can examine if soil properties like texture, structure and colour change from the top to the bottom of the pit. A very simple trick to detect differences in soil properties is to insert your knife at the top of the vertical face and to make a cut in the soil down to

the bottom of the pit. The resistance experienced is a measure of the soil texture and structure. Changes in resistance are therefore a first indication of changes in texture and structure.

After this first examination it is important to delineate different layers based on differences in colour, texture and structure. Start first with a simple subdivision into layers; after that you may consider a further subdivision based on less clear differences in soil properties. Do not yet try to designate the layers as horizons, this will be the next step. 4. DESIGNATION OF MASTER HORIZONS

Based on the relative positions of the different layers try to classify them as master horizons (Fig.1): which organic (L, F or H) and mineral (A, B or C) horizons do they represent? The next step is to choose additional letters for the master horizons to specify their particular properties (e.g. Bt or Bm). It is obvious that this choice will be more difficult if you have chosen too many “layers”. 5. DESCRIPTION OF MASTER HORIOZN PROPERTIES

After labeling the different layers as master horizons describe the soil properties (start at the top of the profile). The properties you have to describe are: depth interval (the surface of the mineral soil is 0cm), soil texture (Figs.2 and 3), soil structure (type, size and development: Fig.4), colour, mottling (abundance, size and contrast) and horizon boundary (distinctness and form: Fig. 5). Colours (soil matrix and mottles) mostly refer to wetted conditions. 6. DIAGNOSTIC PROPERTIES & HORIZONS: SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Using your soil description to classify (Fig.6) your soil at the order and the great group level. This will allow you to verify if your distinction of master horizons and properties is approximately correct. Example of a soil description and some typical soil profiles for southern and northern Ontario are shown in Fig. 7 and 8. Check the classification! 7. SAMPLING

After describing and classifying the soil, take samples of the different horizons. Start at the bottom of the profile (to avoid contamination of soil form the overlying horizons) and sample each horizon at least once (take a sample from the middle of each horizon). List your sample no.’s with your soil (horizon) descriptions.

<<insert soil description pages>>

Section E

Surveying Methods

Survey Methods and Equipment

(S. Finkelstein, T. Largo, M. Stewart, J. Desloges, and R. Phillips)

Location, given in direction and distance, is essential to the description and spatial integration of all objects or features. It is common to all geographic problems, with the degree of precision dependent on the scale of the research questions. Three dimensional (3D) locations on the surface of the Earth require points of reference. Global geodetic coordinates are based on angular degree measurements of latitude and longitude. At the regional scale, geographic mapping is projected from spherical surface to a flat map surface. A common example of this is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system, where smaller areas are mapped within a two dimensional (2D) grid (Eastings and Northings) given in units of metres. The third dimension is elevation, however the only true reference point is the gravitational centre of the earth (note: the earth’s gravitational field is not a uniform ellipsoid, but is actually irregular based on varying thickness and densities of the earth’s crust and mantle materials = Geoid). As such, the most widely used vertical reference point is metres above sea level (m a.s.l.). Field surveys can be executed at two levels of precision. Field surveying may rely on geographical coordinates (including topographic elevations), detailed ground surveys of distances and elevations, or in some cases both. A number of tools and pieces of equipment can be used, as outlined below, to survey at the geographic and local scales, with increasing accuracy (and price!). Note that a “ * “ identifies the equipment which is available for GGR390 research projects, but others will also be discussed. Local Ground Surveys 1. Abney Level (Inclinometer) *

2. Brunton Compass * 3. Pocket Altimeter *

Measuring Tape *

Engineering Level (and stadia rods) *

Total Station (highest accuracy)

Geographic Mapping and Positioning

Topographic (UTM) Maps * 4. Global Positioning System (GPS) * 5. Trimble GPS (PDA with ArcPad GIS) *

Differential GPS (highest accuracy)

Topographic measurement focuses on surface configuration. For most fieldwork, adequate base map coverage exists in the form of aerial photography, planimetric maps (maps that provide the horizontal relationship between objects without relief), and contour maps. Once a base map is chosen, field checking is suggested to ensure the accuracy of these secondary data sources. Where coverage is not sufficient, for instance at the micro-level where additional detail is needed, researchers must develop a base map in the field before collecting data. Field surveys can be executed at two levels of precision. A basic survey provides general geographic coordinates of the study area boundaries, major objects and topographic features within the study area, and their orientations. It requires survey tape, a level and a compass. Once the boundaries have been defined, details can be added to the base map using an engineering level, a theodolite (including a total station), a plane table, or a differential global positioning system.

1. Abney Level (Inclinometer)

An Abney Level is a hand-held level used to measure the difference in elevation between two points. Specifically, it gives the angular distance in degrees from the horizon (0˚) to an object. It is composed of an eyepiece (A), a level (B), a mirror, a main scale (C) and a Vernier Scale (D). For the purposes of our fieldwork, the Abney Level will be used to determine the slope of local terrain and the height of trees. To determine the slope of local terrain (requires at least two people)

1. On level ground, determine the eye height of group member #1 on a stadia rod. Place the stadia rod at a distance from group member #1.

2. Using the eye-piece of the Abney Level, group member #1 identifies his/her target (eye-level on the stadia rod). While focusing on this target, he/she adjusts the level until the bubble is centered. In the absence of a stadia rod, a surveying partner of similar height (eye level) can be used – focus on their eyes.

3. Without moving the orientation of the level, group member #1 lowers the Abney Level to read the slope angle from the main scale (given in degrees) and the Vernier Scale (given in minutes). (Diagram by M. Stewart)

A

B (behind)

C

D

To determine the height of a nearby tree (requires only one person)

1. Select a target tree. From your location to the tree, extend a measuring tape to determine the distance.

2. Position yourself as low to the ground as possible and identify the top of the tree with your Abney Level eye-piece. While focusing on this target, adjust the level until the bubble is centered.

3. Without changing the orientation of the level, lower the Abney Level to read the slope angle from the main scale (given in degrees) and the Vernier Scale (given in minutes).

4. With basic trigonometry, calculate the height of the target tree using your values of distance and slope angle. (Diagram by M. Stewart)

Note that if your tree is on a slope, you will need to measure the slope angle first, and use that to determine the horizontal and vertical distances from the measuring point. Remember that you can only use the trigonometric functions with right angled triangles. (See section below on height measurement using vertical angles with the Brunton Compass)

How to read a Vernier Scale

1. The Main Scale provides a degree value. If you are upslope of your target,

your value will be found to the right of the Vernier Scale Zero and on the Main Scale. If you are downslope from your target, your value will be found to the left of the Vernier Scale Zero and on the Main Scale. The Main Scale marker to which the Vernier Scale Zero points, is your degree value. (Diagram by M. Stewart)

2. The Vernier Scale provides the minute value. The Main Scale marker (not necessarily Zero) that aligns most closely with a Vernier Scale marker tells us the minute value (read the minute value on the Vernier not the main scale). The value shown here is 5 degrees 30 minutes (5° 30').

The Vernier scale

zero is at 5 degrees

and "some

minutes"…

The 30 tick mark on the

Vernier scale is the one

closest to a tick mark on the

main scale, therefore the

angle is 5 degrees PLUS 30

minutes

2. The Brunton Compass

The Brunton Compass is used to determine the orientation (azimuth), or angles, between objects in a study area. (Diagram adapted from Brunton Compass Manual) Components Declination The north arrow on a compass points towards magnetic north (MN). Magnetic north changes over time as a result of the natural variation of the earth's magnetic field. When we use a compass, we need to correct for this variation in directional coordinates. We can correct for this variation in the magnetic field by using true north (TN), which points to the geographic north pole and remains constant. The angle between true north and magnetic north is the magnetic declination. It is location-specific and changes over time. Topographic maps provide 1) the magnetic declination for the year that the map was published and 2) the value of annual increase or decrease in the declination. By multiplying this annual increase or decrease by the number of years since the map was published, and then adding this to the declination in the publication year, you can calculate the declination for the present year. Having the most up-to-date map will ensure the least amount of error. For example, NTS Map 31 H/2 Cowansville (2000) provides the following information:

To calibrate a Cowansville compass reading in 2007, we would first need to determine declination (D) in 2000 (the difference between Magnetic North and True North) and then account for the change in declination from 2000 to 2007. The difference between Magnetic North and True North is found by a simple subtraction. D = G-C D = 17°44' - 1°36' = 16°08' Declination in 2000 was 16°08’. Between 2000 and 2007, there was an increase in declination of 0.7’ (or 42”) (calculated as 0.1' x 7 years). So for 2007, declination is 16°08’ + 0.7' = 16°15’. Therefore, any 2007 compass readings taken in Cowansville must deduct the declination value of 16°15’. Using this logic, calculate the declination for Sutton in 2011. Note: The line of 0° declination presently crosses through Wisconsin. If you are west of the 0° line-of-declination, the declination is east (or positive). If you are located east of the 0° line (e.g. Cowansville), the declination is west (or negative). For more information on declination, see the Geological survey of Canada's web page: http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/geomag/field/magdec_e.php To save time, you can adjust your compass to account for declination whenever it gives an azimuth reading. (Diagram from Brunton Compass Manual)

Magnetic

North

True North Grid North

C

G

G = 17°44'

C = 1°36'

D

Given on the Cowansville NTS map:

Measurements

are from 2000

and since then

there has been

an annual

increase of 0.1'.

D = Magnetic Declination

G = Grid declination

C = Convergence angle

According to this configuration, D = G-C

(Note that in different locations, the

configuration may be different).

Azimuth and Bearings Azimuth is measured clockwise in degrees, where 0° is north, 90° is east, 180° is south and 270° is west. For example, if a tree is located directly east of you, the azimuth of the tree to your position is 90°. Conversely, bearings are found with a quadrant instrument. To measure azimuth, unlock the needle and position the compass so that the base faces you with the needle locking adjustment on top. Rotate the needle locking adjustment lever clockwise. The azimuth is read from where the “N” end of the needle points at the graduated circle. If an object is located 45° above or 15° degrees below the observer, there is a Waist-Level measurement protocol. (Diagram from Brunton Compass Manual)

1. Hold the compass in your left hand and waist-high.

2. Open the cover towards your body.

3. Lift the large sight until it is perpendicular to your body.

4. Press your left forearm against your body, holding it

steady with your right hand.

5. Level the compass using the round bubble level.

6. In the mirror’s reflection, bisect the object using the center line.

7. Read the azimuth where the “N” end of the needle points at the graduated

circle.

If an object is located more than 45° above the observer, pull the mirror further back and orient the front sight so that it leans over the body case. Again, read the azimuth where the “N” end of the needle points at the graduated circle. If an object is located more than 15° below the observer, set the front sight so that it leans over the body case at a 45° angle and open the mirror backwards 45°. The large front sight should be oriented towards the operator. Look over the front sight and through the window opening in the cover near the hinge. The mirror and front sight should be adjusted so that the image of the front sight can be seen in the mirror, bisecting the center line of the mirror. In this position, the tip of the front sight and the mirror center line can be lined up with the object and the azimuth is read at the “S” end of the needle. (Diagram from Brunton Compass Manual)

Measuring Horizontal Angles Take azimuth readings of the two points between which the angle is sought. The horizontal angle is the difference between the two azimuth readings. Using the Compass as a “Prismatic” Compass In some instances, it will be necessary to hold the compass at eye-level (e.g. there is an obstruction in your field-of-view). (Diagram from Brunton Compass Manual)

1. Open the cover away from your body at 45°. Open

the small sight.

2. Lift the large sight until it is perpendicular to the

transit body, or leans slightly away from the base.

3. Hold the compass eye-level with the large sight

inclined towards you.

4. Option #1: Align the large sight and small sight on the top of the cover with

the object. Option #2: Sight the object through the lower portion of the large

sight and the window in the mirror.

5. Center the round bubble in the level using the reflection of the mirror.

6. Read the azimuth in the reflection of the mirror where the “S” end of the

needle points at the graduated circle.

Measuring Vertical Angles Turn the large front sight all the way back, turning its tip at right angles. The mirror is held at 45° to the left of the operator. The front sight is turned towards the operator with the body case held vertically. The sighted object is viewed through the peep-sight in the large front sight and the round opening in the mirror, while the fingers of the right hand orient the Vernier Level on the bottom of the compass case until the bubble in the long level (as seen reflected in the mirror) is centered. The cover is opened and the Vernier Scale is read against the vertical angle scale. Height Measurement Using Vertical Angles

(1) Sight inclination using the protocol given in “Azimuth and Bearings” for an object

sighted at more than 45° below the observer. (Image and calculations from

Brunton Compass Manual

(2) Apply the calculations, according to figure below

Measuring the Percent of Grade (Slope) The same protocol as “Measuring Vertical Angles” is followed. However, the index against the percent of grade scale is read. Angles of elevation are read on the scale to the right of “0” and angles of depression on the scale to the left of “0”. Height Measurement using Percent of Grade (Slope)

(1) Sight percent of grade using the level or sloping ground. (Calculations from

Brunton Compass Manual)

(2) Apply the calculations;

3. The Thommen and Sunto Pocket Altimeters

This Swiss-made pocket altimeter uses changes in barometric pressure, related to increased elevation above sea level, to measure altitude. The scale is graduated in 10 meter (20 feet) increments, with 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) per needle revolution. A small counter wheel records the number of these revolutions. Additionally, pressure scales give sea level pressure and absolute pressure readings up to 7,750 feet. The altimeter is temperature-compensated, adjusting for temperature changes where air pressure and elevation are constant. However, local fluctuations in atmospheric pressure can cause erroneous readings. By taking regular readings at points of known elevation, you can correct your altimeter by turning the serrated adjusting ring if necessary. Generally, measured differences of elevation greater than 500 meters (1,500 feet) over a lateral distance of 10 km (5 miles) will give questionable precision. To use the altimeter, one must adjust the momentary elevation and setting of the barometric pressure by turning the serrated adjusting ring.

This is done by holding the altimeter horizontally and tapping the protective glass gently with one finger. If the pointer skips slightly, the altimeter is functioning properly. Find the average of the original reading and this new (slightly different) reading.

Altitude Scale

Counter Wheel

Pointer

Barometer

Serrated adjusting ring

Sunto Altimeter

Slope Profiling

In general, measured slope lengths should fall between 2 and 20 meters. The difference in angle between adjacent measured sections should not exceed 2° for slopes <20°, and 4° on slopes >20°. Slope profiles should extend beyond drainage divides and talweg until a slope in the opposite direction of the site has been identified or a non-slope landform is reached. Features that can be recorded during slope profiling (actual data recorded depends on research questions): Profile Environment Identification (e.g. code number, date of survey and observer)

Location (e.g. coordinates from a map grid)

Geology

Vegetation and land use of area, slope and profile line

Regolith and soil characteristics of area, slope and profile line

Microrelief of area, slope and profile line

Landforms (e.g. relation of profiled slope to local landforms and slope)

River channel characteristics (e.g. width, depth, estimated

velocity and discharge of flow)

Profile Form Aspect at steepest point on profile

Lateral slope at profile crest

Lateral slope at profile base

Plan curvature at steepest point on profile

Each Measured Length

Gradient (measured backwards and forwards)

Ground surface distance

Vegetation and land use of area, slope and profile line

Evidence of processes and materials

Man-made features

Presence of disturbed ground

Conversions between units of angular measurement

To convert to degrees from: To convert from degrees to:

Radians Deg. = Rad. × 57.296 Radians Rad. = Deg./57.296

Altan Deg. = tan-1

0.001 Altan Alt. = 10 × log

(alog Alt/10) (1000 tan Deg.)

% Grade Deg. = tan-1

(%/100) % Grade % = 100 tan Deg.

gradient Deg. = tan-1

(1/Grd) gradient Grd = 1/tan Deg.

ft per mi Deg. = tan-1(ft/mi/5280) ft per mi ft/mi = 5280 tan Deg.

m per km Deg. = tan-1(m/km/1000) m per km m/km = 1000 tan Deg.

Common Methods of Slope Profiling The Blong method (1972) pairs a vertically upright rod with a bar used as a level to record slope for short measured lengths. The angle Θ is given in the following equation; tan Θ = vertical height ÷ horizontal length The Gardiner and Dackombe method (1977) measures the angle from the operator’s eye to points that are marked on the ground along a transect.

Θ

True slope angles for each measured length are provided by a nomogram. A straight-edge is positioned between the origin and the point of intersection between the measured angle and length. Where this line intersects the operator eye level, the nomogram angle is read from the following graph. For the true slope angle, the nomogram angle is added to a measured inclination, or subtracted from a measured declination. Where a slope is inaccessible, two methods can be used to determine gradient and height. The Churchill method (1979) requires that the start and end of the slope segment are marked by features that can be identified by a range finder. A theolodite or Abney level gives the two angles, and the two distances are given by a range finder. Slope transect length (Ds)

and angle (γ) are;

The second method involves angular measurements which are taken with a theolodite or Abney level from two identifiable points. The distance between the two points can be measured with a tape or chain. The height, above which the operator stands, and the distance between the closest observation to the horizontal projection of the features are provided by the equations below:

4. Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS units are radio receivers able to access location information via signals from a network of satellites orbiting the Earth. This information is used to precisely identify location (in lat, long, UTM, m above sea level etc). Handheld units can be used in the field to record locations of sampling sites (as waypoints). GPS can also be used for navigation as they allow the user to determine compass direction and bearing (note that many GPS units require the user to be moving for the compass feature to work). The GOTO feature allows the user to navigate to a pre-set waypoint. For GPS to work, a clear signal is required therefore under dense forest cover, in buildings or in cities, some units cannot record location. Use the page button to navigate through waypointing and navigation options on the GPS unit. Screen Displays (Images taken from Garmin GPS Manual)

Map Page with Panning Arrow (only available on advanced units)

Equipped with a Zoom In and Zoom Out feature

Map Scale is identified in the lower left corner of the display

A panning arrow allows easy map scrolling

Navigation Page

A compass with a bearing arrow

Time, distance, speed and heading information can be

displayed

Heading Display and North Reference

Enables you to select direction display (Cardinal Letters, Degrees or Mils) and a North Reference (Auto, True, Magnetic, Grid or User).

Position Format and Map Datum

The “Set-up” menu provides a “Units” page or “Location” tab in which you can chose the position format and map datum to correspond with the map you are using. Latitude and Longitude can be given in degrees/minutes/seconds, decimal degrees, or degrees and decimal minutes. The map datum must match the type given on the map margin.

The GPS Compass Most GPS units contain a compass which gives directional information when the operator is moving. It operates the same as a magnetic compass except that you can chose the North Reference (true vs. magnetic north). The compass display can be given in Cardinal Letters, Degrees or Mils.

Navigation Using GPS For the purposes of GGR 390, the GPS will be used to navigate trails and to store information about the locations of study sites. Navigation is made easy by inputting a desired destination in the GPS “Go To” and taking care to minimize course deviation. The GPS can store the location (including elevation) of landscape features as waypoints.

Section F

Useful Maps, Charts and Figures

Available in the common room

National Topographic Series map for the Sutton area (1:50,000 with 10 m contour interval). Map Sheet: 31 H/2 “Cowansville”. Québec Topo20 maps for the Sutton area (1:20,000 with 10 m contour interval). Map Sheets: 31H02-200-0102 “Sutton”; 31H01-200-0101 “Lac Memphrémagog” Digital data files are available for these map sheets for import into ArcGIS. These data can be used to prepare site maps for your final presentations and reports. See Sarah Finkelstein in PGB 207A during term time to pick up the data.

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