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Functional English base on “grammar” and grammar is based on

“Semantics and syntax”

The chain of English is

‘Grammar’ Semantics:

Semantics is the study of meaning of words, (e.g. Synonyms, homonyms, etc.) Syntax:

Syntax is the study of structure of a sentence, (e.g. part of speech, direct/indirect, active/passive.)


Syntax (Traditional Grammar) ‘Parts of speech’

Definition: Words are divided into various categories according to their meaning. They are 11 in numbers.

Note: Modern Grammarians have included three more items in Minor class. As such, now there are six

They are divided into two classes.1 . Major class. 2. Minor class.

Major classi) Noun iv) Verbii) Pronouns v)Adverbiii) Adjective

Minor classi) Prepositionii) Conjunctioniii) Interjectioniv) Auxiliary verbsv) Determinersvi) Finite, on-finite verbs

‘Major class’ Noun:

Noun is a word used for giving name to some person (e.g. place, thing, or idea etc.) * There are five kinds of noun*I) Proper noun. ii) Common noun. iii) Collective noun. iv) Material noun.v) Abstract noun.

Proper noun is a noun that denotes one particular person or thing as distinct from every other. They start with a capital latter.[e.g. Shahid(person); Pakistan(Country)]

Common noun: Common noun is a noun which is used for every person, place or thing of the same class or kind (.e.g. Pen, Man, Book etc.) * There are two kinds of common noun* Countable noun: Uncountable noun: These are nouns that we These are nouns that we cannot We can count and that, consequently, count. (e.g. ‘water’ is an uncountable Have both singular and plural forms. (e.g. Noun; we cannot count it)


Book is a countable noun; we can count it.) Collective Noun:

Collective noun is the name of a group or collection of similar persons or thing considered as one complete whole. (e.g. Team, Class, Army, etc.)

Material noun: Material noun is the name of material or matter or substance out of which something is made, (e.g. Gold, Silver, and Milk etc.)

Abstract noun: Abstract noun is name of is name of a quality, action or state. (e.g. Love, Hate, Pain, Tear, etc.)

‘ Genders of noun’ *There are four types of genders of nouns*i) Masculine gender ii) Famine gender ii) Common gender iv) Neuter gender

Masculine gender: A gender which is used for male sex is said to be the masculine gender, (e.g. Sheheryar is hardworking, etc).

Feminine gender: A noun which is used for female sex is said to be the feminine gender. (e.g. this girl is hardworking, etc.)

Common gender: A gender which is used for male & female sex is said to be the common gender. (e.g. Child, etc.)

Neuter gender: A gender which is used for lifeless objects is said to be the neuter gender. (e.g. Table, Chair, Pen, etc.)

‘Case of noun’‘Case’ is that form of a noun or a pronoun which shows its relation to some other or word in a sentence.There are four types of cases:

Nominative case:- Noun or Pronoun used as a subject of a verb is in the nominative case. [e.g. Rain fall (nominative of subject)]

Possessive case:- A noun or Pronoun that is possessor or owner of something is in the possessive or genitive case. (e.g. Man’s, Men’s)

Objective case:- A noun or pronoun that is (i) object of a verb or (ii) the object of a preposition is in objective case. (This can also be called Accusative or Dative Case).

(e.g. Shahid gave Islam’s pen to Riaz Riaz is ‘O.C’Islam’s is ‘P.C’ Shahid is ‘N.C’)Note: The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object. [e.g. The man killed the rat (Accusative)].The Dative is the case of Indirect Object. [e.g. He gave the man a rupee. (Direct Object)]

Vocative case:- A noun that denotes the person addressed is in the Vocative case [e.g. Look her, Aslam (Vocative)

Adjective:


Definition: An ‘Adjective’ is a word that qualifies or tells more about a noun or a pronoun.

“Kinds ” ‘ There are eight in numbers’ i) Adjective of Quality ii) Adjective of Quantity iii) Adjective of Numbers iv) Demonstrative Adjectivev) Interrogative Adjective vi) Possessive AdjectiveVii) Proper Adjective viii) Distributive Adjective

Proper Adjective: These are adjectives that describe a thing by some proper noun. (e.g. The English language = The language of England, The Pakistani city = A city of Pakistan.)

Adjective of Quality: These are adjectives that show of what sort in what state a thing is. (e.g. A brave boy; a pretty girl; hot water)

Adjective of Quantity: These are adjectives that shows how of a thing is meant. (e.g. Much, little, no, some, any, enough, sufficient, all, whole, half)

Adjective of Number: These are adjectives that show how many things there are, or in what numerical order any of them stands. (e.g. One, two, three, four)

Demonstrative Adjective: These are adjectives that shows which or what thing is meant. In modern grammar, they are called “determiners” (e.g. this, that, these, those).

Possessive Adjective: These are adjectives that are used with nouns to show the possession of a thing. (e.g. My, our, your, her, his, their, its)

(a) A possessive adjective appears before its noun, and is called attributive adjective. (e.g. This large house belongs to me.)

(b) Possessive adjectives appears in the predicate of the sentence, after the verbs like “be”, “look”, “seem”, or “appear” and is called predicative adjective. (e.g. This house is large)

Interrogative Adjective: These are adjectives that are used with nouns to ask questions. (e.g. What book is this? Which way e.g. What book is this?, Which way will you go?).

Distributive Adjective: These are adjective that shows that things are taken separately or in separate lots. (e.g. every, each, (e.g. every, each, either, neither).

‘Degrees of Adjective’ i) Positive Degreeii) Comparative Degreeiii) Superlative Degree

Positive Degree: The positive degree of an adjective shows the simple quality of an object without reference to any other. [e.g. He is a tall boy. (“Tall” express a quality in simple form)].

Comparative Degree:


The comparative degree of an adjective shows a higher degree of the quality, and is used when two objects of the same kind or class are compared together. [e.g. He is taller than his brother. (One person compared with another)].

Superlative Adjective: The superlative degree of an adjective shows the highest degree of the quality, and is used when object is compared with all other things of the same is used when object is compared with all other things of the same class. [e.g. He is tallest of all his brothers. (One compared with all)].

Pronoun: Definition:

A pronoun is a word that we use for a noun. The noun that is replaced by a pronoun is called its antecedent. Word used instead of a noun, e.g. he, she it, etc.

Pronouns: He, she, it, they, May, your, our, his, him, her, etc.

‘Kinds of pronoun’ a) Personal pronoun. b) Possessive pronoun. c) Distributive pronoun. d) Demonstrative pronoun. e) Interrogative pronoun. f) Indefinite pronoun f) Relative pronoun. g) Reflexive pronoun.h) Emphatic pronoun.

Personal pronoun: A personal pronoun is used for the name of a person. He; she, it, they, etc are all pronouns. They are called personal pronoun.

‘ Personal pronoun table’

Case First person(Always common gender)

Second person(Always common gender)

Third person Singular

Third person Plural

Singular Plural

Singular Plural MasculineGender

FeminineGender

NeuterGender

AlwaysCommonGender

Nominate Case

I We YouThou

YouThou

He She It They

Possessive Case

My Mine

OurOurs

YourYoursThy,Thine

YourYoursThy,Thine

His HerHers

Its TheirTheirs

Objective Case

Me Us You, Thee

You, Thee

Him Her It Them


First person: It stands for the person speaking as, I, and we.

Second person: It stands for the person with whom the speaker is speaking of the person spoken to, as, with whom the speaker is speaking of the person spoken to, as, you.

Third person: It stands for the person or thing spoken of, as, he, she, it, and they.

Possessive pronoun: Possessive pronoun shows ownership of a person. They fall into two sets: one called Possessive pronouns, the other of a person. They fall into two sets: one called Possessive pronouns, the other called possessive adjectives. The difference lies in their use:First set:(also called possessive adjectives) Second set(also called possessive pronouns)MyYourHisHer

MineYoursHisHers

OurYourTheirIts

OursYoursTheirsIts

Examples: This is my book; that is yours.(My--- used before the noun ‘book’)This book is mine. Possessive adjective)This book is mine. (Possessive pronouns)

Distributive pronouns: Each, either, neither are called distributive pronouns because they refer to persons and things one at a time. They are always singular and are followed by a singular verb. (e.g. each of the boys was punished, either of your servants is a liar, neither of the two sisters is beautiful).

Demonstrative pronouns: These pronouns are used in place of nouns of which they point. OR A word that points to things, a particular object or concept. (This, these, that, that, those). (e.g. this is my book, these are flowers).

Interrogative pronoun: They are pronouns which are used for asking questions. They are used in place of the noun which we get to answer in the question. (What, who, whom, which). (e.g. what is this?)

Indefinite pronoun: ‘Indefinite pronouns’ are those which refer to persons or things in general (not in particular). Some, few, many, all, much, none, one, little, any, others, enough, less, each, either, neither. These pronouns may be arranged as: (Some (body, one, thing), any (body, one, and thing), no (thing, one, body), every (body, one, and thing).

Note: (i) Many, few are used to express numbers.(ii) Some, any, all express to both quantity and number.(iii) Some is used in affirmative and any in negative sentence.

Word that refers to a person (or A word that refers to a person (or person) or a thing (or things) in a general way (all, somebody, nobody, and one). . .

Relative pronoun: A word that relates the idea back to some noun (which, who, whom). [(e.g. The man who is honest is trusted.)(The word ‘who’ relates the ides back to the noun ‘man’. So ‘who’ is a relative pronoun? Important relative pronoun relates pronoun. Important relative pronouns are these:


WhoWhichWhose

WhoseWhoseThat

WhomWhomThat

Examples: The man who is honest, is honest, is trusted.They never fall who die in a great cause.

Reflexive pronoun: A word that refers to the ‘self’ of a person: something done by the done by the person himself. They are used for sake of emphasis; they are also used in certain verbs.Singular PluralMyself OurselvesYourself YourselvesHimself ThemselvesHerself ThemselvesItself

Difference between Reflexive & Emphatic pronouns: Both Reflexive and Emphatic pronouns are called compound personal pronoun (self-form of Emphatic pronouns are called compound personal pronoun (self-form of pronouns).But they used for different purpose:

(i) They are called Reflexive pronouns when the action done by the pronouns are the subject of the verb: (e.g. He will soon ruin himself)

(ii) They are called Emphatic pronouns when they are used for the sake of emphasis. In such cases, the emphasis in on the such cases, the emphasis in on the subject: (e.g. He will do it himself)

Emphatic pronoun: They have same the form as the reflexive pronoun, but their use of function is different. They are used to lay emphasis on the object of the sentence. Therefore, they are placed after objects. (Nadia himself open the door.)

Verb/Main Verb: Definition:

A verb is a word that shows some action or some action or state. It is used for saying something about the activity or state of a person or a thing. OR These are words that are used to indicate some action. They are an essential part of a sentence .No sentence consider complete without the main verb. They are unlimited in numbers. (e.g. go, come, see, buy, catch, write, etc.)

Note: Verbs which are not used in all moods and tenses are called Defective. They may be Transitive, Intransitive or Auxiliary.There are three types of verb.a) Transitive verbs.b) Intransitive verbs.c) Auxiliary or Helping verbs. Transitive verbs:

Transitive means ‘Passing Over’. Transitive verbs are verbs which tell us of an action which passes over to an object. In other words transitive verbs are verbs which need object to complete their sense. (e.g. We eat rice, I killed a snake).

Intransitive verb: Intransitive means ‘not passing over’. Intransitive verbs are verbs which tell us of an action which does not pass over to an object. In other words, intransitive verbs do not need an object to complete their sense. (e.g. Dogs bark the boy run).


Auxiliary/Helping verb: They are also called “Helping verb” because they help the main verb in conveying (complete) their meaning, and in the formation of tenses. They are also called “defective verbs”. They are limited in number. e.g. be(is, are am,was,were,been),do(does,did),have(has,had),shall,should,will,can,could,may,might,must, ought(to) They are two in numbers:

1. Primary auxiliary.2. Modal auxiliary.

Primary auxiliary: These verbs function on two levels: as auxiliary verbs, and as main verb. They are three in numbers.1. [Be (is, are, am, was, were, been)]. 2. [Do (does, did)].3. [Have (has, had)]. (e.g. (e.g. He is a good boy. (Is ------ used as a main verb), [I have done my done my work. (Have ----- used as helping verb).

Modal auxiliary: Modal auxiliary is true auxiliaries in the sense that they exist only in association with other verbs. They are follows: [ought (to)]

Moods of verb: Definition:

The word mood indicates the mode or manner in which the verb is used in a sentence. There are four Moods in English.

a) The Indicative Mood.b) The Imperative Mood.c) The Subjunctive Mood.d) The Infinitive Mood. The Indicative Mood:

The Indicative mood of a verb makes a positive or a negative statement, or asks a questions; as1. He came here yesterday.2. Did you go? The Imperative Mood:

The Imperative Mood of the verb expresses positive or a negative command, entreats (requests), or advises: as

1. Wait here. 2. Sit down. 3. Do not leave the houses. The subjunctive Mood:

The subjunctive Mood of the verb is used to express doubt, supposition, condition, consequence, wish or purpose; as

1. Good luck is with you.2. Long live the king. 3. I wish I were there. Note:

In a subjunctive mood, a plural verb is used with a singular subject of the Third Person; asThe following are the forms of the Subjunctive. PRESENT SUBJECTIVE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE The verb “be” Other verb The verb “be” Other verbI be I write I were I wroteYou be You write You were You wrote


He be He write He were He wroteWe be We write We were We wroteThey be They write They were They wrote The Infinitive Mood:

The Infinitive Mood simply names the action, and is not limited by time, person, or number, as1. I want to write a letter. 2. You need not wait for us.

Adverb: “Adverbs” are words which tell us of the qualities of a verb, an adjective, a conjunction, a preposition, or another adverb. Adverbs even modify, or tell the qualities of a phrase or a clause.

When only one word is used to modify or qualify the meaning of other words is called simple adverb, but if a group of words is used, this group of words is called an Adverbial or an Adverb Phrase, (e.g. the children are playing there, and the children are playing in the field.)

Adverbs are divided into the following three main kinds: ‘Kinds of adverb’

1. Simple adverb.2. Interrogative adverb.3. Relative adverb.

Simple adverb: Definition:

When only one word is used to modify or qualify the meaning of other words is called simple adverb.

Simple adverb divided into following kinds. ‘kinds of simple adverb’ 1. Adverb of Time. 2. Adverb of Place. 3. Adverb of Manners. 4. Adverb of Number or Frequency. 5. Adverb of Degree. 6. Adverb of Affirmation Negation. 7. Adverb of Reason, Purpose or Consequents.

Adverb of Time: Words or group of words which tells of the time of an action are called Adverbs or Adverbial of time. (e.g. Today the train arrived late.)

Adverb of Place: They tell us the place where an action is being done. (e.g. please stand here.)

Adverb of Manner: They tell us the way of manner in which an action is done. (e.g. They talked loudly.)

Adverb of Number or Frequency: They tell us how often or how many times or how frequently an action is done. (e.g. He never comes late.)

Adverb of Degree: They tell us how much, to what extent, or UN what degree, an action is done. (e.g. He runs very fast.)


Adverbs of Affirmation & Negation: They tell us why some action is done or not done. (e.g. It is not my book.)

Adverb of Reason, Purpose or Consequence: They tell us why some action was done or not done. (e.g. He did not work hard and, therefore, he failed.)

Interrogative Adverb: The adverbs which are used for asking questions are called Interrogative adverbs. (e.g. How are you..?)

Relative Adverb: When the Interrogative Adverbs, “when, why, where, what, etc.” are used to join clauses or sentences, they are called Relative Adverbs. (e.g. This is the place where I was born, etc.)

‘ Minor class’ Note:

Modern Grammarians have included three more items in Minor class. As such, now there are six.

i) Prepositionii) Conjunctioniii) Interjectioniv) Auxiliary Verbs.v) Determiners.vi) Finite, on-finite verb

Preposition: The word ‘Preposition’ means that which is placed before. Prepositions are words which are placed before a noun or pronoun. (e.g. The book is on the table. Here ‘on’ is a preposition and it shows us the relation between ‘book’ and ‘table’.)

‘Kinds of Preposition’

i) Preposition of place.ii) Preposition of time.iii) Prepositional phrase.

Preposition of place: Preposition of place of prepositions which express relationship in the place or space. (e.g. In, on, over, up, into, upon, across, etc) are prepositions of place.

Preposition of Time: It expresses relation in time, as, (Hammed reached the station before me. ‘Before shows the relation of ‘Hammed’ and ‘me’ and the relation is one of time At, At, on, before, after, till, until etc. are prepositions.)

There are also prepositions of Agency or Instrumentality, of measure, of manner, of possession, of direction, of cause, etc [e.g. I write with a pen. (Agency instruments). Learn the poem by heart. (Manner). He died of Cholera. (cause)].

The noun or pronoun comes after preposition is called its object. In the above given examples ‘table’ is the object of ‘on’ and ‘me’ is the object of ‘before’.


Prepositions may be simple as, in, by, for, to, from, etc. Prepositions may be compound. I.e. made up of two words as ‘inside’ (in+side), outside

(out+side), within (with+in), upto (up+to). There is also prepositional phrase, as in the following.

1. The bank is in front of my house.2. He passed on account of hard work.

There are also Participle prepositions, ‘considering, regarding, respecting, touching, etc.(e.g. considering the circumstances, the thief was freed.)

Conjunction: A conjunction is a word used for joining one word to another or one sentence to another. They are also called connective or connector. ‘Kinds of Conjunction’

1. Co-ordinate Conjunction.2. Subordinate Conjunction.3. Correlative conjunction

Co-ordinate Conjunction: Which join c together clauses of equal rank? The chief conjunction of this class are; and, but, for, or, nor, also, etc.

Subordinate Conjunction: Which join together a principal clause with its dependent or subordinate clause or clauses? The chief conjunctions of this group are (After, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless, as, where, when, while, since, except, than, until etc).

0Correlative Conjunction: Which are used in pairs? (e.g. either…or; neither….. nor; both……and; whether…..or; Not only…. But also, etc).

Interjection: An Interjection, properly, speaking, is not a part of a speech because it has no geometrical connections with any other word or words in the sentence. It is merely an exclamatory sound, to denote some strong feeling or emotions. ‘ Words used in Interjectional Sense’ Exclamatory Sounds:Sounds Feeling Expressed.Hurrah! ; Huzza! JoyOh! ah!; alas!; alack! GriefHa! ha! AmusementBravo! ApprovalHeigh-ho! WearinessLo! hark!; hush!; hist! AttentionFie! Fie! shame!; shame! ReproofStuff! bosh!; tut-tut!; ContemptPooh! pish!; tush! RidiculeHo! holla! CallHum! hem!; humph! DoubtWow! Surprise, appreciation,How + adjective Surprise; wonder (How beautiful she looks!)What+a+noun Surprise, wonder (what a fool you are).


Examples: Who the hell are you!The hell with you!What a sad thing it is!

Auxiliary verbs: There are two main categories of verb.

1. Main verb2. Auxiliary verbs Main verb:

These are words that are used to indicate some action. They are an essential part of a sentence .No sentence consider complete without the main verb. They are unlimited in numbers. (e.g. go, come, see, buy, catch, write, etc.)

Auxiliary/Helping verb: They are also called “Helping verb” because they help the main verb in conveying (complete) their meaning, and in the formation of tenses. They are also called “defective verbs”. They are limited in number. e.g. be(is, are am,was,were,been),do(does,did),have(has,had),shall,should,will,can,could,may,might,must, ought(to) They are two in numbers:

3. Primary auxiliary.4. Modal auxiliary.

Primary auxiliary: These verbs function on two levels: as auxiliary verbs, and as main verb. They are three in numbers.1. [Be (is, are, am, was, were, been)]. 2. [Do (does, did)].3. [Have (has, had)]. (e.g. (e.g. He is a good boy. (Is ------ used as a main verb), [I have done my done my work. (Have ----- used as helping verb).

Modal auxiliary: Modal auxiliary is true auxiliaries in the sense that they exist only in association with other verbs. They are follows: [ought (to)]

Determiners: Definition:

Determine mean to calculate something exactly. In modern grammar. In modern grammar, determiners are such words as the, same, my etc. That comes before a noun toss show exactly how the noun is being used. In older grammar books, they are called pronouns or adjectives.

Determiners = some pronouns + some adjective

Example: Determiners Noun ……………. ….. Cat sleeps a lot.A cat sleeps a lot.The cat sleeps a lot.My cat sleeps a lot.Most cats sleep a lot.Some cats sleep a lot. ‘ Classes of determiners’


There are five classes of determiners. 1. Articles2. Demonstratives3. Possessive4. Qualifiers5. Wh-Determiners Articles:

Articles (a, an. the) words used to limit a noun. (She sits in a taxi/She buys an egg.) Demonstratives:

They expressing “nearness” or “distance” of a noun. (e.g. I like this book /these books.) Possessive:

Possessive words denoting ownership. (My, yours, his etc) e (e.g. my leg/ arm/ feet etc) Qualifiers:

Qualifiers words expressing the quantity of some of something. (Some, any, . (Some, any, no, no, every, every, each each etc).

Wh Determiners: WH determiners words that introduce WH questions: WH questions: (what, which, whoever, whose) [(e.g. what writer do you writer do you like best?)(Whose books are these?)]

Finite, on-finite Verbs: “Finite” means having definite limits. A finite verb (something called main verb) is a verb that has a subject which means that it can be the main verb in a sentence. It shows tense………. (Past, present etc) or number (singular/plural).

‘OR’“A finite verb is a verb that changes according to the person (1st.2nd, 3rd) a number (singular/plural) of its subject”

In brief, a finite verb has two characteristics:o It is in a tense.o It agrees with the subject for person and number.

Non finite verbs: “Non-finite” means having no limits. A non-verb (infinitive verb) is a verb which does not change its form in accordance with the subject; it is not used in any tense.

‘Different forms of Non-finite verbs’The infinitive, the participle and the Gerund are different forms of nonfinite verb, conveying the sense slightly different from the main verb.

In brief, the difference is as follows:1. The Infinitive2. The Participle3. The Gerund

The infinitive: To –form of a verb (a form of verb that refers to some action but indicates no tense) (e.g. to go, to come, to write) (He (He always tries to help the needy)

The participle: A verb used as an Adjective (such verbs end in-ng or –ed) (e.g. A laughing boy; a retired officer.)

‘Participle is two major kinds’


Present participle: This is the ing-form of verb used as an adjective. (e.g. Speaking, Walking, Running etc.)

Past participle: This is the 3rd form of verb used as adjectives. (e.g. Retired, burnt, learned confused.etc.)

The Gerund: A verb used as a noun. (Such verbs end in-ing, but are considered “nouns”.(e.g. Swimming is a good exercise.)

Like a noun, we can use a gerund as: 1. A subject in a sentence.2. An object is a sentence.3. With possessive pronouns.4. After a preposition.

‘Syntax (Modern Grammar)’

Sentences: A sentence is a combination or group of words that makes a complete sense sometime, a single. Word can also convey a complete sense. (e.g. Osama goes to collage every day.Run! )

Part of a sentence:- There are two main parts of a sentence

a. Subject or the noun part b. Predicate or the verb part Subject:-

The word or words denoting the person or thing about which something is said is/are called subject of the sentence.(e.g. To work is to work is healthy)

Predicate:- The word or words which say something about the person or thing denote by the subject is/are called Predicate. (e.g. You Run)

Kinds of sentence:- Classification based on function

Assistive sentence:- It is a sentence which simply affirm or denies something (e.g. Khalid has written a letter.) (Affirmative)(Saleem will not do this.)(Negative)

Imperative sentence:- It is a sentence which contains some command, prohibition, request or advice (e.g. get of the room) (Command).9Do not do this) (Prohibition)

Interrogative sentence:- It is a sentence that inquires about something. (e.g. what do you do you want? What are you doing?)

Optative sentences:- It is a sentence that expresses some wish(e.g. May you live long! Would that he were rich)

Exclamatory sentence:- The sentence that express some feelings of the mind. (e.g. Hurrah! We won, Alas! We lose)


‘Classification of sentence’

For understanding the structure of sentence, we must have a working knowledge of clauses. A clause is a group of words containing a finite verb, i.e. a subject and a predicate. Clauses are three kinds.

(i) Principal clause: a clause that makes complete sense or its own.(ii) Co-ordinate clause: a clause a clause that makes complete sense but is a part is a part

of a longer sentence.(iii) Sub-ordinate clause: a clause that does not make complete sentence on its own; it

depends for its significance or principal clause. Simple sentence:-

If a sentence expresses a single thought and has only one finite verb is called simple is called simple sentence.(e.g.Sajid is working hard)

Compound sentence:- If a sentence expresses mole thoughts than one has one principal clause and one or more co-ordinate clause is called compound sentence(e.g. Dogs bar ---- principal clause, Cocks crow ---- co-ordinate clause)

Complex sentence:- If a sentence expresses more thoughts than one, and has one principal clause and one or more sub-ordinate clauses it is called complex sentence(e.g. God help those who help themselvesGod helps those is “principal’s clause”Help themselves is “sub-ordinate”Who is “subordinate conjunction?????????)

‘Active and passive voice’ Active voice:-

A verb is said to be in the active voice when its subject acts.(e.g. He writes a letter)

Passive voice:- A verb is said to be in the passive voice when its subjects acted upon.

Rules:-

1. change subject into objective2. change objective into subjective 3. use helping verb 4. use 3rd form of verb

‘Indefinite tense’

Present Past Future

1st form of verb + (S, as) with singular

2nd form of verb only 1st form of verb + will (he, she, it, with singular ) shall

(I, we, with plural )


Negative Negative Negative

(Do not, does not,) are used. (s, es) are refused

(do) is used for plural

(does) is used for singular

(did not) is used

1st form of verb is used

Will not, shall not

Interrogative Interrogative Interrogative

Do n does are used in starting of sentence

Did is used at start of sentence

Will, shall are used at starting of sentence

‘Continuous’

Present Past Future

1st form + ing + helping verb 1st form + ing + was, were 1st form + ing + will be, shall be


(is, am, are) + not (was, were) + not Will not be, shall not be


(is,am,are) are used are starting

(Was, were ) are used at starting

Will be , shall be are used at starting

‘Perfect’

present Past Future

3rd form of verb + has, have Had + 3rd form of verb 3rd form of verb + will have, shall have


has, have + not Had + not Will, shall + not



Has , have Had is used at starting Will have , shall have

‘Perfect continues’

Present Perfect Future

Has been, have been + 1st

form + ing + (for, since)Had been + 1st form + ing +

(for, since)Will have been, shall have been +1st form + ing + (for,

since)


Has not been, have not been + 1st form + ing + (for, since)

Had not been+ 1st form + ing + (for, since)

will have not been +1st form + ing + (for, since)


Has, have are used at starting+ been + 1st form +

ing + (for, since)

Had used at starting +been+ 1st form + ing + (for, since)

Will, shall used at starting +been +1st form + ing + (for,

since)

‘Active and Passives voice sentence’

1. You are to solve this problem

This problem is to be solved by you

2. Where do you keep your books?


Were your books are be kept by you

3. You may solve this problem

This problem might be solved by you

4. She would waste her time

Her time would be wasted by her

5. A car ran over an old man

An old man was run over by a car

6. Do not smoke

You are forbidden to smoke

7. Light the lamp

Let the lamp be lighted

8. Can you tell us a story?

Can a story be told to us by you?

9. Please explain this sum to me

You are requested to explain this sum to me

10. She was singing a song

A song was being sung by her

11. Please help me

You are requested to help me

12. This book disgusted me

I was disgusted by this book

13. This bottle contains honey

Honey is contained by this bottle

14. It is time to close the shop

It is time for the shop to be closed

15. He closed the suitcase in hurry

The suitcase was closed by him in hurry

16. You must obey orders


Orders must be obeyed by you

17. This book is selling well

This book is well when it is being sold

18. We refused them

They were refused by us

19. Don’t laugh at the poor

You are advised not to laugh at poor

20. Were you invited by them?

Were they invited you?

21. He drives a car.A car was driven by him

22. He is driving a car.A car is being driven by him

23. He should help himHe should be help by us

24. They have won the matchA match had been won by them

25. They may help usWe may be helped by them

26. I am flying a kiteA kite is being flown by me

27. Open the doorYou are ordered to open the door / let the door be opened

28. Polish the shoesLet the shoe be polished

29. Please open the doorLet the door be opened

30. Let me do itLet it be done by me

31. Light the lampLet the lamp be lighted


32. Who stole your pen?Your pen was stolen by whom.

33. Who won the match?The match was won by whom

34. Who was making a noise? The noise was being made by whom

35. Who has examined the paper?By whom the paper been examined

36. Who polish our shoes? Our shoes were polished by whom

37. Do it at onceLet it be done at once

38. Do not tease old manYou are advised not to tease the old man

39. I cannot repair your carYou car cannot be repaired by me

40. Can you handle this?Can this be handled by you?

41. Do you know his father?Is his father known to you?

42. What are they doing?What is being done by them?

43. Why are you wasting your time?Why is your time being wasted by you?

44. When will you buy a car?When will a car be brought by you?

45. How can I help you?How can you be help by me?

‘Articles’ Definition:-

The demonstrative adjectives a, an and the are called Articles. They are often treated as a separate part of a speech or classes of word Articles. They are often treated as a separate part of a speech or classes of word (Structural Words)

Kinds:-


There are two kinds of Article:o Indefinite Articleso Definite Articles

Indefinite Articles:- A and An are called the indefinite Articles because they do not refer to a definite or particular person or thing. There are the weakened forms of the numeral one

A is used before a word beginning with a consonant or consonant sound (a book, a women, a university, a union)An is used before a word beginning with a vowel or vowel sound (an egg, an hour, an enemy)

Definite Articles:- The is called the definite article because it points the definite article because it points out some particular person or thing (the teacher ---- we already know the man). It is a weakened form of that.

‘The Omission of Article’

o Proper nouno Material nouno Abstract noun

Proper noun: Proper noun is the name of Proper noun is the name of particular person thing or place, e.g. Quran-e-Pak, Minare Pakistan, etc

Material noun: Material noun are noun Material noun are noun out of which something is made, e.g. Goldbricks’, etc.

Abstract noun: Abstract noun are noun which cannot be explain. They are in are noun which cannot be explain. They are in the

‘A essay which covers very important 59 topics’

1. Adult ration2. Addiction3. Agricultural problem4. Bribery5. Black marketing6. Corruption

7. Child labor8. Crimes in our society9. Beggary10. Capitalism11. Back biting12. Dearness


13. Dowry14. Despair15. Drug Addiction16. Depression17. Disunity18. Ethnic order19. Electricity crises20. Fundamental of rights21. Flattery22. Freedom of press23. Human rights violation24. Housing problems25. Health problems26. Hypocrisy27. Insufficient medical facilities28. Injustice and inequality29. Indiscipline30. Literacy31. Load shedding32. Lack of tolerance33. Crushing borders34. Lawlessness35. Mass – illiteracy36. Nepotism37. Over population

38. Poverty39. Population problems40. Pollution41. Price hike42. Provincialism43. Religious tolerance44. Red tapsim(Redtops)45. Road side robbery46. Religious violence47. Smoking48. smuggling49. Social evils50. Social injustice51. sectarism52. Social and economic problems of

Pakistan53. Terrorism54. The devaluation of currency55. Tax evasion56. Un employment57. Violence58. Violation59. Favoritism

‘Outline’

IntroductionSocial, economic, political and regional problemsCauses of …………….Conclusion


It is an admitted and accepted fact that time has no options and time is friend of every one. Man is a social animal. He is living in a society. He faces many problems.----------------has become one of the most embarrassing and explosive problem all over the world special in the third country like Pakistan. It is teemed with tension tussle problems, troubles and tortures. It denotes devastating disturbance, dangerous, disastrous, defeats and defaults. It gives great and grave grief and gloom.------------------ creates instability and demoralization in our nation and in a black lash. It breeds depression and dejection in our society and state. It creates and spreads the feelings of uncertainty and insecurity among the masses.If ---------- creeps in our society it eats into us vital and soon crudes its inner strength, outer splendor, economic prosperity, social peace and national unity. Consequently a nation’s good image is spoiled all over the world. Lawlessness becomes order of the day due to poverty, corruptions, violence, indiscipline and mass illiteracy. It creates conflict and confrontation. If it. If it is not effectively, property and promptly checked the entire judicial moral and economic fiber of a nation is collapsed.-------------- is highly determent and devastating for a country like Pakistan, that has effective economic and political prosperity. If the evil of ----------- is not nipped in the bud, it may spread rapidly like a bush fire and may engulf the whole nation region like an epidemic.---------------- is not nipped in the bud, it may spread rapidly like a bush fire and may engulf the whole nation region like an epidemic.-------------- Hardly shatters people’s faith in state institutions. It deprives of masses of mental, physical, spiritual moral and economic prosperity. ---------------- Also paves way for bloody revolutions and military take ever. Therefore every peace loving person who fervently longs and dreams for prominent must ponder upon causes of social cancer of -------------.The main causes of -------------- are illiteracy, poverty, defective economic policies of the governments, people’s desire to accurate countless riches and blind multiplication of worldly wishes and wounds.------------------ Creates irresistible economic pleasure on social and economic justice and gulf between haves and haves not increases. In a nutshell mass illiteracy, temptation for wealth, lust for power, luxury and comfort are the main causes of --------------.Firstly ethnics, religious, social linguistic and regional diversities and differences also conflict and hatred among people who in back lash grew and spread.Secondly feudalism, capitalism and uneven distributions of fundamental rights spread. Thirdly the nom availability of basic necessaries and facilities like education, health care and jobs also paves the way to spread in society spread in society or state. External factor like the agent or agencies of hostile neighboring like India also play a vital role in spreading a vital role in spreading ---------- in the land of our country.It should be the primary concern of the men ay ---------- in the land of our country.It should be the primary concern of the men at the helms of our affairs as well as the scholar educationalist, political parties, NGO, and national mass media to take levels for the eradication of the eradication of growing menace of ------------ in the best national interest.

Note: - write the name of the essay where ------------ sign given.

This essay covers very important 59 topics…….!


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