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Grammar in the Curriculum:
or not!
Debra Myhill
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Un9xTkr92eo
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Where have we come from: Understanding the Debate
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Where have we been? Grammar taught as a process of labelling and identification: parsing, six-column
analysis, exercises and drills; Model of grammar was Latinate – ‘school grammar’ divorced from the
understandings of modern linguistics; Its educational purpose was unclear: to eradicate error? To develop knowledge
about language? No connections made between the teaching of grammar and learning in other
areas of the English curriculum; Largely abandoned in the 60s and 70s because it was believed to be of no use; National Curriculum 1989 reintroduced grammar, varying degrees of emphasis
in the revisions; emphasised clearly in the National Strategies; Development of A level Language
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Grammar? It must be bad grammar!
The Error Fallacy
A desire to rid children of the ‘evil habits of speech contracted in home and
street’ (Newbolt 1921)
‘the traditional view of language teaching was, and indeed in many schools
still is, prescriptive. It identified a set of correct forms and prescribed that
these should be taught’ (Bullock1975)
‘Grammar is error and error is grammar in much of the public mind.’
(Hancock 2009)
Grammar suffers ‘the misfortune of being associated with the negative, the
corrective, the inevitable remedial half of English teaching’ (Keith 1990)
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The Public View
SYNTAX TOO TAXING FOR TEACHERS Times Educational Supplement PUPILS NEED LESSONS IN HOW TO SPEAK PROPERLY The Telegraph ‘Teaching children about syntax and the parts of speech will result in better
writing, as well as making them politer, more patriotic and less likely to become pregnant’ (Pullman 2005).
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The Professional Position
‘English teachers do not see themselves as grammar police, on the lookout
for mistakes’ (NCTE 2006).
‘For most people, nothing helps their writing so much as learning to ignore
grammar’ (Elbow 1981)
A professional tendency to counter-point grammar and creativity
Professional beliefs’ continuum: from grammar as accuracy, to grammar as
unhelpful, to grammar as damaging.
Alternative view: that knowledge about language is an entitlement, a tool for
talking about language
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Research on Grammar • Repeated studies showing no evidence of impact on writing
• Studies investigated teaching a grammar course and teaching writing separately
• No studies which investigated teaching grammar meaningfully in context of the teaching of writing
• No studies conducted in the UK educational context
Reprise: grammar - a contested area
Public/political view of grammar:
error, accuracy and (moral) standards
Professional view of grammar:
Teaching grammar is pointless, even damaging
Teaching grammar has no impact on students’ writing
Teaching grammar is a valuable part of knowledge about language
Research on grammar:
Repeated studies showing no evidence of impact on writing
No studies which investigated teaching grammar meaningfully in context of
teaching writing
No studies conducted in the UK educational context
Understanding our Research
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Grammar meant: Grammar did not mean:
Developing knowledge about
language;
Using metalanguage to talk about
language;
Making connections between
grammar and writing.
Learning grammar rules;
Correcting grammar errors;
De-contextualised exercises.
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The Exeter Project
The Research Design
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Observations Writing
outcomes
Student interviews
16 Intervention classes were taught 3
schemes of work supporting contextualised
grammar knowledge
Pre and post tests compared to
16 comparison classes
Teacher interviews
A randomised control trial
Embedded in a qualitative study
The Intervention
Designed 3 schemes work (1 per term) focusing on a different written genre: Narrative Fiction; Argument; Poetry
Each unit matched the Framework for English
Grammar features which were relevant to the writing being taught were embedded into the teaching units
Intervention group had detailed teaching materials for each lesson
Comparison group addressed same learning objectives, same resources and produced same written outcomes, but had no lesson plans
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Contextualised Grammar Teaching
A rhetorical view of grammar – exploring how language works
Investigating how language choices construct meanings in different
contexts
The teaching focus is on writing, not on grammar per se
The teaching focus is on effects and constructing meanings, not on the
feature or terminology itself
The teaching goal is to open up a repertoire of infinite possibilities, not
to teach about ‘correct’ ways of writing
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Results?
Statistically significant positive effect for intervention group
Intervention group improved their writing scores by 20% over the year
compared with 11% in the comparison group.
The grammar teaching had greatest impact on able writers
Able writers in the comparison group barely improved over the year
Teachers’ subject knowledge of grammar was an influencing factor
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A Purposeful Pedagogy for Grammar
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Key Teaching Principles Grammatical metalanguage is used, but it is explained through examples; Links are always made between the feature introduced and how it might enhance
the writing being tackled; Discussion is fundamental in encouraging critical conversations about language
and effects;
The use of ‘creative imitation’ offers model patterns for students to play with and then use in their own writing;
The use of authentic examples from authentic texts links writers to the broader community of writers;
Activities support students in making choices and being designers of writing; Language play, experimentation, risk-taking and games are actively encouraged.
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Using Grammatical Metalanguage Grammatical metalanguage is used, but it is explained through examples
Hearing the terminology used in relevant contexts may support learning;
Being able to use the terminology allows for more succinct talk about writing but the terminology may be a barrier for some students;
Providing examples allows students to access the structure and discuss its effect even if they don’t remember the grammatical name.
Seeing examples is more concrete learning compared with the abstract learning needed with terminology
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A Classroom Example Context: writing a persuasive speech Learning Focus: how modal verbs can express different levels of assertiveness
or possibility in persuasion Resource with modal verbs listed: can; could; may; might; must; shall; should; will; ought to
TASK: Imagine that you are Roy Hodgson talking to the England team before the penalty shoot-out in the Euro 2012 match against Spain. Write a short ‘pep talk,’ arguing that it’s still possible to win, using some of these modal verbs to predict what might / can / will happen in the shoot out. You could start: ‘We can win a penalty shoot-out.’
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Making Connections Links are always made between the feature introduced and how it might enhance
the writing being tackled
The goal in embedding attention to grammar within a writing curriculum is to support writing development, not to learn grammar;
Understanding ‘effects’ is part of beginning to understand the writer’s craft and the possibilities open to a writer;
Considering how grammatical structures create meaning in specific contexts reinforces the importance of context
Making meaningful connections between writing and grammar avoids redundant learning, such as complex sentences are good sentences
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A Classroom Example Context: Writing fairy tales Learning Focus: the simplicity of noun phrases in fairy tales Connections between grammar and writing: Fairy tales draw on oral narratives and written versions retain many of the
patterns of oral language. These helped listeners to follow and remember the story. Nouns and adjectives are often used very simply.
Repetition of adjectives
Eg long, long ago; far, far away, a dark, dark wood.
Short noun phrases with just one adjective
Eg wicked stepmother; enchanted forest; handsome prince; golden apple
Predictable ‘stock’ of nouns and adjectives
Eg beautiful; evil; castle; king; forest; princess; 22
Writing Conversations Discussion is fundamental in encouraging critical conversations about language
and effects
Constructive exploratory talk enables learning to develop;
Teacher input is important in initiating learning but understanding cannot be transmitted from teacher to student;
Talk fosters discussion about choices, possibilities and effects;
Talk may be the key to moving students from superficial learning about grammar (eg add adjectives to create description) to deep learning (eg some adjectives are redundant because the noun is descriptive);
Talk gives ownership to writers in making writerly decisions.
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A Classroom Example Context: Writing Fictional Narrative
Learning Focus: how short sentences can create tension in narrative
TASK:
In pairs, read the extract from Peter Brenchley’s Jaws and find the three shortest sentences he uses. Discuss why he might have chosen to make these three sentences so short? What part do they play in the narrative structure of this incident? What effect might they have on the reader?
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Creative imitation The use of ‘creative imitation’ offers model patterns for students to play with and
then use in their own writing
Imitation is a scaffold which allows students to try out new structures or new ways of expressing something;
As a scaffold it fosters both success and experimentation;
Imitation may help to embed new structures cognitively within the student’s writing repertoire;
Creative imitation is a first step in generating original combinations.
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A Classroom Example Context: Argument Writing Learning Focus: how using an imperative opening sentence followed by an
emotive narrative can act as an effective hook for a persuasive argument which follows.
TASK: Picture the scene. There are dogs running wild around a courtyard littered with muck and machinery. There are dogs rammed in cages, noses pressed against the bars. There are dogs whose fur is hanging in great clumps, with bare skin and running sores. The noise of barking and yelping is deafening, but in one cage a golden labrador lies silent, head on its paws, looking at the yard with melancholy eyes.
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Authentic Texts The use of authentic examples from authentic texts links writers to the broader
community of writers
Writers need to explore what real writers do and the choices they make;
Using authentic texts makes meaningful links between being a reader and being a writer;
Using authentic texts allows teachers to choose texts which will motivate and engage their students;
Using authentic texts avoids the pitfalls of examples artificially created to exemplify a grammar point which have no resonance of truth.
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A Classroom Example Context: Writing Poetry
Learning Focus: how noun phrases can evoke vivid images
Activity:
Using a Roethke’s poem, Boy on Top of a Greenhouse, students analyse how the poem is entirely comprised of a series of expanded noun phrases with no finite verb. The noun phrases build a detailed picture of the scene and the absence of a finite verb creates a sense of a frozen moment in time. Students use this as a model for writing their own poem.
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Making Design Choices Activities support students in making choices and being designers of writing Making choices gives more autonomy to the writer and less to the teacher; Choice-making fosters ownership and authorial responsibility; Making choices more visible opens up the writing process, making real the
idea that writing is a complex act of decision-making Encouraging writers to see that choices are available to them avoids
formulaic writing or checklist approaches; Awareness of the importance of choices makes writers more aware of a
repertoire of infinite possibilities.
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A Classroom Example Context: Writing Argument
Focus: How sentence length and sentence structure can be used to create rhetorical effect in the closing of a persuasive argument.
TASK:
Students are given the sentences from the final paragraph of a persuasive speech, each sentence on a separate strip of paper. They are given two sets of the same sentences. In pairs, they create two version of the ending of the argument and discuss the different ways the two versions work. Finally they choose and justify the choice of their preferred version.
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Playful Experimentation Language play, experimentation, risk-taking and games are actively encouraged
Playfulness helps writers to see the elasticity of language, the possibilities it affords;
Experimentation and taking risks are at the heart of creativity;
Writers need opportunities for constructive ‘failure’;
Able writers often play safe and avoid trying out new ways of writing;
Playfulness is engaging.
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A Classroom Example Context: Writing Poetry Focus: how varying sentence structure and sentence length can create
different emphases in poetry.
TASK: Using an exploded version of Sylvia Plath’s Mirror presented alphabetically as a word grid, students are asked to generate pairs of sentence, experimenting with the possibilities outlined below: ◦ Beginning with a non-finite verb, adverb or prepositional phrase ◦ Using a short verbless sentence ◦ Using a one word sentence ◦ Using repetition of a single word or short phrase.
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The noun phrase for description in fictional narrative
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Noun Phrases for Description Change the noun to a Proper Noun: Joe Capaldi Change the noun to another common noun : figure Add one adjective to the common noun: silent figure Decide whether you want a definite or indefinite article: a silent figure Add a relative clause: a silent figure, who was walking with intent, Remove the relative clause and add a non-finite clause: a silent figure, walking with
intent, Remove the non-finite clause and add a prepositional phrase: a silent figure, with a
battered suitcase, Remove the prepositional phrase and add two adjectives joined by ‘and’ : a silent
figure, dark and silhouetted, Remove the adjectival pair and add an adjective modified by an adverb : a silent figure,
clearly angry Experiment with variations on the above
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Metalinguistic knowledge
Effective teachers in our study:
always linked the linguistic feature to a specific context-relevant effect or
purpose, thus making meaningful connections between the grammar under
focus and the writing;
responded to students’ own writing sensitively, asking questions which invited
students to consider the writing choices they were making, or by drawing out
explicitly effective choices in the writing;
had sufficient metalinguistic knowledge to notice relevant aspects of reading
texts or students’ writing to draw to learners’ attention.
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Writing and Grammar Teaching writing using grammar is not about obedience to rules but the
nurturing of a repertoire which generates infinite possibilities.
Teaching grammar shows young writers how to manipulate and stretch language like putty: it is explicit.
It acknowledges that startling images, arising unbidden from the unconscious, sometimes surprise the writer, that the turn of a sentence in its first draft may be just right, and that through writing we often discover what we want to say.
It also recognizes that for most writers, such moments of creative flow are balanced by the hard slog of generating, tuning, and refining our writing.
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Schemes of Work Published by NATE: free to NATE members; £7.50 each to non-members. http://www.nate.org.uk/page/grammarschemes Articles: Myhill, D.A. Jones, S.M., Lines, H. and Watson A. (2012) Re-Thinking Grammar:
the Impact of Embedded Grammar Teaching on Students’ Writing and Students’ Metalinguistic Understanding. Research Papers in Education 27 (2) 139-166
Wilson, A.C. and Myhill, D.A. Ways with Words: Teachers’ Personal Epistemologies of the Role of Metalanguage in the Teaching of Poetry Writing Language and Education
Myhill, D.A. (2011) ‘The Ordeal of Deliberate Choice’: Metalinguistic Development in Secondary Writers in Berninger, V (ed) Past, present, and future contributions of cognitive writing research to cognitive psychology. New York: Psychology Press/Taylor Francis Group. pp247-274
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