Goals and Techniques of Reading Skills Thesis Preparation

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Collected fromhttp://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/stratread.htm andthanks to the site owners.

Teaching Reading

Goals and Techniques for TeachingReading

Instructors want to produce students who, even if they do not have complete control of

the grammar or an extensive lexicon, can fend for themselves in communicationsituations. In the case of reading, this means producing students who can use readingstrategies to maximize their comprehension of text, identify relevant and non-relevantinformation, and tolerate less than word-by-word comprehension.

Focus: The Reading Process

To accomplish this goal, instructors focus on the process of reading rather than on its product.

They develop students' awareness of the reading process and reading strategies by

asking students to think and talk about how they read in their native language. They allow students to practice the full repertoire of reading strategies by using

authentic reading tasks. They encourage students to read to learn (and have anauthentic purpose for reading) by giving students some choice of reading material.

When working with reading tasks in class, they show students the strategies thatwill work best for the reading purpose and the type of text. They explain how andwhy students should use the strategies.

They have students practice reading strategies in class and ask them to practiceoutside of class in their reading assignments. They encourage students to beconscious of what they're doing while they complete reading assignments.

They encourage students to evaluate their comprehension and self-report their use

of strategies. They build comprehension checks into in-class and out-of-classreading assignments, and periodically review how and when to use particular strategies.

They encourage the development of reading skills and the use of readingstrategies by using the target language to convey instructions and course-relatedinformation in written form: office hours, homework assignments, test content.
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They do not assume that students will transfer strategy use from one task toanother. They explicitly mention how a particular strategy can be used in adifferent type of reading task or with another skill.

By raising students' awareness of reading as a skill that requires active engagement, and

by explicitly teaching reading strategies, instructors help their students develop both theability and the confidence to handle communication situations they may encounter beyond the classroom. In this way they give their students the foundation for communicative competence in the new language.

Integrating Reading Strategies

Instruction in reading strategies is not an add-on, but rather an integral part of the use of reading activities in the language classroom. Instructors can help their students becomeeffective readers by teaching them how to use strategies before, during, and after reading.

Before reading: Plan for the reading task Set a purpose or decide in advance what to read for Decide if more linguistic or background knowledge is needed Determine whether to enter the text from the top down (attend to the overall

meaning) or from the bottom up (focus on the words and phrases)

During and after reading: Monitor comprehension

Verify predictions and check for inaccurate guesses Decide what is and is not important to understand

Reread to check comprehension Ask for help

After reading: Evaluate comprehension and strategy use

Evaluate comprehension in a particular task or area Evaluate overall progress in reading and in particular types of reading tasks Decide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose and for the task Modify strategies if necessary

Using Authentic Materials and Approaches

For students to develop communicative competence in reading, classroom and homework reading activities must resemble (or be) real-life reading tasks that involve meaningfulcommunication. They must therefore be authentic in three ways.

1. The reading material must be authentic: It must be the kind of material that studentswill need and want to be able to read when traveling, studying abroad, or using thelanguage in other contexts outside the classroom.


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When selecting texts for student assignments, remember that the difficulty of a readingtext is less a function of the language, and more a function of the conceptual difficultyand the task(s) that students are expected to complete. Simplifying a text by changing thelanguage often removes natural redundancy and makes the organization somewhatdifficult for students to predict. This actually makes a text more difficult to read than if

the original were used.

Rather than simplifying a text by changing its language, make it more approachable byeliciting students' existing knowledge in pre-reading discussion, reviewing newvocabulary before reading, and asking students to perform tasks that are within their competence, such as skimming to get the main idea or scanning for specific information,

before they begin intensive reading.

2. The reading purpose must be authentic: Students must be reading for reasons that makesense and have relevance to them. "Because the teacher assigned it" is not an authenticreason for reading a text.

To identify relevant reading purposes, ask students how they plan to use the languagethey are learning and what topics they are interested in reading and learning about. Givethem opportunities to choose their reading assignments, and encourage them to use thelibrary, the Internet, and foreign language newsstands and bookstores to find other thingsthey would like to read.

3. The reading approach must be authentic: Students should read the text in a way thatmatches the reading purpose, the type of text, and the way people normally read. Thismeans that reading aloud will take place only in situations where it would take placeoutside the classroom, such as reading for pleasure. The majority of students' reading

should be done silently.

Reading Aloud in the Classroom

Students do not learn to read by reading aloud. A person who reads aloud andcomprehends the meaning of the text is coordinating word recognition withcomprehension and speaking and pronunciation ability in highly complex ways. Studentswhose language skills are limited are not able to process at this level, and end up havingto drop one or more of the elements. Usually the dropped element is comprehension, andreading aloud becomes word calling: simply pronouncing a series of words withoutregard for the meaning they carry individually and together. Word calling is not

productive for the student who is doing it, and it is boring for other students to listen to. There are two ways to use reading aloud productively in the language classroom.

Read aloud to your students as they follow along silently. You have the ability touse inflection and tone to help them hear what the text is saying. Following alongas you read will help students move from word-by-word reading to reading in

phrases and thought units, as they do in their first language.


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Use the "read and look up" technique. With this technique, a student reads a phrase or sentence silently as many times as necessary, then looks up (away fromthe text) and tells you what the phrase or sentence says. This encourages studentsto read for ideas, rather than for word recognition

Teaching Reading

Developing Reading ActivitiesDeveloping reading activities involves more than identifying a text that is "at the rightlevel," writing a set of comprehension questions for students to answer after reading,handing out the assignment and sending students away to do it. A fully-developedreading activity supports students as readers through prereading, while-reading, and post-reading activities.

As you design reading tasks, keep in mind that complete recall of all the information in atext is an unrealistic expectation even for native speakers. Reading activities that aremeant to increase communicative competence should be success oriented and build upstudents' confidence in their reading ability.

Construct the reading activity around a purpose that has significance forthe students

Make sure students understand what the purpose for reading is: to get the main idea,obtain specific information, understand most or all of the message, enjoy a story, or decide whether or not to read more. Recognizing the purpose for reading will helpstudents select appropriate reading strategies.

Define the activity's instructional goal and the appropriate type of response

In addition to the main purpose for reading, an activity can also have one or moreinstructional purposes, such as practicing or reviewing specific grammaticalconstructions, introducing new vocabulary, or familiarizing students with the typicalstructure of a certain type of text.

Check the level of difficulty of the textThe factors listed below can help you judge the relative ease or difficulty of a reading textfor a particular purpose and a particular group of students.

How is the information organized? Does the story line, narrative, or instructionconform to familiar expectations? Texts in which the events are presented innatural chronological order, which have an informative title, and which present


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the information following an obvious organization (main ideas first, details andexamples second) are easier to follow.

How familiar are the students with the topic? Remember that misapplication of background knowledge due to cultural differences can create major comprehension difficulties.

Does the text contain redundancy? At the lower levels of proficiency, listenersmay find short, simple messages easier to process, but students with higher proficiency benefit from the natural redundancy of authentic language.

Does the text offer visual support to aid in reading comprehension? Visual aidssuch as photographs, maps, and diagrams help students preview the content of thetext, guess the meanings of unknown words, and check comprehension whilereading.

Remember that the level of difficulty of a text is not the same as the level of difficulty of a reading task. Students who lack the vocabulary to identify all of the items on a menucan still determine whether the restaurant serves steak and whether they can afford to

order one.

Use pre-reading activities to prepare students for reading

The activities you use during pre-reading may serve as preparation in several ways.During pre-reading you may:

Assess students' background knowledge of the topic and linguistic content of thetext

Give students the background knowledge necessary for comprehension of thetext, or activate the existing knowledge that the students possess

Clarify any cultural information which may be necessary to comprehend the passage Make students aware of the type of text they will be reading and the purpose(s)

for reading Provide opportunities for group or collaborative work and for class discussion

activities

Sample pre-reading activities:

Using the title, subtitles, and divisions within the text to predict content andorganization or sequence of information

Looking at pictures, maps, diagrams, or graphs and their captions Talking about the author's background, writing style, and usual topics Skimming to find the theme or main idea and eliciting related prior knowledge Reviewing vocabulary or grammatical structures Reading over the comprehension questions to focus attention on finding that

information while reading Constructing semantic webs (a graphic arrangement of concepts or words

showing how they are related)


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Doing guided practice with guessing meaning from context or checkingcomprehension while reading

Pre-reading activities are most important at lower levels of language proficiency and atearlier stages of reading instruction. As students become more proficient at using reading

strategies, you will be able to reduce the amount of guided pre-reading and allow studentsto do these activities themselves.

Match while-reading activities to the purpose for reading

In while-reading activities, students check their comprehension as they read. The purposefor reading determines the appropriate type and level of comprehension.

When reading for specific information, students need to ask themselves, have Iobtained the information I was looking for?

When reading for pleasure, students need to ask themselves, Do I understand the

story line/sequence of ideas well enough to enjoy reading this? When reading for thorough understanding (intensive reading), students need to

ask themselves, Do I understand each main idea and how the author supports it?Does what I'm reading agree with my predictions, and, if not, how does it differ?To check comprehension in this situation, students may

o Stop at the end of each section to review and check their predictions,restate the main idea and summarize the section

o Use the comprehension questions as guides to the text, stopping to answer them as they read

Teaching Reading

Using Textbook Reading ActivitiesMany language textbooks emphasize product (answers to comprehension questions) over

process (using reading skills and strategies to understand the text), providing little or nocontextual information about the reading selections or their authors, and few if any pre-reading activities. Newer textbooks may provide pre-reading activities and readingstrategy guidance, but their one-size-fits-all approach may or may not be appropriate for your students.

You can use the guidelines for developing reading activities given here as starting pointsfor evaluating and adapting textbook reading activities. Use existing, or add your own,

pre-reading activities and reading strategy practice as appropriate for your students. Don'tmake students do exercises simply because they are in the book; this destroys motivation.

Another problem with textbook reading selections is that they have been adapted to a predetermined reading level through adjustment of vocabulary, grammar, and sentencelength. This makes them more immediately approachable, but it also means that they are


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less authentic and do not encourage students to apply the reading strategies they will needto use outside of class. When this is the case, use the textbook reading selection as astarting point to introduce a writer or topic, and then give students choices of morechallenging authentic texts to read as a followup.

Teaching Reading

Assessing Reading ProficiencyReading ability is very difficult to assess accurately. In the communicative competencemodel, a student's reading level is the level at which that student is able to use reading toaccomplish communication goals. This means that assessment of reading ability needs to

be correlated with purposes for reading.

Reading Aloud

A student's performance when reading aloud is not a reliable indicator of that student'sreading ability. A student who is perfectly capable of understanding a given text whenreading it silently may stumble when asked to combine comprehension with wordrecognition and speaking ability in the way that reading aloud requires.

In addition, reading aloud is a task that students will rarely, if ever, need to do outside of the classroom. As a method of assessment, therefore, it is not authentic: It does not test astudent's ability to use reading to accomplish a purpose or goal.

However, reading aloud can help a teacher assess whether a student is "seeing" wordendings and other grammatical features when reading. To use reading aloud for this

purpose, adopt the "read and look up" approach: Ask the student to read a sentencesilently one or more times, until comfortable with the content, then look up and tell youwhat it says. This procedure allows the student to process the text, and lets you see theresults of that processing and know what elements, if any, the student is missing.

Comprehension Questions

Instructors often use comprehension questions to test whether students have understoodwhat they have read. In order to test comprehension appropriately, these questions needto be coordinated with the purpose for reading. If the purpose is to find specificinformation, comprehension questions should focus on that information. If the purpose isto understand an opinion and the arguments that support it, comprehension questionsshould ask about those points.

In everyday reading situations, readers have a purpose for reading before they start. Thatis, they know what comprehension questions they are going to need to answer before they

begin reading. To make reading assessment in the language classroom more like reading


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outside of the classroom, therefore, allow students to review the comprehension questions before they begin to read the test passage.

Finally, when the purpose for reading is enjoyment, comprehension questions are besidethe point. As a more authentic form of assessment, have students talk or write about why

they found the text enjoyable and interesting (or not).

Authentic Assessment

In order to provide authentic assessment of students' reading proficiency, a post-listeningactivity must reflect the real-life uses to which students might put information they havegained through reading.

It must have a purpose other than assessment It must require students to demonstrate their level of reading comprehension by

completing some task

To develop authentic assessment activities, consider the type of response that reading a particular selection would elicit in a non-classroom situation. For example, after reading aweather report, one might decide what to wear the next day; after reading a set of instructions, one might repeat them to someone else; after reading a short story, onemight discuss the story line with friends.

Use this response type as a base for selecting appropriate post-reading tasks. You canthen develop a checklist or rubric that will allow you to evaluate each student'scomprehension of specific parts of the text. See Assessing Learning for more onchecklists and rubrics.

ResourcesWe update this page regularly. If you know of a resource that should be added, pleasecontact us .

What Language Teaching Is Teaching Goals and Methods Planning a Lesson Motivating Learners

Assessing Learning Teaching Grammar Teaching Listening Teaching Speaking Teaching Reading Teaching Writing Teaching Culture
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Vann, R. J., & Abraham, R. G. (1990). Strategies of unsuccessful language learners.TESOL Quarterly , 24, 177-198.


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Wenden, A. (1987). How to be a successful learner: Insights and prescriptions from L2learners. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning .Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Wenden, A., & Rubin, J. (Eds.). (1987). Learner strategies in language learning .

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Pons, M. M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. American Educational

Research Journal, 23(3), 614-628.

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Resources: Assessing Learning

American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. (1986). ACTFL ProficiencyGuidelines . Hastings-on-Hudson, NY: Author.

Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing . London:Oxford.

Bailey, K., Freeman, D., & Curtis, A. (2001). Goals-based evaluation procedures: Howstudents perceive what teachers intend. TESOL Journal, 10 (4), 5-9.

Baron, J. B. (1991). SEA Usage of Alternative Assessment: The Connecticut Experience.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 349 816).

Cohen, A. D. (1994). Assessing language ability in the classroom (2nd ed.). Boston, MA:Heinle & Heinle.

Evansville-Vanderburgh School Corp. (1993). Portfolio assessment in foreign language, pilot project . (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 368 197).

Fraser, Catherine. (1995). Portfolio assessment in the foreign language classroom: Whatworks. In G. K. Crouse (Ed.), Report of Central States Conference on the Teaching of

Foreign Languages: Broadening the frontiers of foreign language education (pp. 98-106). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co.

Hancock, C. R. (1994, July). Alternative assessment and second language study: What and why? ERIC Digest. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 376 695).

Hancock, C. R. (Ed.). (1994). Teaching, testing, and assessing: Making the connection . Northeast Conference Reports. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co.

Hart, D. (1994). Authentic assessment: A handbook for educators. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley.


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Shohamy, E. (1985). A practical handbook in language testing for the second languageteacher . Israel: Shoshana Goldberg.

Valette, R. M. (1977). Modern language testing . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Wiggins, G. (1989). A true test: Toward more authentic and equitable assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, May 1989, 703-704.

Wiggins, G. (1994). Toward more authentic assessment of language performance. In C.R. Hancock (Ed.), Teaching, testing, and assessment: Making the connection (pp. 69-85).

Northeast Conference Reports. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.

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Resources: Teaching Grammar

Bygate, M., Tonkyn, A., & Williams, E. (Eds.). (1994). Grammar and the languageteacher. Hemel Hempstead, England: Prentice Hall.

Byrd, P. (1994). Writing grammar textbooks: Theory and practice. System, 22 (2), 245-255.

Byrd, P. (1995). Issues in the writing and publication of grammar textbooks. In P. Byrd(Ed.), Material writer's guide (pp. 45-63). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Celce-Murcia, M., & Hilles, S. (1988). Techniques and resources in teaching grammar.Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cook, V. (1994). Universal grammar and the learning and teaching of second languages.In T. Odlin (Ed.), Perspectives on pedagogical grammar (pp. 25-48). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Hubbard, P. L. (1994). Non-transformational theories of grammar: Implications for language teaching. In T. Odlin (Ed.), Perspectives on pedagogical grammar (pp. 25-48).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning . London:Continuum.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997). Grammar and its teaching: Challenging the myths (ERICDigest). Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on languages and Linguistics, Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved May 14, 2003, fromhttp://www.cal.org/ericcll/digest/larsen01.html
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Larsen-Freeman, D. (2001a). Teaching grammar. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language. (3rd ed.) (pp. 251-266). Boston: Heinle &Heinle.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2001b). Teaching language: From grammar to grammaring.

Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Lee, J. F., & VanPatten, B. (1995). Making communicative language teaching happen. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Omaggio Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context (3 rd ed.). Boston: Heinle &Heinle.

Rutherford, W. (1987). Second language grammar: Learning and teaching. London:Longman.

Rutherford, W., & Sharwood Smith, M. (1988). Grammar and second languageteaching: A book of readings. New York: Newbury House.

Ur, P. (1988). Grammar practice activities: A practical guide for teachers. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Weaver, C. (1996). Teaching grammar in context. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

[TOP ]

Resources: Teaching Listening

Byrnes, H. (1984). The role of listening comprehension: A theoretical base. Foreign Language Annals , 17 , 317-329.

Coakley, C.G., & Wolvin, A.D. (1986). Listening in the native language. In B. H. Wing(Ed.), Listening, reading, writing: Analysis and application (pp. 11-42). Middlebury, VT:

Northeast Conference.

Gass, S. M. (1988). Integrating research areas: A framework for second language studies. Applied Linguistics, 9 , 198-217.

Lund, R.J. (1990). A taxonomy for teaching second language listening. Foreign Language Annals, 23 , 105-115.

Mendelsohn, D.J., & Rubin, J. (1995). A guide for the teaching of second languagelistening . San Diego, CA: Dominie Press.


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Morley, J. (1991). Listening comprehension in second/foreign language instruction. In M.Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (pp. 81-106).Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Nunan, D., & Miller, L. (Eds.). (1995). New ways in teaching listening . Alexandria, VA:

TESOL.

Omaggio-Hadley, A. (1993). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). Boston, MA:Heinle & Heinle.

Peterson, P.W. (1991). A synthesis of methods for interactive listening. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (pp. 106-122). Boston,MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Richards, J.C. (1983). Listening comprehension: Approach, design, procedure. TESOLQuarterly, 17 , 219-240.

Rixon, S. (1981). The design of materials to foster particular linguistic skills. Theteaching of listening comprehension. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED258 465).

Rost, M. (1990). Listening in language learning. London: Longman.

Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies: Theoretical assumptions, research history andtypology. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp.15-30). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Rubin, J. (1995). The contribution of video to the development of competence inlistening. In D.J. Mendelsohn & J. Rubin (Eds.), A guide for the teaching of second language listening (pp. 151-165). San Diego, CA: Dominie Press.

Underwood, M. (1989). Teaching listening . London: Longman.

[TOP ]

Resources: Teaching Speaking

Brown, and G. Yule. (1983). Teaching the spoken language. New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Schmidt, R. W., & Frota, S. N. (1986). Developing basic conversational ability in asecond language: A case study of an adult learner of Portuguese. In R. R. Day (Ed.),Talking to learn (pp. 237-326). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

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Resources: Teaching Reading

Ackersold, J. A., & Field, M. L. (1997). From reader to reading teacher: Issues and strategies for second language classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. Boston,MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Barnett, M. A. (1989). More than meets the eye: Foreign language learner reading theory and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

Bernhardt, E. (1991). Reading development in a second language . Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Carrell, P. L. (1989). Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. Modern Language Journal, 73, 121-133.

Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Devine, J. (1993). The role of metacognition in second language reading and writing. InJ. G. Carson & I. Leki (Eds.), Reading in the composition classroom (pp. 105-127) .Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Eskey, D. (2002). Reading and the teaching of L2 reading. TESOL Journal, 11 (1), 5-9.

Galloway, V. (1992). Toward a cultural reading of authentic texts. In H. Byrnes (Ed.), Languages for a multicultural world in transition (pp. 87-121). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co.

Glazer, S. M. (1992). Reading comprehension: Self-monitoring strategies to developindependent readers. New York: Scholastic Professional Books.

Grellet, F. (1981). Developing reading skills: A practical guide to reading comprehension exercises . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hosenfeld, C., Arnold, V., Kirchofer, J., Laciura, J., & Wilson, L. Second languagereading: A curricular sequence for teaching reading strategies. Foreign Language Annals,14, 415-422.

Kramsch, C. (1985). Literary texts in the classroom: A discourse model. The Modern Language Journal, 69(4), 356-366.

Phillips, J. K. (1985). Proficiency-based instruction in reading: A teacher educationmodule. Introductory Packet; Applications Packet; Sample Materials. Material producedin conjunction with a grant from the International Research and Studies Program, U.S.Department of Education.


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Silberstein, S. (1994). Techniques and resources in teaching reading. New York: OxfordUniversity Press.

Swaffar, J., Arens, K., & Byrnes, H. (1991). Reading for meaning: An integrated approach to language learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Urquhart, A. H., & Weir, C. (1998). Reading in a second language: Process, product,and practice. New York: Longman.

[TOP ]

Resources: Teaching Writing

Dvorak, T. (1986). Writing in the foreign language. In B. Wing (Ed.), Listening, reading,writing: Analysis and application (pp. 145-167). Northeast Conference Reports.Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference.

Glazer, S. M., & Brown, C. S. (1993). Portfolios and beyond: Collaborative assessment in reading and writing . Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers.

Graves, D. H. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work . Portsmouth, NH:Heinemann.

Hewins, C. (1986). Writing in a foreign language: Motivation and the process approach. Foreign Language Annals, 19(3), 219-223.

Lloyd-Jones, R. (1977). Primary trait scoring. In C. R. Cooper & L. Odell (Eds.), Evaluating writing (pp. 33-66) . Urbana, IL: National Council on the Teaching of English.

Terry, R. M. (1989). Teaching and evaluating writing as a communicative skill. Foreign Language Annals, 22(1), 43-54.

Tierney, R. J., Carter, M. A., & Desai, L. E. (1991). Portfolio assessment in the reading-writing classroom . Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers.

White, E. (1985). Teaching and assessing writing . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

[TOP ]

Resources: Teaching Culture

Allen, W. W. (1985). Toward cultural proficiency. In Alice C. Omaggio (Ed.), Proficiency, curriculum, articulation: The ties that bind . Reports of the NortheastConference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (pp. 137-166). Middlebury, VT:

Northeast Conference.
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Allen, W., & Fouletier-Smith, N. (1995). Parallles: Communication et culture.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

American Association of Teachers of German. (1997). Focus on student standards. AATG Newsletter , 32(2): 9-15.

Birckbichler, D. W. (1995). Ohio's Collaborative Articulation and Assessment Project. ADFL Bulletin 26(3): 44-45.

Brooks, N. (1960). Language and language learning: Theory and practice . New York:Harcourt, Brace and World.

Brooks, N. (1983). Teaching culture in the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 16.

Byram, M. (1989). Cultural studies in foreign language education . Philadelphia, PA:

Multilingual Matters.

Clark, M. (1976). Second language acquisition as a clash of consciousness. Language Learning 26: 377-389.

Crawford-Lange, L. M., & Lange, D. L. (1984). Doing the unthinkable in the secondlanguage classroom: A process for the integration of language and culture. In T. V. Higgs(Ed.), Teaching for proficiency: The organizing principle . ACTFL Foreign LanguageEducation Series (pp. 139-177). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.

Damen, L. (1987). Culture learning: The fifth dimension in the language classroom .

Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Fearing, F. (1954). An examination of the conceptions of Benjamin Whorf in the light of theories of perception and cognition. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), Language and culture.Conference on the interrelations of language and other aspects of culture (pp. 47-81).Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T., & Triandis, H. C. (1971). The culture assimilator: Anapproach to cross-cultural training. Journal of Applied Psychology 55: 95-102.

Foreign Languages: Ohio's Model Competency-Based Program . (1996). Columbus, OH:

The Ohio Department of Education.Furnham, A., & Bochner, S. (1989). Culture shock . New York: Routledge.

Galloway, V. (1992). Toward a cultural reading of authentic texts. In H. Byrnes (Ed.), Languages for a multicultural world in transition . Northeast Conference Reports on theTeaching of Foreign Languages (pp. 87-121). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.


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Giles, H., Bourhis, R. Y., & Taylor, D. M. (1977). Toward a theory of language in ethnicgroup relations. In H. Giles (Ed.), Language, ethnicity, and inter-group relations (pp.307-348). New York: Academic Press.

Goode, T., Sockalingam, S., Bronheim, S., Brown, M., and Jones, W. (2000). A planner's

guide: Infusing principles, content and themes related to cultural and linguisticcompetence into meetings and conferences. Washington, DC: National Center for Cultural Competence. Retrieved October 9, 2006, fromhttp://www11.georgetown.edu/research/gucchd/nccc/resources/publicationstitle.html

Grandin, J. M., Einbeck, K., & von Reinhart, W. (1992). The changing goals of languageinstruction. In H. Byrnes (Ed.), Languages for a multicultural world in transition .Reports of the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (pp. 123-163). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.

Hendon, U. S. (1980). Introducing culture in the high school foreign language class.

Foreign Language Annals, 13 .

Kramsch, C. (1993). Redrawing the boundaries of foreign language study. In M. Krueger & F. Ryan (Eds.), Language and content: Discipline- and content-based approaches tolanguage study . Heath Series on Foreign Language Acquisition Research and Instruction(pp. 203-217). Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.

Kramsch, C. (1994). Context and culture in language teaching . London: OxfordUniversity Press.

Kramsch, C. (1995). Embracing conflict versus achieving consensus in foreign language

education. ADFL Bulletin, 26(3): 6-12.Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook II: Affective domain . NewYork: David McKay.

Krueger, M., & Ryan, F. (Eds.). (1993). Language and content: Discipline- and content-based approaches to language study . Heath Series on Foreign Language AcquisitionResearch and Instruction. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.

Lafayette, R. C. (Ed.) (1996). National standards: A catalyst for reform . The ACTFL

Foreign Language Education Series. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.Lambert, W. E. (1975). Culture and language as factors in learning and education. In A.Wolfgang (Ed.), Education of immigrant students (pp. 55-83). Toronto: Ontario Institutefor Studies in Education.

Lange, D. L. (1997). Models of articulation: Struggles and successes. ADFL Bulletin 28:31-42.


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The Massachusetts World Languages Framework: Making Connections Through World Languages . (1995). Malden, MA: The Massachusetts Department of Education.

Meade, B., & Morain, G. (1973). The culture cluster. Foreign Language Annals 6: 331-338.

Metcalf, M. F. (1995). Articulating the teaching of foreign languages: The MinnesotaProject. ADFL Bulletin 26(3): 52-54.

Miller, J. D., & Bishop, R. H. (1979). USA-Mexico culture capsules . Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Miller, J. D., Drayton, J., & Lyon, T. (1979). USA-Hispanic South American culturecapsules . Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Miller, J. D., & Loiseau, M. (1974). USA-France culture capsules . Rowley, MA:

Newbury House.

Moorjani, A., & Field, T. T. (1988). Semiotic and sociolinguistic paths to understandingculture. In A. J. Singerman (Ed.), Toward a new integration of language and culture .Reports of the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (pp. 25-45).Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference.

Moran, P. R. (2001). Teaching culture: Perspectives in practice. Boston: Heinle &Heinle.

National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. (1999). Standards for foreign

language learning in the 21st century . Yonkers, NY: The National Standards Project.

Nostrand, H. L. (1967). Background data for the teaching of French . Seattle: Universityof Washington.

Nostrand, H. L. (1978). The "emergent model" applied to contemporary France.Contemporary French Civilization 2(2): 277-294.

Oberg, K. (1960). Culture shock: Adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical Anthropology 7: 188-202.

Omaggio Hadley, A. (1993). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). Boston: Heinle &Heinle.

Peck, D. (n.d.). Teaching culture: Beyond language. Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute.Retrieved September 6, 2006, fromhttp://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/3/84.03.06.x.html


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Peterson, E., & Coltrane, B. (2003). Culture in second language teaching. CAL Digest.Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved September 6, 2006, fromhttp://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0309peterson.html

Preston, D. R. (1989). Sociolinguistics and second language acquisition . London: Basil

Blackwell.

Pride, J. B. (1979). Sociolinguistic aspects of language learning and teaching . London:Oxford University Press.

Sapir, E. (1964). Culture, language, and personality: Selected essays. Edited by David G.Mandelbaum. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Schumann, J. H. (1978). The acculturation model for second language acquisition. In R.C. Gingras (Ed.), Second language acquisition and second language teaching (pp. 27-50). Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Seelye, H. N. (1994). Teaching culture: Strategies for intercultural communication (3rded.). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.

Singerman, A. J. (Ed.). (1988). Toward a new integration of language and culture.Reports of the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Middlebury,VT: The Northeast Conference.

Singerman, A. J. (Ed.). (1996). Acquiring cross-cultural competence: Four stages for students of French . American Association of Teachers of French National Commissionon Cultural Competence. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.

Steele, R., & Suozzo, A. (1994). Teaching French culture: Theory and practice .Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.

Stern, H. H. (1983). Toward a multidimensional foreign language curriculum. In R. G.Mead, Jr. (Ed.), Foreign languages: Key links in the chain of learning . Reports of the

Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Middlebury, VT: NortheastConference.

Taylor, H. D., & Sorenson, J. L. (1961). Culture capsules. Modern Language Journal 45:350-354.

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Terrell, T. D., Tschirner, E., Nikolai, B., & Genzmer, H. (1992). Kontakte: Acommunicative approach (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.


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Triandis, H., Vassiliou, V., & Vassiliou, G. (Eds.). (1972). The analysis of subjectiveculture . New York: John Wiley.

van Lier, Leo. (1988). The classroom and the language learner . London: Longman.

Teaching Reading

Strategies for Developing Reading SkillsUsing Reading Strategies

Language instructors are often frustrated by the fact that students do not automaticallytransfer the strategies they use when reading in their native language to reading in alanguage they are learning. Instead, they seem to think reading means starting at the

beginning and going word by word, stopping to look up every unknown vocabulary item,until they reach the end. When they do this, students are relying exclusively on their linguistic knowledge, a bottom-up strategy. One of the most important functions of thelanguage instructor, then, is to help students move past this idea and use top-downstrategies as they do in their native language.

Effective language instructors show students how they can adjust their reading behavior to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and reading purposes. They helpstudents develop a set of reading strategies and match appropriate strategies to eachreading situation.

Strategies that can help students read more quickly and effectively include

Previewing: reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a senseof the structure and content of a reading selection

Predicting: using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions aboutcontent and vocabulary and check comprehension; using knowledge of the texttype and purpose to make predictions about discourse structure; using knowledgeabout the author to make predictions about writing style, vocabulary, and content

Skimming and scanning: using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea,identify text structure, confirm or question predictions

Guessing from context: using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in thetext as clues to the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look themup

Paraphrasing: stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension byrestating the information and ideas in the text

Instructors can help students learn when and how to use reading strategies in severalways.


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By modeling the strategies aloud, talking through the processes of previewing, predicting, skimming and scanning, and paraphrasing. This shows students howthe strategies work and how much they can know about a text before they begin toread word by word.

By allowing time in class for group and individual previewing and predicting

activities as preparation for in-class or out-of-class reading. Allocating class timeto these activities indicates their importance and value. By using cloze (fill in the blank) exercises to review vocabulary items. This helps

students learn to guess meaning from context. By encouraging students to talk about what strategies they think will help them

approach a reading assignment, and then talking after reading about whatstrategies they actually used. This helps students develop flexibility in their choiceof strategies.

When language learners use reading strategies, they find that they can control the readingexperience, and they gain confidence in their ability to read the language.

Reading to Learn

Reading is an essential part of language instruction at every level because it supportslearning in multiple ways.

Reading to learn the language: Reading material is language input. By givingstudents a variety of materials to read, instructors provide multiple opportunitiesfor students to absorb vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and discoursestructure as they occur in authentic contexts. Students thus gain a more complete

picture of the ways in which the elements of the language work together to

convey meaning. Reading for content information: Students' purpose for reading in their nativelanguage is often to obtain information about a subject they are studying, and this

purpose can be useful in the language learning classroom as well. Reading for content information in the language classroom gives students both authenticreading material and an authentic purpose for reading.

Reading for cultural knowledge and awareness: Reading everyday materials thatare designed for native speakers can give students insight into the lifestyles andworldviews of the people whose language they are studying. When students haveaccess to newspapers, magazines, and Web sites, they are exposed to culture in allits variety, and monolithic cultural stereotypes begin to break down.

When reading to learn, students need to follow four basic steps:

1. Figure out the purpose for reading. Activate background knowledge of the topicin order to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate reading strategies.

2. Attend to the parts of the text that are relevant to the identified purpose and ignorethe rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the inputand reduces the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory.


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3. Select strategies that are appropriate to the reading task and use them flexibly andinteractively. Students' comprehension improves and their confidence increaseswhen they use top-down and bottom-up skills simultaneously to constructmeaning.

Check comprehension while reading and when the reading task is completed. Monitoringcomprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and comprehension failures, helpingthem learn to use alternate strategies.

Teaching ReadingTraditionally, the purpose of learning to read in a language has been to have access to theliterature written in that language. In language instruction, reading materials havetraditionally been chosen from literary texts that represent "higher" forms of culture.

This approach assumes that students learn to read a language by studying its vocabulary,grammar, and sentence structure, not by actually reading it. In this approach, lower levellearners read only sentences and paragraphs generated by textbook writers andinstructors. The reading of authentic materials is limited to the works of great authors andreserved for upper level students who have developed the language skills needed to readthem.

The communicative approach to language teaching has given instructors a differentunderstanding of the role of reading in the language classroom and the types of texts thatcan be used in instruction. When the goal of instruction is communicative competence,

everyday materials such as train schedules, newspaper articles, and travel and tourismWeb sites become appropriate classroom materials, because reading them is one waycommunicative competence is developed. Instruction in reading and reading practice thus

become essential parts of language teaching at every level.

Reading Purpose and Reading Comprehension

Reading is an activity with a purpose. A person may read in order to gain information or verify existing knowledge, or in order to critique a writer's ideas or writing style. A

person may also read for enjoyment, or to enhance knowledge of the language being read.The purpose(s) for reading guide the reader's selection of texts.

The purpose for reading also determines the appropriate approach to readingcomprehension. A person who needs to know whether she can afford to eat at a particular restaurant needs to comprehend the pricing information provided on the menu, but doesnot need to recognize the name of every appetizer listed. A person reading poetry for enjoyment needs to recognize the words the poet uses and the ways they are put together,

but does not need to identify main idea and supporting details. However, a person using ascientific article to support an opinion needs to know the vocabulary that is used,


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understand the facts and cause-effect sequences that are presented, and recognize ideasthat are presented as hypotheses and givens.

Reading research shows that good readers

Read extensively Integrate information in the text with existing knowledge Have a flexible reading style, depending on what they are reading Are motivated Rely on different skills interacting: perceptual processing, phonemic processing,

recall Read for a purpose; reading serves a function

Reading as a Process

Reading is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in

comprehension. The text presents letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that encodemeaning. The reader uses knowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what thatmeaning is.

Reader knowledge, skills, and strategies include

Linguistic competence: the ability to recognize the elements of the writingsystem; knowledge of vocabulary; knowledge of how words are structured intosentences

Discourse competence: knowledge of discourse markers and how they connect parts of the text to one another

Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge about different types of texts and their usual structure and content Strategic competence: the ability to use top-down strategies (see Strategies for

Developing Reading Skills for descriptions), as well as knowledge of thelanguage (a bottom-up strategy)

The purpose(s) for reading and the type of text determine the specific knowledge, skills,and strategies that readers need to apply to achieve comprehension. Readingcomprehension is thus much more than decoding. Reading comprehension results whenthe reader knows which skills and strategies are appropriate for the type of text, andunderstands how to apply them to accomplish the reading purpose.

Section Contents

Goals and Techniques for Teaching ReadingStrategies for Developing Reading SkillsDeveloping Reading Activities
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Using Textbook Reading ActivitiesAssessing Reading ProficiencyResources

Material for this section was drawn from Reading in the beginning and intermediatecollege foreign language class by Heidi Byrnes, in Modules for the professional

preparation of teaching assistants in foreign languages (Grace Stovall Burkart, ed.;Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1998)

Introduction

Reading is basic in all academic disciplines (White, 2004). Good comprehenders are

knowledgeable and strategic readers (Anmarkrud and Braten, 2007). College studentgraduates are not necessarily good readers. Even though college students are readingadvanced academic material, it does not mean that they always comprehend theinformation (Taraban, et al., 2000). In most public schools, reading instruction often endsin the fifth or sixth grade (White, 2004).

Although students spend the majority of their time reading and studying, college-levelcourses do not put an emphasis on reading comprehension (Shaw, 1999). Manyinstructors believe that students already possess the skills needed to succeed, and thosewho do not believe it is possible to teach the required skills at the college level (Sherfieldet al., 2005). In addition, instructors may not believe that there is much more difficulty

involved in reading college level materials. In the United States United States, officiallyUnited States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi(9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest countryin population and the fourth largest country in area. , freshman college students typicallyfinish the end of their first year with little reading comprehension skills (White, 2004).

These students then need to attend reading classes as well as enroll in assistance labs.There are many strategies, both in class and at home, to improve reading comprehension(White, 2004). Instructors can improve comprehension through non-reading relatedinformation such as background knowledge or experiences, homework and class work,and learning aides (Table 1). Instructors can also teach students how to use other strategies including the SQ3R method, peer teaching, encoding, and reading flexibility(Table 1).

Background Knowledge or Experiences

Background knowledge or experiences are non-reading experiences that collegeinstructors can use to facilitate and maximize student learning new materials. Lecturesare one of the primary teaching modes and have been in existence for a long time.
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Although there seems to be conflicting ideas about whether lectures are a successfulmethod in improving reading comprehension, it has been argued that a "good" lecture canimprove comprehension (Parker, 1993). A good lecture facilitates information processing information processing: see data processing.information processing

Acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of information.Today the term usually refers to computer-based operations. in listeners. In order to givea good lecture, instructors must be familiar with and know how each of the componentsin the information processing model functions (Parker, 1993). The information-

processing model, which was developed by psychologists, gives us the insight into howhuman beings process and store information (Parker, 1993). Knowing those componentsthen gives instructors the ability to transmit information to the student's long-termmemory (Parker, 1993). Lectures can be important when students are being introduced toa fairly large and cohesive cohesive,n the capability to cohere or stick together to form a mass. body of knowledge (Parker,

1993). Students can get overwhelmed overwhelmtr.v. overwhelmed , overwhelming , overwhelms1. To surge over and submerge; engulf: waves overwhelming the rocky shoreline.

2.a. easily with text-based material. Instructor's lectures are an overview of importantinformation taken out of the text. They are a direct and precise layout of what they wantstudents to focus on.

Another type of background knowledge or experiences is classroom discussions, whichencourage instructors to engage students in interactions to promote analysis, reflection

and critical thinking (Goldenberg, 1992). Class discussions demand participation fromstudents and get them involved in what they are learning. Class discussions encouragethinking, reasoning, and comprehension of important ideas (Goldenberg, 1992). Classdiscussions stimulate students to listen and evaluate the material being discussed, givingthem the opportunity to bring up their own thoughts and ideas, which get all studentsinvolved and building on each other's input. These discussions lay the foundation for what students will be reading, giving them the background knowledge and concepts tohave a clear understanding of what's in the textbook chapter. Class discussions are such avaluable part of the learning experience that many instructors have advocated for morefrequent use of them (Goldenberg, 1992). Although this is not a new strategy in aidingreading comprehension, class discussions have been a successful and widely used method

in giving students the skills that are required (Little et al., 2000). Little et al. (2000) usethe reciprocal teaching Reciprocal Teaching is a remedial reading instructionaltechnique which applies a problem-solving heuristic to the process of readingcomprehension, thereby promoting thinking while reading (Alfassi, 2004). method,concluding that classroom discussions are an important and clear way to enhancecomprehension skills and strategies.

Although there are many types of instructional media, video instruction is thought to be
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important in problem-based learning. Video instruction is able to convey characters,settings, and action in a more interesting way, as well as can portray portraytr.v. portrayed , portraying , portrays1. To depict or represent pictorially; make a picture of.

2. To depict or describe in words.

3. To represent dramatically, as on the stage. more complex and interconnected problems(Choi and Johnson, 2005). Among various tools, the use of instructional technology There are two types of instructional technology : those with a systems approach, andthose focusing on sensory technologies.

The definition of instructional technology prepared by the Association for EducationalCommunications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology has beenrapidly adopted for the enhancement of interactions and activities. Choi and Johnson(2005) investigate the potential of a constructivist constructivism

n.A movement in modern art originating in Moscow in 1920 and characterized by the useof industrial materials such as glass, sheet metal, and plastic to createnonrepresentational, often geometric objects. approach to context-based videoinstruction for the purpose of enhancing learning, such as comprehension. There was asignificant difference in learners' motivation in terms of attention between the video-

based instruction and traditional text-based instruction (Choi and Johnson, 2005). Videoinstruction is more memorable than the text-based instruction. Video-based instructionhas the ability to transmit information in a way that is more stimulating to students (Choiand Johnson, 2005). Instructional videos are able to break down difficult contexts makingthe material relatively easy to comprehend (Choi and Johnson, 2005). A critical attributeof video is the ability to use both auditory auditory /auditory/ (awdi-tor?e)1. aural or otic; pertaining to the ear.

2. pertaining to hearing.

auditoryadj. and visual symbol systems (Choi and Johnson, 2005). Videos get students involved

by acting out real situations that students can relate to, and therefore give a clear pictureof what they are trying to convey. Videos have a precise way of describing what could beconfusing or difficult to understand in text alone.

Computer programs seem to be the least explored type of the background knowledge or experiences. Stephens and Konvalina (1999) use computer algebra algebra, branch of mathematics concerned with operations on sets of numbers or other elements that areoften represented by symbols. Algebra is a generalization of arithmetic and gains much of its power from dealing symbolically with elements and operations (such as software toteach intermediate and college algebra, revealing that the experimental group achievedsubstantially higher mean scores than the control group. Many instructors in the scienceand math fields use computer programs. Computer programs can aide in the process of
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learning by showing a detailed way of solving a problem. Computer programs may provide teachers with a tool for enhancing teaching and learning in their classrooms (Kimet al., 2006). These programs have the ability to teach students at their own pace, providechoices in learning paths, reading passages, reading level options, and encourage avariety of practice exercises to be used (Kim et al., 2006). Thus, computer-assisted

programs provide students with an interactive learning environment intended to maintaintheir interest, while teaching them how to apply comprehension strategies as they readexpository text passages (Kim, et al., 2006). Many students with learning disabilities havenot developed the ability to skillfully skillfuladj.1. Possessing or exercising skill; expert. See Synonyms at proficient.

2. Characterized by, exhibiting, or requiring skill. apply comprehension strategies (Kimet al., 2006). Students have expressed positive results, and felt their reading skills andcomprehension have improved with the assistance of the program (Kim et al., 2006).There is a significant improvement in their reading comprehension, and computer-

assisted comprehension can be used in aiding to improve reading comprehension incollege courses (Kim et al., 2006).

Providing Homework and Class work

College students should be provided with sufficient homework and class work in order tohelp improve reading comprehension in their courses. Critical reading and thinking skillsrequire active reading (White, 2004). Being active readers mean students have to engagewith the text, both mentally and physically. Students should do the following: skimahead, jump back, and highlight the text when they are studying (Sheffield et al., 2005).They should make specific observations about the text (Sheffield et al., 2005). Studentsshould skim and scan homework and class work assignments to get the general idea of itscontents (Sherfield et al, 2005). They should pre-view the material prior to actuallyreading it. Students should get an overview by getting the "big picture" and by getting theoverall sense of the content of the book.

Instructors should provide class-related topics that are exciting and interesting. The bestinstructors tell stories related to topic; when students are taking a quiz or exam, they willremember the story associated with the lecture to recall the information. Practiceexercises are also essential to improve reading comprehension in college courses.Practice exercises in class and homework help students to remember the information for quizzes and final exams. New words appearing in the scripted materials are printed on aflipchart. In this way, students could see and take careful notice during the discussion of each new word as it is used in a textbook illustration, and is identified and printed on achalkboard. These new words are referred to in the reading activity (Ediger, 2007).

Providing Learning Aide by Instructors

What is the best method of assisting college course material comprehension? The use of study guides or learning aides have widely been utilized with the general course lecture to
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facilitate and maximize student understanding of the course material (Khogali, 2004).Some of these study guides include quizzes, textbook pedagogical pedagogic alsopedagogicaladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.

2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. aides, handouts,and learning packets. However, there are conflicting research studies on the effectivenessof such aides in helping college students comprehend course material. The structure of learning aides should be similar to the course exams for students to show a significantincrease in their exam scores. Also, the use and completion of learning aides provided tostudents for course material comprehension should be of a voluntary nature (Gurung,2003).

Study guides are instructional tools that are used to aide students in the acquisition of content information (Hudson, 1994). Study guides, however, are an independent review

by students of the academic material. Khogali (2004) states that study guides serve as a powerful tool to help students manage their own learning. Hudson (1994) states thatmany students have difficulty reading textbooks and understanding concepts presentingin the class. In order for these students to comprehend reading material effectively andefficiently, lecturers should provide guidance with the concepts presented in the assignedtext readings. These learning aides can be used to introduce new content vocabulary,guide content-specific reading, review newly introduced content concepts, integrate newcontent with previously learned content, and practice specific unit skills (Khogali, 2004).Thus, Study guides assist college students with comprehension of course material.

However, Gurung (2003) has shown that there is no significant positive correlation Noun1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associatedwith large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between0 and +1direct correlation between the use of study guides and performance on exams. The studyguides contain outlines, chapter reviews, key terms, practice test questions, onlinequizzes Online quizzes are quizzes that are published on the internet and are generallyfor entertainment purposes. IntroductionOnline quizzes are a popular form of entertainment for web surfers. , group exercises, and

paper assignments (Gurung, 2003). Balch (2001) yields similar results of low correlations between study aides and course performance. Gurung (2003) concludes that the outcomeis due to assessment methods that do not test the other forms of learning that study aides

provided. Brothen and Wambach (2001) also confirm that online textbook material andquizzes help students comprehend and master the lecture material do not result in anysignificant improvement on student exam scores. Collectively, these researchers believethat many students have used the quizzes as a quick way to learn the material or

perceived the quizzes simply as a task to complete, rather than an opportunity to guidetheir learning.

Despite no significant positive correlation with the use of study guides and student exam
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performances, none of the researchers have ruled out study guides as being completelyuseless in improving material comprehension. Gurung (2003) have advised thatinstructors should provide explicit guidelines guidelines,n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the

performance of certain tasks. on how to use different pedagogical aides because some

students may simply misuse the study guides. Gurung (2003) has cautioned students fromspending too much time on some aides at the expense of studying other importantmaterial or working on understanding the material. Brothen and Wambach (2001) explainthat their research outcome is due to students focused too much on earning a favorablefavorableadj.1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds.

2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis.

3. grade on quizzes, not on actually learning the material. Brothen and Wambach (2001)

advise a quiz set-up where students are proctored and encouraged to prepare, gather feedback from the quiz, and then restudy the material. The Prepare-Gather Freedback-Restudy theory focuses on the individual learning aspects of students; this voluntarystudy focus directs attention away from simply earning grades for the college course toactually comprehending the reading material (Brothen and Wambach, 2001).

Voluntary study tactics involving text

Documents

Goals and Techniques of Reading Skills Thesis Preparation