• r

GRAMMAR

O~' TH&

JAPANESE WRITTEN LANGUAGE.

118400U\

W, G. ASTON, C.M.G. D.LIT.,Late jajJrlII8St Secretary, /{,R,.lf.'s LegflliOll, T(I/d(l,jatflll.

THIRD EDITIO!'~, Revised and Corrected.... .~.-- . :.' . .

. .

.."

l!.onb'on :L ZAC & CO.

!]ollolj.tna:LANE, eRA \:',FORD & CO.

1904

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CONTENTS.

Introductory Remarks page i.

CH.~PTIiR

I. Writing, Pronunciation, Accent, Letter-changes

II. Classification of Words

!II. Uninflected Principal Words (Na). Noun, Pronoun,Numeral Adjective, Adverb, Conjunction, Int r-jection

IV. Inflected Principal Words (Kotoba), Conjugations,Derivative Verbs, Compound Verbs, DerivativeAdjectives, Compound Adjectives

V. Uninflected Teniwoha suffixed to Na

VI. Uninflected Teniwoha added to Kotoba ...

VII. Inflected Teniwoha .. ,

VIII. Humble and Honorific Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs,Verbs used as Adverbs and Conjunctions

IX. Syntax ...X. Prosody

Appendix. Specimens of Japanese

Index.

PAGE.

39

79

106

134

170

WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

jA GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE SPOKEN LAN-

GUAGE.

THE NIHONGI; or, Chronicles of Japan from theEarliest Times to A.n. 697. Translated from the Original Chinese andJapanese.

A HISTORY OF JAPANESE LITERATURE.

SHINTO. II/ preparation.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

IN its structure, the Japanese language possesses all thecharacteristics of the Turanian family. It is in the mainan agglutinative language, that is to say, the roots of wordssuffer no change," and the results which are obtained inEuropean languages by inflection are arrived at in Japaneseby the use of separate particles suffixed to the root. Likethe other languages of this family, Japanese has no formativeprefixes such as the German CE, or the reduplication of theperfect in Latin and Greek verbs. Its poverty in conjunctionsand copious use of participles instead is another point ofresemblance. The Japanese language is further an exampleof the rule common to all languages of this family, that everyword which serves to define another word invariably precedesit. Thus the adjective precedes the noun, the adverb the verb,the genitive the word which governs it, the objective casethe verb, and the word governed by a preposition thepreposi tion.

The number of vocables common to Japanese with itskindred tongues is much smaller than might have beenexpected. The only language which contains any con-

•••It may be a question whether the addition of the vowels a, i, U ande to the roots of verbs (see Chap. IV.) is agglutination or inflection. Tothe Japanese mind the)' are not distinct from the root, and a Japaneseknows nothing of such forms as mat (wait), lab (eat). These vowelshave no meaning in themselves. They only serve to modify themeaning of the root, and therefore the term inflection appears moreappropriate. It has accordingly been used in this treatise to distinguishthese changes (rom agglutination proper, or the addition of particleswhich have a distinct meaning of their own, and are recognized b)' thosewho use the languag-e as separate from the root.

B

11 !NTROIJUCTJON.

siderable proportion of words which are also found inJapanese is that spoken in the Loo-choo Islands. Loochooanis very closely related to Japanese, but Mr. B. H. Chamber-lain's researches show clearly that its grammar differs somuch that it cannot be regarded as a mere dialect.

The Korean language has also an affinity with Japanese.The number of common roots is apparently not considerable,but the resemblance ill grammatical structure is very close.

The vocabulary of the japanese language, as it appears inits oldest monuments, is, in so far as it is possible to judge,homogeneous. It contains only a very few of the Chinesevocables which are ;;0 plentiful in its later forms.

According to Japanese accounts, the study of Chinese wasfirst introduced into japan in the third century of theChristian era, when Chinese books and teachers were broughtover from Korca ;" but even if these accounts can bedepended upon, the influence of these teachers was probablyconfined to the Court, and had little permanent effect. Asuccession of other teachers afterwards arrived from Korea,but it was not till the sixth century, when Buddhism was firstintroduced into Japan, that the study of Chinese becamegeneral. From this time it spread rapidly. The profaneliterature of China was also studied, and Chinese words beganto find their way into the japanese language. This processhas gone on uninterruptedly up to the present day, and now

• The old Japanese histories inform liS that a teacher of Chinesecalled Ajiki came over to Japan from Korea A.D. 284, for which thecorrect date is 404. In the following year a second, named I¥am', wassent for. IVmli is said to have brought with him the ROII·go, or Con-fucian Analects, and Sen-fi-mon, or thousand character classic, but theremust be a mistake about the last-named work, as it was not written tillmore than two hundred years later. These two scholars were subse-quently made instructors to the Imperial Prince. There is, however,evidence that Chinese books were brought to Japan in the precedingreign,

INTRODUCTION. III

the Chinese words in the language far outnumber those ofnative origin.

The Chinese pronunciation first adopted by the Japanesewas that of the province of Co (Woo or U in Chinese).This province contained Nankin, the capital of Chin?under the eastern Tsin dynasty, which Legan A.D. 317,and it also contained the capital of the southern of thetwo empires into which China was divided during thedynasties which succeeded from A.D. 420 to A.D. 589. It wasthe Co pronunciation that the Buddhist priests used (andcontinue to use) in their litanies, and the greater number ofthe Chinese words which found their way into Japanese inthe early period of hinese learning have come down to uswith the Co pronunciation. Most of the kmta are Chinesecharacters pronounced according to the Co - 011, or withslight modifications of it. The reason for choosing thisdialect was no doubt simply because the province where itwas spoken lies nearest to Japan, and was at that time themost flourishing part of the Chinese Empire. The inter-course between Japan and this part of China was considerable,and was not confined to matters of religion and learningonly. Many Chinese customs and much of their civilizationwere adopted at the same time. To this day a draper's shopis called in Japan a Co-fulm-ya, or ••Go-clothing-house,"showing that what we are accustomed to consider theJapanese national costume was at first an imitation of thedress of Co. Japanese grammarians give as an additionalreason for preferring the Co pronunciation, or Co-O,t as it iscalled, that it approached more closely to the sound of the'Japanese language, and was therefore more easy of 'pro-nunciation. It is not to be supposed, however, that anyJapanese, except perhaps a few scholars who visited China,ever acquired the true Chinese pronunciation. It is im-possible to represent any Chinese dialect accurately by the

Il 2

IV INTRODUCTION.

Japanese syllabary. English written in this way becomesalmost unrecognizable, and the metamorphosis undergone byChinese when subjected to the same process is much greater.

A second mode of pronouncing Chinese was introducedinto Japan not long after the Go-on. This is what is knownas the Kall-on. Kan (in Chinese Elan) is the name of thecelebrated dynasty which ruled in China during the periodfrom u.c, 206 till A.D. 265. Under it flourished the greatestliterary men that China has produced, and even at thepresent day the Chinese are proud to call themselves "sonsof Han."

In a number of expressions Kau is used by the Japaneseas equivalent to "Chinese." Thus, K an-sela are Chinesebooks; f(am-Incn, Chinese composition; Knn-go, a Chineseword; Kan-gnkn, Chinese learning, &c. In the term Kan-anhowever, the word Kan has a narrower signification. TheKan-ou was the dialect which continued to be spoken in theprovince of Honan which had contained the seat of thegovernment of the Han dynasty. It was the most refinedand cultivated language of China at this period, and occupieda position similar to that now held by the so-called Mandarindialect. It was recognized as the standard pronunciation bythe Chinese teachers from Go, although they spoke andtaught their own dialect; and even the Buddhist divines, whodid more than any other class of scholars to establish theGO-Oil, did not altogether neglect the study of the Kan-ou,The GO-Oilhad become widely adopted before much attentionwas paid to the Kall-OII. The latter was, however, recognizedas the standard, and succeeded gradually in establishingitself as the more usual pronunciation of Chinese words. Itis now, except in rare cases, the only one given in Japanesedictionaries of the Chinese character, but a multitude ofwords is still pronounced according to the GO-Oil. The Kan-onoften coincides with the GO-O'l, but it is as frequently widely

INTROD erION. v

different, and the use of these two systems of pronunciationhas therefore given rise to considerable confusion. J n thecase of the more ancient lle1lgo, or names of periods, and ofthe names of the Mikados, it is often doubtful which is thecorrect pronunciation, and in many cases either may befollowed at pleasure.

The modern official Chinese language is car cd byJapanese the Ts-in, To, in Chinese Tang, is the name ~fthe dynasty which flourished in China from A.D. 6r8 toA.D. 906, but this word is used by the Japanese for Chinaand the Chinese nation generally. A Chinaman is popularlycalled To-ji", and To-itt means simply the modern Chineseas opposed to the J apa nese traditional pronunciation. TheTo-in has been generally adopted in the case of a very fewwords only, as lor instance 1JJ1, which is pronounced Mi:t(Chinese Ming) when thc dynasty of that name is meant. Itis also the pronunciation used in their litanies by the branchof the Zenshiu sect of Buddhists known as the Oba1:11ha.The Obaku ha was founded by missionaries from the monas-tery of Obaklt, in China, who came over to Japan A.D. 1692,and established themselves at Uji, not far from Ki6to. Likethe Go-on and K an-on, the To-in differs considerably in themouths of Japanese from the true Chinese pronunciation .• The accents are neglected in the present Japanese pro-nunciation of Chinese words. There are, however, sometraces of them to be found in the spelling. Where the samecharacter has two different accents, the spelling usuallyvaries, and the characters which have the entering accentin Chinese may be recognized from the Japanese spellingending in tsu, chi, kll, ki, or /11.

Chinese words can generally be easily distinguished fromthose of Japanese origin. They end much oftener indiphthongs and in thc letter n, and are usually associated intwos or threes, so that when one is known to be Chinese the

VI INTRODUCTION.

otners may be presumed to be so also. Another ••id to theirrecognition is the fact that in japanese syntax they area: ways treated as nouns. There are, however. a few cases inwhich genuine japanese words have assumed an appearancewhich makes them hard to be distinguished from Chinese.For instance sata, though really a j apanese worJ, identical

• with the root of sadaka, sadamcru, &c., is usually writtenwith the Chinese characters i'J; ik. and in this shape it hasall the appearance of a Chinese word. On the other hand,a good number of Chinese words which were introduced in theearly days of Chinese learning have become so thoroughlyassimilated that they might easily be mistaken for Japanesewords. Such are eeni (cash). which is only another form 01

,t sen iJ. semi (cicada) (or sen !lfj!. enislsi (connexion) fur eu-s/sirJe,/imLi (letter) for filii )(.

DUring the fourteen centuries over which our knowledgeof the Japanese written language extends. its grammarhas suffered but little change." and such modifications as ithas undergone have been slow and gradual. There is nogap between ancient and modem Japanese like that whichdivides Latin from Italian. or even that which separates theEnglish of the period before the Norman conquest (rom thatnow spoken. Such changes as have occurred consist chieflyin the disuse of certain particles and terminations, in modifi-cations of the meaning and use of others, and in the

••The grammatical structure of the Japanese language is looked uponby native writers as an institution of Divine origin, and they attribute tothis cause the substantial unity which it has maintained throughout itsentire history. Heretical views of grammar, or bact grammar, arctherefore a very serious matter in Japan. Amatsu otm mi ka",i 710mi/sllfalle ifII ni sId lutbereba, sono okite Ili tngahi aYlllllarli koto hll 111;klllllWO J.:egaslli-Ialrlllal.ruru lIIJ l.ruJlli !U.klll.:' arll/J~shi. II Grammar havingbeen handed down to us from the great and august gods of heaven,errors contrary to their ordinances must be a heinous crime, castingdisgrace upon our august country,"

INTRODUCTION. YII

disregard, to some extent, in the later forms of the languageof the rules of syntax of classical japanese.

The progress of these changes marks three stages in thehistory of the japanese language. rst, that of development,extending to about A.n. 900; znd, that of maturity,including the four following centuries; and lastly, that ofdecay, extending from A.D. 1300 up to to the present time.

The latter half of the eighteenth century and the first halfof the present witnessed a brilliant revival of the study ofthe old language, and it may be doubted whether japanesehas not attained a higher degree of perfection in the archzeo-logical and philological works of Mabuchi, Hirata, and moreespecially Motowori, than even in the golden age of itsliterature. But it is to be feared that this is no more thanan eddy in the main current. The old language is at presentfalling more and more into neglect, and the faculty of writingor even understanding it is becoming rarer every day. Itsuse is confined to learned treatises far removed from the dailyconcerns of life.

The style most in vogue at present (and used in officialdocuments, newspapers, &c.) is modelled on literal trans-lations of Chinese books. It is charged with Chinesewords, idioms, and constructions to such a degree that,whether read or written, it is often entirely unintelligible toan unlettered japanese, and its grammar is only a skeletonof the luxuriant system of the older language. [See speci-mens VII., VIII., and IX. at the end of this volume.]

The modern popular written language occupies an inter-mediate position between the old language, of which it is thetrue offspring, and the mongrel Chinese type just described.it is looser in its syntax and poorer in grammatical appliancesthan the former, but it has enriched its vocabulary by aliberal adoption of Chinese words. The Chinese element is,however, confined to the vocabulary, and there are few traces

VIII INTROD CTJO •

in this style of Chinese idioms and constructions. Booksaddressed to the unlearned class-such as novels, tales, theromances which take the place of history and biography toall but scholars, a certain proportion of the popular poetry,&c.-are composed in this style.

The spoken dialect of Japan differs so considerably in itsgrammar from the written idiom that it almost deserves to beregarded as a new language. Its position is not unlike thatof Italian in the middle ages, when it was only a spokendialect, the language used for literary purposes being exclu-sively Latin. The difference, however, is much less in degreethan in the case of Italian and Latin. The principal charac-teristic of the spoken language is a tendency to pass from theagglutinative into the inflectional stage of development,many suffixes which are in the written language distinct fromthe root being in the spoken dialect blended with it in sucha way that the separate elements can no longer be distin-guished except by the scholar. For instance, where thewritten language has sllilllnhi-lm'Z', the spoken has sldmaua ;for the written form ari-tari-keri, the spoken dialect hasattake , for ara-mu, nrO; for knln-Im, it has sometimes katD,and so on.

Among these various forms of Japanese, the classicalliterary language of the tenth, eleventh. twelfth, and thir-teenth centuries has been selected as the most suitablestandard for grammatical purposes, and such differences asthe other forms of the language present have been noted asvariations from it. The spoken dialect, however, differs soconsiderably from any of the written forms that it has beenfound more convenient to exclude it from the scope of thepresent work, and to make it the subject of a separatetreati e.

A considerable portion of the literature of J apan is writtenin the ancient classical Chinese language which is still

INTRODUCTION. IX

employed to a small extent. There seems, however, everyreason to believe that it will soon share the fate of Latin inEurope, and fall entirely out of use except for a few purposesof a special character.

CHAPTER J.

WRITING, PRO 'UNCIATION, ACCENT, LE1'ER-CIiANGES.

The origin and history of an alphabet, which in severalforms has been found inscribed on certain ancient scrollsdeposited in the treasuries of Japanese Temples, have beena fruitful subject of controversy amongst native scholars.Some have maintained that these letters, which they call theSlt£ndaiji, or "letters of the age of the gods," are of vastantiquity, but it is now admitted that they are nothing morethan the Korean script known as 0111111111, invented by a kingof that country towards the middle of the fifteenth century,and actually in use there at the present day.

Japanese is written by means of Chinese characters both inthe square (see 1., II., VII., and VIII. of the specimens atthe end of this volume) and cursive (see specimens IV., V.,and IX.), and also in several intermediate forms. The orderis the same as that of Chinese, viz., from top to bottom incolumns proceeding from right to left.

In writing Japanese, a Chinese character may have one offour different values. .

1. It may be the equivalent of a Chinese word (on or koe).2. It may be the equivalent of the synonymous Japanese

word (/mll or yomz).3. It may represent the mere sound of the Chinese word

0'i-01l 110 kana).4. It may represent the mere sound of the Japanese word

(k1l11 110 kana).In the two former cases a Chinese character has an ideo-

graphic value; in the two latter it has a phonetic value.\Vhen used in the former capacity, Chinese characters are

2 JAPANE~E WRITING.

termed by Japanese writers mana ; when used in the lattercapacity, they are called Imlla. JIIlalla means" true name,"implying that this is the true use of a character, while kalla(contracted for kan-na) means" borrowed name," as in thiscase the mere sound of a character is "borrowed" in order toexpress the whole, or more frequently only a part of a wordunconnected with it in meaning.

Every Chinese character may be used as the equivalent ofa Chinese or of the synonymous Japanese word, and aconsiderable number of them are also occasionally employedphonetically. For example, :R (heaven), may be equivalentto (I) the Chinese word ten, (2) the japanese word ame, cr(3) the mere sound te or ten, :R is not used for the meresound ante, as distinguished from the word ante (heaven).An instance of a Chinese character used to represent themere sound of a Japanese word i, =.:. which is used for thesound 1I1i(4), as well as for the Japanese word lIIi or lIIitslt

" three" (2), and the synonymous Chinese word salt (1).*In the oldest Japanese writing, the Chinese characters are

generally mana, and have their ideographic value. TheK,!jiki, for instance. is written principally in mann, as are alsothe norito, or ancient ShintO prayers. Specimen I. (from theKojiki) at the end of this volume is an example of this stageof Japanese writing. It will be observed that the Chineseorder of the characters is followed, and it might perhaps be

* This may be illustrated b)' the following example of the resultswhich would have taken place had the Roman numeral signs been madeuse of in a similar way in writing English :-" On the IIICenar), (I) aC (2) times I C (3) him to you, although it tC (4); i.e., "on the ter-centenary a hundred times I sent him to you, although it thundered."Here C has first its proper meaning, and represents the Latin word cent,(a hundred); second, it has its proper meaning, and represents theEnglish word" hundred n; third, it represents the Latin sound eml only,the meaning being different; fourth, it represents the English soundIlundred, the meaning being different.

JAPANESE WRITING. 3

suspected that the Kojiki was intended as Chinese, and notas Japanese at all. The authority of l\1otowori, however, isagainst such a supposition, and he has even given us arestoration in Kalla of the entire text, as he conceives it tohave been originally read. In the noruo, the characters arewritten in their Japanese order.

But even in this early stage it was occasionally foundnecessary to give the Chinese characters a phonetic value, inorder to write Japanese proper names of unknown or doubtfulderivation, and other words or particles for which there wereno convenient Chinese equivalents. Besides, in the case ofpoetry, 1110110 could only give the meaning, whereas with kano,not only the meaning, but the precise words and particlesused could be expressed, and consequently the metre rendereddiscernible. These causes gradually gave rise to a moreextended use of the Chinese characters as mere phoneticsigns. The poetry in the Kojiki is written in kalla, and in theMOllyosniu, a collection of poems extending over the periodfrom the fifth to the ninth century, a gradual increase in theproportion of phonetic signs is plainly observable.

At this period the analysis of the sounds of the languageinto forty-seven syllables had not been made, and inasmuchas many different characters were used not only for each ofthese forty-seven sounds, but also for many of a compositenature, great confusion resulted, much of which is now avoidedby the use of the alphabets, or rather syllabaries, known asthe Katakana and Hiragaua. There is some doubt respectingthe exact date of their first introduction, but it is known thatboth had come into general use by the end of the ninthcentury of our era.

The Hiragaua syllabary can hardly be called an invention.It consists simply of abbreviated cursive forms of a limitednumber of the more common Chinese characters. Thissyllabary consists of forty-seven syllables, but each syllable

4 JAPANESE WRITING.

is represented by several characters, and as some of theseare written in several different ways, the entire number ofsigns amounts to about three hundred.

The Katakana syllabary is of a more artificial character.It consists, like the Hiragana, of forty-seven syllables, butthere is only one sign for each. Most of the Kata/sanacharacters are abbreviated forms of Chinese square characters,one side (kata) or a part being taken to represent the entirecharacter. Thus", (i) is an ••.bbreviated form of 1JI', '" (ro)of g, and so on."

Modern Japanese writing is an intermixture of Chinesecharacters used as ideographic signs (1IIalla) with Katakanaor Hiragnna. The proportion in which these elements arecombined varies greatly, and is different even in differenteditions of the same book, words which are at one timerepresented by mana, being at another expressed by meansof Katakana or Hiragaua. In other respects, too, there isgreat irregularity. The following rules are therefore subjectto numerous exceptions :-

I. lYJana are used for all words of Chinese origin, and forthe roots of the more important Japanese words (na andkotoba).

2. Katagana and Hiragaua are used for grammaticalterminations, and for the less important words of Japaneseorigin (teniwoha).

3. Katagana or Hiragana are often found, as in Speci-men VI. at the end of this book, written to the right of aChinese character, to represent phonetically the Chinese orJapanese word to which it is equivalent. They may alsobe written to the left. as in Specimen III., but this is lesscommon.

• It is a curious (act, that notwithstanding its greater simplicity andconvenience, the lower classes of Japanese are unacquainted with theKatakann, and even schulars prefer the Hiragana for most purposes.

JAPANESE WRITING. 5

4. Katakaua are found with the square form of the Chinesecharacter (see Specimens 1.,11., VII., and VIII.); Hiragauawith the cursive form (see Specimens I'!., V., and IX.).

S. Katakona are occasio rally employed amongst Hiragauain writing interjections, foreign words, and also where italicswould be used in English.

The pronunciation of the I( atakana and Hiragalla is n talways identical with that of the characters from which theyare derived. 7' and -C, for instance, are pronounced te,although derived from JC, which has the sound ten,

The Kataeana and Hiragana are arranged by nativegrammarians in two different orders. That in popular use isstyled iroha, from its first three letters. In this arrangementthe forty-seven sounds constituting the syllabary have beenmade into a line of dogg)el verse as an aid to the memory.The following table (Table 1.) exhibits the Katakaua andHiragnna arranged in this manner. The first columncontains the English pronunciation, the second the Katakanawith the Chinese characters of which they are abbreviatedforms, and the remaining columns the Hiragana letters,together with the Chinese square characters from which theyare derived. In this table the Hiragana letters are arranged inorder of their most frequent occurrence, those in the firstspace being far more frequently met with than the others.It is this variety which is given in native educational worksand taught in schools, and at first tile student had perhapsbetter confine his attention to it.

6 TABLE I.

PRON. RATA-fIlRAGANA.

_ lUNA.

-1 \' oJ. 1:j • ~f1'l°-1 1:y r'A Wt.. -11 ~: ;f~-:>, '--'P =? ? g ~- -1~

ro g,~ g s JJi- .~,--1~

~

'1~ '!t/\ Y:h {.

~•.." --%

ha »; ~.&: 7t *- i~ ';t~

it ~- ~.1f1.

~ ~ .it -t A>Jt.

*~. 'eJ'$ e,

- ~~z, 3 !f> .4,

•ill - ~=- - .Jf ~ ~~ -

- :1. -4J.~

-¢- 71- i(; <.7

ho- it,

~ N t~ t -1'-1* ;~ -11f- --1* *- *-\

• Nzgt»'. only, .,e., ba;

TABLE I. 7.

PRON. KAT~- ~ HlRAGANA.KANa,

110)!

C(mf,f. '1f~ ~

~ l :F ~he JIll. _mt lib.. lfi .~ l!.J~ ~

......,.*' fJ<}

~ ~ ~-

r t ~ t .)t s-'I.

to - J:.~

Jl:. -&:- .1f-$..'

jr~I .~ .0-)jt ~ >t- I

.::;-~ -~- '&.' &. ti

thi!fir:' !fi~ jfiP )~ ;&t 1it

J ·LJ . 1.--0 1') 1. n. ,1'1 ;!"J ~"J i'] ;;l'~. .!. ;f£

~..." 1: 1i~t;<,

~ ~ $ I.3- ~;;). iO ~ ~ i..-v>nu . .

!:JtZ '::ll5\..~ ~ .3J}'

. I

•. Nlgon, only. t.t., be.c

8 TABLE I.

- ,, PROI\. . !'l',\ ; lllRAGA~A.

i KA.i"A •.

IV l> '2 I \1- ~> .?:>ru :a t-o {.n I ~;iL :of.<~,/IlL.. \E \lJ OIL

Yo> 11..b

~, ~

7 t J~~ '1±wo it it ~

.-..5j~ >f~ 3'?

1ft

1~ 51- f~'J :b I

,~-;t'?

wa ;fP &p A·p .l.-'1'.

JJ 7.>' o!.> -1;1;

, 4)

ka p'O /1'0 VJ Pf~ ~ ~ *~

W ~ )t ~

:3 's. t- $.. I b~.~,

yo * .!j ~1 .lj '*" .s-, \ .t,

1~ Jv~ K1?- 1~-'1\., Ni,pri only, s.e., gao

TABLE I. 9

PRON. KATA·K.o\NA.

mruoANA.

60

tsu

iJh ft,~?r' ~.!r,

ne

• N1.f01" only, s.e., 7.0.

C 2

10 TABLE I.

~TA· •PRO~. HlRAGANA. IKANA.

.t ~ ~ I s. I ~

~Xna ;t.....k- )$. X.....~ j1.~• ,T, il__i/\ .T, ,7,

0 m- .tt J1 ~ "I

~~ J1~ i1fj ~tf;>"

7 ~ > 0 n n1":"l.~<.. R ~<.. t-<-- fJ..~.. ,.•.•..

- A U ~ I '- -1. 13~mu Sf- 'j(~ I if- I~

~7f, ~ "i-J"Ii

f'

}1f ~- 7 ? •

~ 1~~"1~U

h~ ,q:- + r7> /jf, ~T ":1, -x;-'~.. ~.LiJ~ .. "1-

I

* */ 0) 1) at- :0 ~,no J) J) J] ~t At !t.

Vh I 1

.~"ITf<-,

TABLE I. u

KATA· •KANj\. ,t

PRON.

o;t it ;f~ ~~' t.,

v

~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~

? < 1.. d?. If nA 1,- ~ 7U J1" 1n.

1J.~L

ku

;-)

~.

111n

fa

12 TABLE I.

PROI'.KATA· mMGANA.KANA.

::l L -t tfJ. I 10ko

D b -t it 1i5(...:L. • . '> il!'tt? it

e tr.. )J:. *- *~ vt -::1:>

* s: ;;tz7 "'( -; .,. < 1 vJf

tc ;J\.. 7\..' .f~I 5.. ~f, I ift~ t35 1l-T1~.~t

7 ~ ~'K>

a ,..,'- 5< FJPij :X--y

~.' (t:S -t. I t I it

l-;[t.=it :k /fir: :k ~ 11ftI. .

~l- ., if1 '-'"l!~ 1 .~ . a:J- ~'itI .)IZ . -'f- . .lj'"

~~

.~.~ l'ki 7~

~\ ~~ )1r2. I J~ ~ :t;l;

~ .~

KATA-PRON. BIRAGANA_

KANA.

ki ~ ~ ~\

~

.,r~

C07lfci. . -s-...:z..

~-'0 vp Jt .Q.

yu Yl \b tb m nt ~.? ts1)

~ ~ t -sme

*" * )L ~J¥,..

I~

,1;f ~, s: ~

"""t

11n s. ~1~ ~

~ }L:?' 7"-~ \ v~~

-~--v t l- t ~ *1shi ;z..

~ ~ ;t jf;t -,'1.-~

~~ ~

14» d) ~J;e y'

~~ I~'

"' - -,lo- n.-;hT /.0'- ~r. ,:....'. I ,';-J•• U ~.,

~ .0 I h'-hi '-).,(; yO * ~

vI:. I ;j~I~

13 ~t j;. ~

!,

'. 1:1 .~f j(- . ..

• Nifo1°" only, ,.t~,j;.

I

JAPANESE WRITING.

TABLE 1.

-KATA-. •PRON. BlRAGANA. I

~'1A.

..:c i>~ i Q I ~ ,~,:0;10

~k:; .kJ k:J .!o ~

--ro-- ~ '7 .~~. ~

r

* y:}}.~ ·a*-e -tt- ~~ !Jf jhlSC .:J

:1lt ~ 'ilt .~.,j ' •

7if .;A :1 ~

.~.. tf> ~~SU ~;l , --j- *- -->" ~k i~. "-Jt-:P

7), I -p~~

t1~ jx.'33t 'I}JI

...:>.

~

c> Iv11 -- ':10

The arrangement given in the following table (Table II.)is usually preferred by native scholars to the iroha. Herethe syllabary (in the Katakana form) is arranged after amore scientific method, those syllables which contain thesame vowels being arranged in upright columns, and thosecontaining the same consonants in horizontal columns. Itwill be observed that this table contains fifty letters.

JAPANESE WRITING. 15

TABLE II.

~ j K I<'I S T N H M Y R WI'<0 I:>-

7 11 ,-I)" ,. ,"- " -e -\7 ., '?.'A

a .ks. sa ta. Ina ha ma ya ra wa'I 3i" s- t- - l: Eo (8 'I 'l'i

Ii ki shi chi ni : hi mi yi n )

,. ? ;1.. 7 J. 7 ;. ::L )1- @U

u ku su tsn nn fu IDU yu ru wux: ". ~ 't' .;i- '" ;I- ® v .x.

Ee ke se te ne he me ye re e

r-- I:K zr ;J t , II· 0{: '3 V. 'J

O·0 ko so to DO ho mo yo ro wo---

Amongst these, however, the three letters which have circlesdrawn round them are not in use, and have only beenintroduced in order to fill up the breaks in the series.

The reason why no letters are required for yi and unc isno doubt the close affinity of y and i and wand u, whichrenders y and w almost inaudible in this combination. Yeis equal to yi+a, and the same remark is therefore applicableto it as to yt:

16 JAPAKESE WRITING.

N final is omitted from the second Table. It is properlynot a Japanese letter, the termination of the future, which isnearly the only place where it is found in Japanese words,having been anciently not 11, but 11l11. It sometimes repre-ents an r which has been assimilated to an 11 or m following.

The Japanese language does not possess the sounds si, ti,tit, or 1m. For si it has slu , for ti, c/si ; for til, tsu , and for1111,/11.

>l' and .:e, though belonging to the w column, are notpronounced wi and we, but i and e. No doubt the originalpronunciation was wi and we. lVo (;;') was formerly con-sidered one of the a (7") i (-1 ) u (7) e (So) series, and 0 (;t)was placed along with wa ('7) i (>l') wu U)} e (~).Motowori corrected this error, but it is still found in manyJapanese books. The Wakim S/liwori, £01' instance, followsthe old practice.

It will have been observed that the preceding Tables donot contain the letters g, e, ;: d, b, and p. Neither theHiragana nor the Katakana originally provided any meansof distinguishing the syllables commencing with these lettersfrom those beginning with k, s, sIt, t, and It, and there aremany old printed books in which the distinction is notmarked. The passage at the end of this volume, taken fromthe Taketori flfollogatari, is in example of this practice. Thediacritic mark ( )\ ) known as the ·lligori, placed to the rightof the letter, is now made use of for this purpose. It is thesame for both Hiragana and K aiakana. The letter p hadno existence in the older form of the language. J l is nowmarked by a small circle ("), called the /t01t.-1tigol'i,written tothe right of those kana which commence with h or f. The

.• Nigori means ••impurity," It is opposed to .flllll' (purity), the termused in speaking of the unchanged sounds. An old form of the 7Ug-OI'I~

now lillieused. is 00, as ;11" (ga}. The 1ligori is oflen omitted, even at .t'ie "resent dar.

JAPANESE WRITING. 17

use of these marks will be best understood from the sub-joined table :-

{ j1 ka""

ki ? ku '/ ke :2 kojf ga ,,"' gl ?- gu 7' ge -::to go

I ,.. sa ~ shi ~ su -i! se :J so~ za v J1 ~- zu -i!- ze ..f zo

I ? ta T chi -:J tsu 7" te l- to!it' da ".. dji ,:/. dzu -, de r do7

I.." ha ~ hi "7 fu "- he .r- ho-,,' ba ~' bi 7- bu -e be "" bo...: pa ~. pi 7' pu -e pe ,j;' po

OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING.

1 (Katakana) or ~ lHiragana; for koto. a ••thing oraction." This sign is also used. more especially in the

forms l or I, to mark the beginning of a speech or

quotation-thusl. In this position it stands for koto,R-

in the sense of kotcba, ••words." In dramas it marks thebeginning of the prose speeches of the actors,

l. is also used for koto, It is a combination of theHiragana Z. and \!:.

~ or k.. said to be a form of 1:. is used for a Chinese

character when repeated a second time. as -;; ichi-ichi, "one

by one,"

(. (with Kntnkmla) and \ (with Hirclgall,I). said to be a'so

abbreviated forms of 1:. are put for the repetition of a word

18 OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING.

1:of more than one syllable, as I-

<t

!rilo.bilo, ••men;" '((

mote

mate, ••wait I wait!"" , said to be a further contraction of the same character,

is used for the repetition of a single syllable, as 't Ita! Ito!'t

ha! Ita! /IO! ~ koko, " here."

o • and , are marks of punctuation, but they correspondnot so much to our periods and commas as to the rhythmicalpauses made by the japanese in reading. They will befound very unsafe guides to the structure of a sentence,o marks the beginning of a chapter or section. -, whichis merely the character ielti, "one," marks thc beginning o,shorter divisions than O. It is often put where" item" mightbe used in English. A document, the sections of which aremarked in this way, is called a 11itotstt-gtlki or ••one-writing."2 is the equivalent of the English [ ] or ( ).L- marks the end of a paragraph.* is for I- =\' loki, " lime."-.J- is also uscd for toki, ••time."If: is for I- -'£; 101110, "although."Z. is put for go::;ont, "to be."3S. is written lor tama, the first two syllables of tamafu, the

honoi ific auxiliary verb.~ is put in j(lItakano for shlte, co having done."One or two lines drawn to the right of a word or character

have rhe same effect as italics or capitals in English printing,

as :1 ;~.The sallie effect is produced by a hne drawn round a word

I~or letter, as ~.

OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. 19

z: is put for gOJJf1, the first two syllables of gosari«, •• to be."71" is for 111(1SII, the polite termination of verbs in the spoken

language,In writing or printing Japanese, the divisions between the

words of a sentence are not marked by corresponding spacesbetween the letters, as in English. The Katakaua arewritten distinct from each other, but there is nothing to showwhere one word ends and another begins, while in Hiraganathe letters are joined to each other or spaces left betweenthem, entirely according to the caprice of the writer, and withno reference to the natural divisions of the words.

] apanese printing is in most cases an exact imitation ofthe written manuscript, the paper being pasted on the blockswhich are then cut out, thus making a facsimile of thewriting. This is, of course, impossible with moveable types,the use of which has lately spread extensively, but evenin their case no spaces are left to show the divisions betweenthe words, as in European printing.

PRONUNCIATIO '.

a has the sound of a in father.z

" " " •• z " machine.11

" " " " 00 " book.e " " " " ey " tl,ey.0 " " " " 0 " so.

U frequently becomes i after sh,;; or cI, in the Yedopronunciation of Chinese words, as sll1lku, which is pro-nounced shilm.

The consonants have the same sounds as in English,except in the following cases :-

S, Sll.-Se and shi are the Yedo pronunciation. In someprovinces these syllables are pronounced size and si.

Ji, the nigori of slzi, is pronounced exactly like di;, thenigori of cM. A different spelling has been adopted in order

20 PRONUNCIATION.

to preserve a mark of the different origin of these two letters.Zit and dZll are also often confounded, especially by nativesofYedo.

T, D.-The pronunciation of these letters differs slightlyfrom the English sounds. In English the tip of the tonguetouches the palate; in forming the Japanese sounds it ispressed more forward against the teeth.

H, F.--Tn the Yedo language the pronunciation of theseletters resembles the English, except that in producing theJapanese sound represented by f, the under lip does nottouch the upper teeth, but only approaches them, the resultbeing a kind of strongly aspirated who III the west ofJapan all this series of aspirates is pronounced f, not h.Hiee« is called Fieen , Hirado, Firaudo, and so on. In thevulgar Yedo dialect hi is almost undistinguishable from sIt;.

R.-Especially before i, r differs considerably from theEnglish sound. The true pronunciation can only be learntfrom a native of J apan."

The pronunciation of combinations of Japanese lettersin some cases differs considerably from that of the letterstaken separately, and in order to be able to read Japanesebooks as they are read by the Japanese themselves, it isnecessary to know not only the sound of each letter whentaken separately, but also the changes which its pronunciationundergoes in these cases.

Au, afu, ou, ofn 00, oho, and ozuo are pronounced 0,. andeu, efu, eo, and eho are pronounced io or yo. Thus soft, (toassociate) is pronounced so,. OILOsakais read Osaka; sen-sou(a battle) is pronounced sen-so; efll (to get drunk), yo, andso on.

• The Japanese r is a medial, and not an aspirate. It is formed inthe same way as d, except that the tip of the longue touches the roof ofthe mouth further back than in pronouncing that letter. Some Japanesemake it almost}.

PRONUNCIATION. 21

The latter part of this rule is in reality only a particularcase of the former. In Japanese etymology, e is equal to i+a.En is therefore i a It: i.e., by the first part of the rule i8 or y8.This explains some apparent difficulties in Japanese pro-nunciation. Teu, for instance, is pronounced cl18, te It beingequal to Ii a u, i.e., clti u or eM, t changing to cit before i, andau being contracted into o. A similar analysis will show howit is that defi~ is pronounced dju; sefu, s/zO; and hell, Itiyoor ItJ/(j.

Exception I : In the terminations of verbs a/II oft« are bymost Japanese read aii vii.

Exception 2: In some words of native origin, afit and ofuare pronounced as written, for example--afitreru, to overflow;hofuru, to slaughter.

U.-In pronouncing Chinese compounds, the first part ofwhich ends with the letter kll, and the second begins with k,the It is lost, as in mokl/-kOIl, which is read mokkon. Thevowels of the syllables tsu and clti are lost before a t following.eM is in such cases written tsu, as in 1II0/SIl/e (pronouncedmotte) for moclute.

G.-At the beginning of a word, g is the English g hard,but when it comes after other letters it has, in the Yedodialect, the sound of 11% in ring, as in Nagasaki, which ispronounced Na-nga-saei. In the genitive particle ga, g hasalso this sound. In the western dialect, g is in all cases theEnglish g hard.

Tsu.-In modern Japanese and in Chinese words, tsu,except when it begins a word, is usually assimilated inpronunciation to a k, s, or p following. Thus shitsu-so isread shisso , satsu-shari, sasshari ; slm/slt-kill, sltukkill;'Nitsu-pon, NiPPOll, &c. This has caused tstc to becomeregarded as a mere phonetic sign of the doubling of a letter,and it is not unfrequently used by modern writers when thedoubling has resulted from the assimilation of other letters

22 PRONUNCIATION.

than tS1I. Thus, tattobu is written tatsu-tobu, instead of tafu-tobu ; IIOSSurrt is written htJtS1t-sun~, instead of hori-suru. InHiragana texts a Katakana tsn is occasionally used for thesame purpose. Something of the kind is needed, for it isoften difficult to determine whether the ISle has its propersound or is assimilated to the following letters. The onlyrule which can be given is that tstt. is usually assimilatedin Chinese words and in the most modern form of Japanese,but not in the older language.

t H, F.-Except !!...~beginning of a word, the aspiratesIi and f are lost in pronunciation. Ha becomes wa; hi, i;'fi", It; Ill!, e; and 110, o. It is this loss of the aspirate whichenables fi~and 110 to form a crasis with the preceding vowel,,as shown above.

The particle Ita is pronounced ura, and he, e, as they areconsidered to form part of the word to which they are joined.

The aspirates are sometimes omitted even in writing. ThusIwe find iu for ifu, "to say"; slaman for shimafu, "to finish."IThis practice should not be imitated. The old language.never has a syllable beginning with a vowel, except at thebeginning of a word.

N.-Before 111,b, and p, 1/ is pronounced 1/[.

TRANSLITERATIO '.

In the first edition of this work, the rule adopted inspelling both Chinese and Japanese words in Roman letterswas to give as nearly as possible the actual Yedo pronuncia-tion of the entire word, irrespective of its spelling in Japanesekfl1ta. This method has been retained in so far as Chinesewords are concerned, for in their case nothing is gained in awork like the present by an adherence to the Japanese spell-ing. In the case of Japanese words, however, the nativespelling represents a more ancient pronunciation, and a

TRANSLITERATIO '. 23knowledge of it is indispensable for etymological purposes.It has therefore been thought advisable, in the present edition,to represent the spelling rather than the pronunciation, andeach letter of the Japanese syllabary is consequently in allcases written with the same R man letters, viz., those placedopposite to it in the foregoing tables. The precedingremarks on the modifications undergone by some letters whencombined with others will enable the student to 'infer theactual pronunciation, and, for example, to read sofu, so;lI'agasaki, Na-nga-saki ; matsntaku, mauas», &c.

LETTER CHANCE'.

The letter changes which Japanese words have suffered inthe course of time have, in the majority of cases, not affectedtheir spelling, which continues, as is 0 often the case in ourown language, to represent the ancient pronunciation. Thesechanges have been pointed out under the head of "Pro-nunciation," but those of this class which have found theirway into the spelling, together with the changes due to theaction of euphonic laws in derivation and composition, arestill to be noticed.

Cll(lIlges 0/ Vowels.Elisioll.-The 11 final of adjectives, and of the negativq

particle Sit, is elided before the initial vowel of the verb am.!"to be." Thus, uakare is written for 1mku are, Ilogakori for1I0gaku ari, araearn for araeu ant.

Other examples of the elision of a vowel are ;-Tori for te on',Tarahi, "a wash-hand basin," for te arala.Z aru for eo aru.Kaeari for koku ari.Sasageru, ••to offer," for sashi-agern.Nart.' for 11iari.

LETTER CHANGES.

Tnri for to ari.111are for 1/1(1 are.

•. A riso, "a reef," for ara iso.The vowels of the syllables 1IIi,1/171,1110, and ni are often

elided, the remaining consonant being then represented bythe letter c>, which, as above observed, is pronounced n or lit,

according to the letter which follows it.Examples:-

A SOli, " a noble of the Court," for asonu.Inoe, a man's name (pronounced illlbe), for IlIIibe.On, the honorific particle, for oun.Kiudachi, "nobles," for killli-tach;.Kansas/u, a hair ornament, for kamisas/ti .•Vall}i, "you," for nauncdri.Nengoro, "kindly," for uemoeoro.Hingaslu, "east," for /tilllukm'/u·.Nanzo, :c what," for nani zooIea», "how," for ikalli.

Ap/znrresis.--In the older language, a hiatus was inadmis-sible in the middle of a word. It was therefore necessary,whenever the second part of a compound began with avowel, either to elide the final vowel of the first part of thecompound. as in some of the examples quoted above, or elseto remove the initial vowel of the second part. The followingare examples of the latter course having been taken :-

Kaumtsumnri for knlllll-atSl/lIInr£, "an assembly of gods."Tozoomari (pronounced toman) hitotslI for /(I'l£'O amari

Intotsu, "eleven."Akas/l£ (namc of place) for Aka is/ti.Ogata (name of place) for Oagnta.Cmsis.-i followed by a becomes e in the termination en

of the perfect, the I' being here the result of a crasis of the ifinal of the root of the verb, and the initial a of the verb ant,

LETTER CHA GES. 25

"to be." An instance of a somewhat similar crasis is lmgeki"lament," for ?laga iki (lit. long breath).

An irregular crasis is that of the words to i/Il, which aresometimes written teu. (pronounced elLa).

Other Cha1lges 0/ Vozueis.U.-In a few words u has been introduced in order to give

the syllable a fuller sound, as-Maukem (pron. 1flokeru) for makeru, "to provide."Tanheru (pron. tOberlt) for taoeru, "to eat."Yallka (pron. yMa) for yaka, "eight days."Slzikau shile (pron, shil.'l' sllite) for sltz'ka slate, "thus,"

" therefore."An It of this kind is occasiona\1y introduced into ChineSej

words. For instance, one pronunciation of f£ -a-, usuallyread saezuan (a clerk in a government office), is so-kwail,i,e.. sau-laoan:

An It in the old language has not un frequently become 0 inthe later times, as sodaehi, "bringing up," for 5udrrclti; 110,

" a moor," for 1111.

Where the first part of a compound ends in e, this vowelin a considerable number of cases becomes changed into a.

Examples :-Kana-mono, ••a metal fastening"; from kalle, "metal." and

1II0ll0,"a thing."Salea-mori "a drinking bout'" from sake ••rice beer" and, J"

mori, root of mont, ••to fill."Da-bi. "a torch " from te " the hand" and hi ••fire ••t , t , , •

MUlla-gi, " a roof tree"; from 11lulle," the breast," and kr:U a tree."

MtI1lt1ko, "the pupil of the eye" ; from me, " the eye," 110,

the possessive particle, and /.:0, " a child," "somethi ng small."In a few cases i, in the same position, is changed into 0, as

konoha, "leaves of trees," for ki 110 Iia , 1'01l0ho (pron. hOllo),D 2

LETTER CHA ·GES.

••a flame," for hi 110 ho (lit., "an car of fire") ; IUI/arll, "afire-fly," for /u-tar«, ••that which drops from it fire."

A ttractio». The tendency to assimilate the vowels ofsuccessive syllables, which is common to the Japaneselanguage with the other branches of the same family, hasbeen termed attraction. In Japanese its action is com-paratively limited. The following changes of vowels are'probably due to this tendency.

Sni1'l1-ga "white hair," for sl/Z·ra-kf!.Orodos/u, "the year before last," for atotoshi.Ago (1Itokillli, ••my great lord," for aga oltokimi.The pronunciation of Ott as g (see page 20) is also no doubt

due to attraction. .The letters i and It are closely allied to each other in

Japanese. It has been already observed at page 19, that inYedo the It of Chinese words is in many words pronounced i.A few Japanese words are spelt indifferently with eitherletter, as iwo or taoo, u a fish"; iroko or uroko, " a fish scale";itsltkushillllt or Itlsltkltshillllt, " to love." The spoken languagehas ilm for yuklt, "to go" ; and in some places ihz"is heardfory/thi, " a finger,' and iki forYllki, " snow."

Changes of Consonants.Nigori.-Thc most familiar change of consonants is the

substitution for a pure (i.e., hard) consonant (viz., k, s, sit, t, ts,dl, or It, f), of the corresponding impure (or soft) consonant(g, s, or j, d, or d:::, and hOI' p). [See above, page 21.) Thisoccurs when the word beginning with a pure consonant ismade the second part of a compound. The introduction ofthe nigori (z".e.,impurity) is not universal in such circumstances,and there is much irregularity with regard to it, the samecompound being pronounced by some people with the Iligon'and by others without it, as for instance the name of the cityOhosaka, which some pronounce Osaka, others 6zaka.

I.ETTEI~ CHANGES. 27The following rules will serve as a partial guide to its use.I. In forming compound verbs, the first element of which iSI

also a verb, the nigori is not introduced. Ex.: Saslti-Itflsfl1l1l1,Sllillle-koroSll,ltiki-lorll.

2. The initial consonant of the second element of mostcompound nouns take' the lIigori. Ex.: jo-bllkllro, ••an'envelope," for jO-/llkuro; warahi-gllsa, ••a subject of laughter,"for warahi-kusa; kmz(I-bulIIi, "a writing in kana," for /.:(lll(l-

jimli.The same change takes place in many Chinese compounds.

Ex.: Ko-.~lti for /;;o-sui, "an inundation" ; /;;It-do/;;rtfor klt-Io/':II," merit" ; hnll-;"Ofor flail-sILO," prosperity."

The initial consonant of the second part of the reduplicatedplural of nouns (see below, Chap. I II.) almost invariably takesthe 1tigori. Ex.: Sauta-sama for snura-snma, "all sorts of" ;shilla-;i1l(Z for s/li1ta-sllina, "articles of various kinds"; hilo-bilo for hito-Itito, " men."

4- Tmiwoha suffixed to the perfect and to the negativebase take the nigori; those suffixed to other forms do not.Ex.: Yuke-ba, yuka-i«, yl/ki-tl', yuki-slti, Yllk1t-IoIIIO. In thecase of compound nouns, whether a consonant takes thenigori or not is greatly determined by euphony. Thusin abura-tsnbo, "an oil-bottle," the nigori is no doubtomitted in order to avoid the ill - sounding combinationaimra-dsubo. It is also for the sake of euphony that injapanese words an :/ (11 Or m) almost always C;1l1<CS thefollowing consonants to take the 1Iigori. Ex.: A'illf/addfor kill/ilachi, "nob'es"; tsumindo for tsumi-Iuto, "a criminal"; •kal'ollzllru for karomisunl, ••to make light of," "to despi-e ";.rude for fumi-te, ••a pen"; himukashi, ••east," which has becomefirst IIillgaslt£ and then ltigas/li. Chinese words are subject.though to a less extent, to the same tendency. For examplessee the list of auxiliary numerals.

The letter p, which is incorrectly described by Japanese

28 LETTER CHANGES.

grammarians as the htllt-1ligori (half lligOI'l) of It and / isentirely foreign to the older Japanese language. It is onlyfound in Chinese words and in the present spoken dialect ofJapanese, in the latter of which cases it is usually the resultof thc assimilation of a preceding consonant to the inital It or/ of the second part of a compound. Ex.: Hap-p8 for Ilachi-Ilb,"on all sides"; sepp1lku for setsu-fulm, ••di,;embowclment" ;Intsn-paru (pron. Ilipparl!) for liiki-hant, "to pluck" ; tsutsu-pari (pron. Isuppart) for tsuei-hari, "a prop."

In some Japanese words a double p seems simply to havetaken the place of an older II or f. Thus, yahari, " stili," hasbeen strengthened into yatsn-pari (pron. yapjJart); ma-Jtira,••humbly," into marsu-pira (pron. mappira).

In Chinese words an 111 or 11 at the end of the first part ofa compound has often the effect of changing the initial It or /of the second part into p. Ex.: Nalll-pll, ••an adversewind," for lZatl-j'fi; lIlam-puku, " full stomach," for mau-fuku ;dampan, " a negotiation," for dan-Jum.

There are a few Japanese words beginning with p, but theyare all onomatopoetic words of recent origin.

Japanese grammarians maintain that the nigori is in allcases the result of some such changes as have been describedabove, and that it had no existence in the original form ofJapanese words; but this opinion can hal dly be sustained,in view of the numerous words which begin with b, d, g, J:&c., a fact for which they offer no explanation.

Assiuulation 0/ Consonants to succeeding' Consonants.The most ancient language had no double consonants, and

consequently no assimilation. In the stage of the languagerepresented by the emji Mouogatari and similar works, thereare frequent instances of the assimilation of I' to an In or Ilfollowing, as araznn 11m';for arasaru uari, be/milt mereba forbel.:a,.u mereba, sakan-naru for sakarinaru, klldatt 110golo/m

.118-iOOLETTER CHANCES. 29

for kud'lri 110 gotokll. &c. This 111 or 11 is usually written tothe right and in Katakana, and it is often dropped altogether.the tendency of the older language being to avoid doubleconsonants. Thus, karina, "a letter," which becomes kamzaby the assimilation of the r to the It following, is alwayswritten kfl1Ja.

All other cases of assimilation belong to the latest form ofthe language. Except in the case of uc or 11, the Japanesesyllabaries provide no means of writing double consonants,and recourse has therefore been taken to the rude expedientof writing, instead of the consonant assimilated, the letter inwhich this change most frequently takes place, viz., tsu. Thus,to show that la/lllok;, "august," is to be pronounced /al/ol.:£,it is spelt lalsu/oki,. hori snrn, "to wish," is written IIotSII-suru, in order to show that it is to be read hossnru , kiislt-sak£ (pron. kissakz), "the point of a sword," is written forkin:saki, and so on.

The Japanese language dislikes to have successive syllablesbeginning with the same consonant. To this principle aredue such forms as

too ba for wo um.aras/u for ant rasld.kernslzi for kerll rns/u.hoshilmgi, " a broad-headed nail," for hoshi-Cltgi.tuasuruna, " don't forget." for tuasururn na.uunagara, " ali," for miua 1lagara.

The difference between the second and first conjugation ofadjectives is no doubt due to the same tendency. In thefirst conjugation shi is added to the Toot in order to producethe conclusive form, but as in the second conjugation theroot already ends in ski, the same rule, if applied to it, wouldgive a termination sllishi. One of these syllables is thereforedropped.

30 LETTER CHANCES.

In the more ancient language this tendency extended todouble consonants, one of which was usually dropped, askanna (for kllri na), which is always written kana, arazannari, often written arasauari, &c.; but in the later and spokenforms of the language an opposite tendency may be observed,and many consonants have been doubled apparently for noother purpose than to strengthen the sound of the word towhich they belong. Thus, tnda has been strengthened intotatsuta (pron. tilt/II) ; umtala: into 111tllslliaku (pron. lIlattakll);valiari is sometimes pronounced )'Ilppari; 1IIil1a, uunna ;minami, uunuami, and so on.

I K.-There is a tendency in Japanese to drop this letterwhen it occurs in the middle of a word. The most familiarinstance of this is in the spoken language, where k is lost inthe terminations of the adverbial and attributive forms of theadjective, lzaYMII, for example, becoming Im)lmt (pronouncedIIn)'o), Iln),alti, Imyai, &c.

The written language also affords examples of the loss of k.Snitsulcoro, "previously," for saki ts« koyo.TSllilac/Zi," rst day of the month," for Isukillldfi.Il/aratrdzn (pron. warod::;u), "straw shoes," for warn-lm/slI.H, F-The aspirates of the syllables 1m, Izi,fn, Ize, Izo, are

often vocalized into II, the vowels of these syllables being atthe same time dropped, as in the following examples :-

Fltignu (pron. /ttigo), "bellows," for /lIki-gaha.0101110 (pron. 0/610), " vounger brother," for ato-Jnto.Karindo. " a huntsman," for ;"ori-Ililo.Jllnllchigillli (pron. moclfigi",,). " former lord," for 11mlle ISIt

killli.Htwki (pron. Mki), " a broom," for Im-Ilaki.The western spoken form of the past tense of verb ending

in aftl is also an instance of this change. I n this dialect thetermination ahita always becomes8ta(in wtiting, altla) insteadof atta, as in the Veda language. Thus, the past tense of

LETTER CHANGES. 31

sI!i1Jl0/1I, ., to finish," which at Yedo is slti1l/alta, is, in thelanguage of the western provinces, sllinz8ta.*

1Ifand N.-;.' (m or 1l) is frequently vocalized into u, as/in the following examples;-

Kouji (pron. k8j;), •a small road,' {orko-miclli.Teudsn (pron. clt8-dzu), ••water for washing hands," for

le-lIIid::n.Kautsuke (pron. Kotsllli:e), name of province, for Kami-

tSlike.Kmtbe (pron. Kobe), name of town, for Komi-be.A familiar example of this change is the 11 final of the

future, which in the spoken language is changed into 11,andthen forms a crasis with the preceding a, becoming alongwith it o.

An ;.' is frequently introduced for the sake of giving a/fuller sound.

Ex.: Yoku11tba," if good," for Jloku ba,Akambo, "a baby," for akabito.Tell1t8, " Emperor," for telt-o.Zeunatsu, ••good and bad," for een-aeu,

The Hakodate spoken dialect introduces this ;.' very freely.M and b are closely related in Japanese. Some words are'

spelt with either indifferently. I

Ex.: Sa111u1'a/1l or sabnrafr«, " to attend on."Semae» or sebala, ••narrow."Kemuri or kehuri, " smoke."Samisltiki or sabisltiki, " lonely."Himo or Itibo, ••a cord."

if Motowori lays down the rule, that vowels which lire left when theinitiAl consonant of the syll ible to which they belong has been removed,or which are the result of the vocalization of a cor-sonant, should bewritten with the vowel series of letters (7' -'I '7:r.;t) and not with theaspirated series (" \: 7 ,,*) as is done by some writers.

LETTER CHANGES.

It should be remembered that the sounds, tu, ti, du, di, si,»i, and lilt do not exist in Japanese, and are represented bytsu, chi, dZII, 1ji, shi,ji, and fil. Hence the variations whichtake place in inflecting such a verb as utatsu (mllchi, matsu,uuua, mate), and in other cases where these letters areinvolved, are only apparent, and no change of consonantreally takes place.

Some of the preceding remarks on letter-changes are fur-ther illustrated in the following list of less obvious derivations.

A FI:.W DERIVATIONS.

Abumi, "a stirrup"; from as/u, ••foot," and fuuii, ••tread."C( agaki for aslti-kaki.

AI,,,lsllki, ••dawn"; from aka, a root meaning "clear,"u bright," and loki, ••time."

Asatsute (pron. asatte), ••the day after to-morrow"; fromasu, "to-morrow," and satsute (for smite), ••having passed."

Fuda, ••a ticket"; from funu, ••letter" or ••writing," andita, ••a board."

Hakallla, "trowsers"; from lurki, ••to draw on," and mo,••clothing."

Harllbi ••a girth" . from kaya o( belly" and obi" girdle.", , ') ,Hotoke, ••a deceased person,"" a saint," ••a god"; from

hila, " man," and ke, " spirit."Idsumi, ••a spring" ; from idsuru, "to issue," and midsu,

"water." Cf. milo, ••water-gate."Ih«; "a house"; from i, root of iru, ••to dwell," and he, an

old word meaning" place."Ikada, "a raft"; from uki, ••float," and ita, "board."Inisltilte, "ancient time"; from ini, root of tnurtr, "to

go away," slu, a particle indicating past time, and Ile," place."

DERIVATION. 33

Kauroi, "the upper of the two beams into which the slidesare inserted in a Japanese house"; from kami, "above," andi, root of iru, "to dwell."

Koromo, "clothing"; from kint, "to wear," and 1110,

" clothing."Kursmua, ••a bit"; from kuchi, ••mouth," and tua, " ring."MallP, ••before"; from tur, ••eye,' and Iw, ••place," or .•side."

Cf. Sllinh€, " beh ind."fl'fodti-dzul.:i, "full moon"; from michi, root of mitsnru,

" to be full," and tsnki, "moon."MOgIISfl, ••tinder"; probably from 1Il01le, root of 1Il0YUrtt,

" to burn," anti Nusn, ••herb."Mllkadl', "a centipede"; from lIIuknlti," opposite," and te,

U hand."Niski, "west," for il/iski, i.e., the part where the sun" has

gone away."Nodo or 1101lcUJ,"throat"; from nomi, .•to swallow," and to,

"door."Otodoshi, ••the year before last"; from ato, " previous," and

toski, "year."Otolohi, "the day before yesterday"; from ato, "previous,"

tsu, genitive particle, and iii, " day."Susuri, "an inkstone "; from sumi, U ink," and suru, "to

rub."Tadcuua, ••reins"; from te, "hand," and tsuna, " ropc."Taimatsu, "a torch"; from laki, root of taku, "to burn,"

and matsu, U pine."TOlollli, name of a province; from lowo, "far," tsu, genitive

particle, and nmi, "sea."TSIIg01ll0ri, " the last day of the month"; from tsuki, "the

moon," and komont, " to retire."Tsuitada, U the first day of .the month"; from l.fuki, ••the

moon," and taelli, root of tatsu, ••to arise."Tsnmabiralcani, U minutely," « fully"; from tsumu, "to cut

34 DERIVATtON.

short," and /n'ra/at, "to extend." Cf. the phrase," the shortand the long of it."

Ynibn, ••sword-edge"; from ynki, root of yakn, "to burn,"and /tn, ••edge."

Yrane, " a dream"; from i,a root which appears in iueumru,••to fall asleep," and ute, the root of mint, " to sec."

The Japanese grammarians have supplied us with etymo-logical appliances far more powerful than any of thosedescribed above. They inform us that not only are syllablesinterchangeable which begin with the same consonant, i.c.,those in the same vertical columns of the Table at page 15,but that one syllable may he changed for another if they onlycontain the same vowel, t.e., the syllables in the horizontalcolumns of the Table are interchangeable. This is the oldmaxim that in etymology the consonants count for very littleand the vowels for nothing at all, with the difference that withthe Japanese etymologists the consonants count for nothingas well as the vowels, \Vith a comprehensive system likethis, the gravest difficulties are easily surmounted. Thus, ifwe want to show that /uruki, ••old," is derived from wakal.·l~"young," we have only to run the eye along the columnswhich contain um and kn till we come to ha and ra, and thenfollow the vertical columns in which the latter syllables occurtill we find fit and ru, and the demonstration is complete.

This rule is sufficient when the words contain the samenumber of syllables, but in the case of a redundancy ordeficiency in their number, the native grammarians are

J amply provided for the emergency. By means of jo-rink"'(aphaeresis), chiurin/m (elision or contraction), gerialm• (apocope), and joji (affixes), the superfluous syllables are

promptly removed and additional syllables providedwherever necessary. The following derivations, which aretaken from Japanese works on etymology, illustrate theapplication of these principles :-

IlJo:J<IVATION. 35

.11/1111"',"a plum," is derived from utsll/mslli!..'?, medsura-sltiku, "beautiful-rare," by taking the first syllable of eachword and omitting the others by geriala« This gives tone,but as u and 1/lU belong to the same column, one may besubstituted for the other.

Keshi, ••a poppy," is derived from Izt"rake, "to open out,"and stnroslu, "white," the syllables him being removed by;unak/{, and rostu being taken away by geriak«.

Sltitaga/u, "to follow," is derived from slnta 1Ii tSllldlekoko1"oni kmllifu, the superfluous syllables being removed byclauriala«.

Neko ••• a cat," is from nedsumi kOllolllu. "fond of rats," thefirst syllabIc of each word being taken, and thc others rejected

Iu«, c. a dog," is from inuru ••to go away," because if takento another place, he "goes away," and comes back to hismaster.

Akane sasu, a makura-kotoba of doubtful meaning, isderived by the Kanjiko from akak; ke, ••red vapour," which isfirst contracted into ake and afterwards lengthened by Jo/i'into alame, and sasu, " to strike," "to shoot."

There is yet another system of derivation, by which wordswhich we should be content to consider as roots are traced tofifty original elements corresponding to the fifty sounds ofthe Japanese syllabary. The following passage, taken fromthe preface of a Dictionary of Derivations compiled upon thissystem, will give an idea of its mode of operation .

••All Japanese words have their origin in the nature of theheart. For the heart has fifty modes of action. and conse-quently man naturally gives utterance to fifty sounds. If inhis heart he thinks alt! the sound alt! comes spontaneouslyto his lips; if in his heart he grunts assent, he naturallyutters the sound It; the thought o/z ! of alarm causes himspontaneously to exclaim oh ! and so on with the rest. Thecombination of these results naturally in words. Thus the

DERIVATION.

colour aka (red) is so called because it is so radiant (,{·ngnyaktt)as to make one feel ah ; auro (green) has been so termedfrom its being so plentiful (ohokt") as to make us feel all!;kanl! (metal) is so called because it adheres .'Ieban) firmly(ka/aku) together."

This system, which is not without a grain of truth in it, isaided by a free usc of/,jriaktt, chi"nnktt, &c.

The influence of these theories is observable in the writingsof even the most eminent Japanese grammarians, and it hastherefore been thought desirable to warn the student againstthem.

ACCENTS.

Accents in Japanese have but little importance for thestudent either of the spoken or the written language. Acompetent authority has stated to me that the distinctions ofaccent described in the passages quoted below are reallyobserved in speaking by the educated classes of Kioto, butthe language of Yedo certainly neglects them, and educatednatives of the east of Japan declare that they are unable todiscover any difference in the pronunciation of such words ashi "the sun" Iti "fire" and Iti "a water-pipe"· kflki "an, ,), f t,

oyster," and kaki, " a persimmon."The views of the native grammarians upon this subject will

be learnt from the following extract from the Salt-OIl-NO, byMotowori Norinaga:-

••In the language of this Empire there are but threeaccents, viz., "the 2ji (or even accent). the J: (or rbingaccent), and the ;t; (or departing accent). The enteringaccent (A) is not in use. Hi,' the sun,' takes the 2ji accent;hz; •a water-pipe: the J:. accent; and Iii, •fire: the ~ accent.On the other hand the Iti of lzillala, •sunshine,' takes the J:.••4' i, something like the English monotone; J:. resembles the rising

infiection, and ~ the falling infiection.

ACCENTS. 37

accent; the hi of Ilakehi, 'a kind of water-pipe: takes the *accent; and the hi of hibas/li, 'tongs: the J: accent. Yama,•a mountain,' has the lJi accent. but in such compounds asymlla.{oaze, "mountain-wind,' and yamamats«, •mountain-fir:yatna takes the ~ accent. Yet in the compounds higashiyallla,"east-mountain,' and nisluyama, "west-mcuntain,' yama hasthe J: accent. Uji (the name of a district) again is pro-nounced with the * accent, but in the word Uji·/ta/la, 'theriver Uji,' it takes the J: accent, while in the compoundUjibaslti, 'the Uji bridge,' it has the 2fi accent.

"In this way all words suffer changes of accent, and if insuch cases the original accent were retained, a change ofmeaning would be the result. Take, for instance. yalllakaBeanJ yautamatsu, the examples just quoted. If yatna is herepronounced, as in the original word, with the ZJi accent, themeaning will be 'mountain and wind: 'mountain and fir,'and we shall have in each case two objects, and not one. Itis owing to the change of accent that the meaning become;"tbe wind of the rnount.iin,' 'the fir of the mountain.'

" But yarua is composed of the two syllables ya ane! ma,kalla of the two syllables ka and 1112. If we examine theaccent of each syllable separately, we shall see that ya hasthe J: accent, ma the lJi, Ita the J:. and 1112 the ZJi accent .

.The entire words)'nllla and Ntlfin have nevertheless their ownaccents, both taking the ZJi accent. The same principleapplies to polysyllabic words such as /lilll1fkashi (I/lg-asllt),, east: minaun, 'south,' etc. But the attempt to distinguishthe accent of each of a number of successive syllables leadsto confusion, and no clear results can be obtained. This isdue to the intimate connection which exists between thesounds of which a word is composed. There is, however, nounc ertainty in deciding the accent of any entire 1I'0rd."

Motowori fUi ther says that although in speaking. Chinesewords are accented by Japanese, the accents follow the

ACCENTS.

Japanese system, and have nothing to do with the originalChinese tones.

Kitanobe, author of the AJ'"ids/IIJ, says that there are threeaccents in Japanese, VIZ., the Jlllki (going), corresponding tothc Chinese 2ji ; the kaner; (returning), corresponding to theChinese J:; and the tachi (cutting off), con esponding to theChinese ~.

The comparison with Chinese shows that in the aboveremarks, by accent is meant musical intonation. and nota mere emphasis or stress on the word or syllable. In thislatter sense the accent of ] apanese words is much less markedthan in English. It usually falls on the penultimate syllable,but to this rule there are numerous exceptions.

CHAPTER II.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

Japanese grammarians divide words into three classes,viz.-Na, Kotoba, and Teniurotm.

This classification accords well with the structure of theJapanese language. It rests on a division of words intoprincipal and subordinate parts of speech, principal wordsbeing subdivided into uninflected (ua) and inflected (kotoba).There is, however, no good reason why this subdivisionshould not be extended to the subordinate parts of speech,viz.-Particles and Terminations or Teniuroha. If this bedone, we shall have four classes of words, as follows ;-

I. Uninflected Principal words (lIa).II. Inflected Principal words (k%ba).

III. UninAected Subordinate wordS} (/ . '). elltWOlla •IV. Inflected Subordinate words

With this modification the classification of the japanesegrammarians has been adopted in the present treatise.

Na" means U name," and the class of words so denominated'includes the noun, pronoun, !!um~!ll adjective, and interjection.ltogether with a number of words, which, although correspond-ing in meaning to the verbs, adjectives, or adverbs of otherlanguages, are uninflected, and must therefore be reckoned as11a. Kotoba means" word." nder this term are comprised

•• In the A"olol", 110Chikdlllkhi,1111 arc called i-kolob", or ••words whichremain at rest," as opposed to ha/dYtli.;j.J.:nlo/kI, or "words of action, H theterm which in that treatise has been applied to the ~·OIO"" of older writers.By U rest" arid U action U are here meant "want of inflection" and" inflec-tion," and htl/Ilrtl!.·j, "working," or ccaction," has no reference to the usualmeaning of verbs as expressing action.

E

40 LASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

verbs and adjectives. The word temzuohn" is nothing more

Ithan four of the commonest particles, viz.-te, ni, too, and Ita,united so as to form one word. Under this designation arc

lincluded particles and prepositions, together with the suffixesattached to verbs and adjectives.

•• Tmiwolta.- The aspirate of Ita is sounded in pronouncing this word.

CHAPTER III.

UNINFLECTED PRINCIPAL WORDS.

In this class of words are included the noun, pronoun, andnumeral adjective of European grammars, together with someclasses of words which it is convenient to render in Englishby other parts of speech, such as verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.Cases of this last kind are especially numerous among words'of Chinese origin, all of which are uninAected, and musttherefore be taken to belong to this class, by whatever partsof speech it may be convenient to translate them in English.Thus ima, ••1I0W," is really a noun, as its derivation shows.It is compounded of i, the root of iru, "to be present," andma, "a space," the literal meaning bcing " the present space."Koko, " here," is also a noun, as is shown by its allowing thecase-signs ItO, Itt; &c., to be appended to it. Such Chinesewords as SJlZ1tjO,"to offer respectfully,"goral!, "look," althoughoften used alone, require some such verb as nasaru or suru,"to do," to be understood in order to make the sentencegrammatically complete, and are therefore really noun. Themost 'common case of this kind is where a Chinese or JapaneseuninAected word is combined with the verb uaru, "to be," orwith the particle ni, " in," to form a phrase equivalent to ouradjective or adverb, the word being seldom or never used,except in one of these combinations. Thus, kil"ei uaru isused as equivalent to our adjective" pretty"; kil"ci IIi, to theadverb ••prettily"; sltidzukn naru, to our adjective "quiet";slzz'dzttka IIi, to the adverb" quietly." These phrases are onlysubstitutes for adjectives and adverbs, and mu t not beconfounded with them. The true adjective is an inAectedword (the adverb being one of its inflected forms), as may beseen by referring to the Table at the beginning of Chapter IV.

E ~

42 UNINFLECTED PRIN IPAL WORDS.

Words of this class have, properly speaking, no declension.The distinctions of gender, number, and case are indicated bymeans of certain particles placed before or after the wordswhich themselves suffer no change.

Kouns maypound nouns.remark.

TilE NOUN.

be divided into Simple, Derived. and Com-Simple or Underived nouns require no

DERIVED NOUNS.

Roots oj Verbs.-The roots of verbs often become nounswithout any change of form. Thus duri, root of c/urn, " tobecome scattered," is also used as a noun meaning" litter,"" rubbish "; ttcili, ••a stroke," is the root of the verb utsu, ••tostrike." Imkilstlke "a writing" is the root of the verb, , ,kakilsllkcMI "to note down'" /liraki .•a door with hinges", J' ,

is the root of the verb /tira/m, " to throw open."

1

Those abstract nouns which seem as if they were formedby adding the syllable mi to adjectival roots really belong tothis class. Thus takami, " height," which contains taka, theroot of the adjective takaki, "high," is the root of a verbtalcauu«, •• to be high" ; !i.aya1llt;••speed;' is the root of a verbha)lflIllTl, "to be quick." In the old literature these nounsstill retain enough of their original force as verbal roots totake before them the particle tuo, the sign of the objectivecase, as in the following examples :-

A/mgolll{l ga aga/.'i 1110 Im-Jlfllll1.

Miyako zoo tohomi.Ymila wo o/sonn.

The speed of foot of my bayhorse.

Its distance from the capital.A plenty of mountains.

Some of these nouns in iui, like the English abstract words" height," " depth," are also susceptible of a concrete signifi-

DERIVED NOUNS. 43

cation. Thus, fukami may mean" a deep place" as well asu depth" in the abstract; /akallli may mean not only••height," but" an elevation," " a hill."

Roots of A djcctives.-T he roots of adjectives are occasion-ally used as nouns, as in the phrase shiro 110jofit, ••whitecloth of first quality."

A few abstract nouns are formed from the roots of adjec-jtives by changing the final vowel of the root into e, as ake,••redness" from akaki ••red " kU1'b •• darkness" from kuraki, "c;, , .••dark'" take "length" ••a height" from ta!.:aki ••high"

" , J ,.

Sa.-The abstract nouns formed by adding sa to the rootsof adjectives constitute a large class. It is to be observedthat these nouns express not so much the quality denoted bythe adjective as the degree of the quality. Takasa, forinstance, is rather ••highness" than ••height"; ohoeisa isIt the degree of bigness," i.e., " the size," rather than the merequality of largeness in it. elf.

Examples :-Akasa, "redness," from aka!"i, ••red."Nigasa, It bitterness," from 1ligaki, "bitter."A tsusa, It thickness" or ••hotness," from atsltki, It thick" or

••hot"Siurosa, " whiteness," from slnroei, It white."

In the old language nouns are formed in one or two casesby adding this termination to the roots of verbs, as I_alusa"••return," from kahcru. " to return."

Ra.-A few abstract nouns are formed by adding ra tOIadjectival roots, as wabishirn, ••misery," from wabishiki,••miserable.". Ge, Ke.-A bstract nouns are also formed from na (un-,inflected words) and from verbal or adjectival roots by theaddition of the syllable ge or Ne, which is identical with ki,"spirit." Derivative words of this class are of very frequentoccurrence in the ancient monogntari.

44 DERln.1l xouxs,

Example :-Nanig« in the phrase Il(IlIige lIakll, ••as if thing were the

matter "), from naui, ••what."lVlid:::lIl.·e, "moisture," from midau, " wa ter."Aburake, ••oiliness" or "greasiness," from abr -7, "oil.".'Vige (in the phrase Ilige IInki, "jncornparale "), from mru,

••to be like."Hitoge (in the phrase Ititogr ,mki, "lonely' from llilo, ••a

'nan."TS11J'o.t;C,•. an appearance of strength," from /.I,·ol.-i,« strong."A bUIli/gr, " an appearance of danger," 'rom nb1111al.-i,

••dangerous."~Va(bllrahtlsllige, ••an appearance of trouble rneness," from

wad:::llrnll(lsltiki, "trouble orne."These nouns are often used in cornbinati 1 with naru. as

the equivalents of adjectives, or with IIi a ed, instead ofadverbs.

Examples :-.JlllkutslIgc naru, ••hideous."Rik8ge IIi, •.plausibly."J)lasltige ni, •.meanly."

KIl.-The uninflected words derived from er uninflectedwords, or from the roots of verbs or adjectives .y adding one

lof the terminations ka, )Iak", yot:«, raka, 11(lkrsaka, soka, orbika are of the class described at page 41 s always found

t combined with the verb naru, "to be," to form phrasesequivalent to adjectives, or with ni added asquivalents ofadverbs. The ka which appears in all the, terminationsis no doubt identical with the ke or ge of the Icceding para-graph, but the remaining syllables cannot e so readilyexplained. Ra is perhaps the ra used to form bstract nounsfrom adjectives, and bi another form of the rmination 111i,Iwhich has a similar force. These words are iostly descrip-

DERIVED NOUNS. 45

tive of outward ppearance, and they often correspond to IEnglish derivativs in ful,y, or /y.

Examples:-Shid3u-ka 11 'U, u quiet."Shid::u-ka 1/ "quietly."Nodo-ka nai , "gentle."lVnkn-}'nkn iru;' youthful."Tnkn)'nkn 1 "loudly"; •.with a loud voice,"Niholzi-}'nkn'ant, "having a blooming appearance."Hana-yaea rrn;" gay-looking."Koma-yaea tru;" minute."Tama-saka ., ••by a rare chance."Yabu-saea ru," stingy."Nayo-bikn I -u, " graceful."Nada-raka 1"11," gentle" (of an acclivity). •...Nikll-rnkn ru;" hateful."Oro-sosa ni coarsely"; ••without taking pains."Ate-Jiaka 11. 't, "noble-looking."A-f akotoslli-; ka ni, ••with an air of truth."Asa-yaka ,. u clearly"; "distinctly."

Compound nc 115 may consist-Ist. Of two iouns, as kazagunlllla, ••a toy windmill";

from ka::e, ••win " and kurltllla, a " wheel or mill"; k<lhnbata,a " river-side," frn kaha, a " river," and hata, ••a side."

and. Of the .ot of an adjective followed by a noun, as'kurombo, a "nero," from kuro, root of kllroki, " black," and/kilo, •. a man" ; kagane, "copper," from aka, root of akaki," red," and kane metal."

jrd. Of a nc 1 followed by the root of an adjective, aSItomabnto," big s rn " (a kind of b at), from /01110,•• the stern,"and futo, root 0 'utolei, " thick."

4th. Of the ot of a verb and a noun, as noritnono;" atravelling chair, from 1I0ri, root of noru, «to ride," and mono,••a thing."

COMPOUND NOU '5.

15th. Of a noun and the root of a verb, as monashiri," aIscholar," from 1110110,•• a thing," and shiri, root of slrirn, "toknow?"; midsuire, "a water-holder," from midc«, ••water,"and ire, root of i17I1'II, " to put in."

In compounds the first element may qualify the second,as ita-do, ••a plank door"; shO-slto, "a general of the thirdrank"; or in Chinese words may govern it, as Itai-san,•.founding a temple"; ke-sllin, "transformation"; or maybe governed by it, as !ri-Imki, "a pokcr"; sake-nomi, •. adrunkard"; or they may be joined by •.and" understood,as llillt-Juku, ••poverty and riches"; jo-ge, ••going up and

foming down"; de-iri, "going out and coming in." In

Chinese compounds two elements of the same or similarncaning arc oftcn combined for the sake of emphasis or com-rchensivcncss, as kai-sei, "reforming"; kon-satsll, "confusion."Ilybrid Compounds (compounds of which onc clement is

of Chinese and the other of Japanese origin) are muchcommoner in Japanese than in European languages.

Examples :-jitt-bako, "a nest of boxes made to pile upone on the top of another," from jilt, a Chinese word meaning••to pile up," and Ilako, the Japanese word for" box "; ooohe-clIO, "a note-book"; haretst« - daura, ••a bomb-shell"; jo-bllkllro, ••an en velope."

HONORIJ-'lC PREFIXES.

Mi, ohonn, ami, 011011, Oil, o.-Nouns with one of thesehonorific words prefixed are of the nature of compounds.

lIfi meaos ••august," ••imperial," and is usually rendered bythe Chinese character f,iV. It is generally, although notexclusively, found before words relating to the Mikado or tothe kami (gods of the Shinto mythology), as 1IIi-1.-0, •• a

rince"; mi-ya, "a shrine of a kami"; nu-su, "the transparentscreen former]y hung before the Mikado on public occasions" ;mi-ne, " the top of a mountain."

H01\OIUFlC PREFIXES. 47Oltom; is composed of oho, the root of oltoki, •.great," and

the 1IIi just noticed. Ouu, olton, Oil, and 0 are abbreviatedforms of it. 01/011/£ and omi are only found in the oldlanguage, the modern language preferring the form 011. Omi,however, is still used in the spoken language prefixed to oneor two words. as om; ashi, ••the honorable legs." 0 is almostentirely confined to the spoken language, where it is exceed-ingly com mon.

All these words are prefixed to Japanese words only,except 0, which is found joined to a few Chinese words,as 0 ntSIJ, ••your absence"; 0 Jlaklt-slto, ••the honorableoffice" ; 0 taint, «the honorable house," i.e., ••your house."Mi is also found prefixed to Chinese words, as mi biobll, ••thehonorable screen," but this is extremely rare.

Examples of ohomi, &c. ;-Ohomi-)mki, u an imperial progress."Ohorni-obi, ••the honorable girdle."Oholl-gami, « the great and august god."

Idsure 110 olton loki ni ka I know not in what (Em-ari ke1l. peror's) honorable time it

was.Although I have no fish to

offer you.Naui bakar£ no nti

1110 safurahanedosOrawalledo).

II.-ode 011 11a wo

sakana(pron.

k;kase- I beseech you to tell meyour name.

Hilllc-miya 110 on 101110 shite. Accompanying the Princess.Mikado on namida koboshile. The Mikado shedding tears.Mikado 110 onyamalu. The Mikado's ailment.

Before words of Chinese origin are prefixed the honorificwords go or gio, as in go-sho, ••the honorable place," i.c., " thepalace"; ki, as in ki-kokll, "the honorable country," i.e.,••your country"; sou (before the relations of the person

HONORIFIC PREFIXES.

addressed), as in sou-pu (pron. SOIll), "the honorable father,"i.e., ••your father."

Co occasionally appears before Japanese words, as gomotsutomo, ••you are right."

IIUMULI!: PREFIXES. \

I Humble prefixes are found with Chinese words only.Theyare-

CII, as in gn-sai, "the stupid wife," i.e., II my wife."Setsu, as in setsu-oo, "the awkward mother," i.e., lC my

mother."Sen, as in sen-soku, " the mean family," i.e., ••my family."SilO, as in sllO.jo, u the little woman," i.e., ••my daughter."Hi, as in hi-ka, " the rough, rustic house," i.e., " my house."

GENDER.

In the class of compound nouns should also be includednouns with one of the words tuo, « male," or me, u female,"prefixed. An 1/ is sometimes inserted for the sake of euphony

Example :-MASCtiLINE. FIlMININE.

IVo-uma, " a horse." lJ;/e-uma, " a mare."TVo-Jilla, ••a stag." lJ;/e-jzl.'a, " a hind."iVon-dori, ••a cock." Mcn-dori, •.a hen."

/I'is not pronounced in these words.'1'0 and tile are combined with Japanese words only.

NUMBER.

Under the head of compounds there remains to be noticeda kind of plural formed in the case of a few nouns by arepetition of the word. Except in the ancient literature,these forms have never exactly the same force as the pluralsof European languages, nor is their meaning precisely thesame in every case. II Every," •all kinds of,"before the noun,are the most usual renderings.

Examples :-

NUMBER. 49

klllligltlli, ••every country."Ititobito, "all sorts of men."takorodokoro, " various places."tokidoki, "sometimes."tabitabi, u time after time "-" often."shillajilla, " all kinds of articles "-" an

assortment."In almost every case the first letter of the second part of

these compounds takes the lligori, if it be a letter whichadmits of it.

Knui, "a country";Hilo ••a man" ., ,Tokoro, " a place" ;Toki "a time" ., ,Tabi. "a time" ., ,Shina, "an article";

PRONOUNS.

The distinction of person which holds so prominent aplace in the Aryan languages has little place in Japanese.The verb has no grammatical inflections to indicate person.and although there are words which correspond in meaningto the personal pronouns of other languages, their grammaris the same as that of nouns, and the idea of placing them ina separate class has not even suggested itself to the nativegrammarians.

The use of personal prono~ is much more restricted inJapanese than in English. As in Latin and Greek, they areused not as mere signs of the person of the verb, but in orderto prevent ambiguity, or in cases where there is an emphasisupon them. Thus," I will go," ••He does not know," are inJapanese simply yukall, skiros«. But where the pronounsare emphasized, as in the following sentence, they must beexpressed in Japanese,Ko uiomina naraba, waga ko

IIi sen , zuonoko uaraba,nanfi YUlIliyatori Iii Ilasht'-tateyo.

If the child is a girl, I willmake it l1ly child; if it isa boy, do you educate himfor a soldier.

Where personal pronouns are wanting, the person of the

50 PRONOUNS.

verb may usually be inferred from the presence of honorificforms indicating the second person, or of humble formsshowing that the first person is meant.

The various modes of indicating the plural are but rarelyhad recourse to in the case of other uninflected words, butwith pronouns it is the rule to employ the reduplicated form,or to add one of the plural affixes when two or more personsor things are meant.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST PERSO '.I.-:fapmuse Words.

A, wa, are, ware, waro.-The most ancient Japanese wordfor "I" is a or um. Both these forms are of frequent occur-rence in the JlfanJ'~shill, but they have become obsolete in thelater forms of the language.

Examples ;-~Va uio matsu tsuhaki. The camellia which awaits

A,/)o matsu toKillli ga nure-ke«

Asltihiki noVall/a no s/lid:::uku ni.Varamaslti 1110110 WOo

me.Oh, that I could become

changed into the drippingsfrom the mountain toilsometo the feet, with which thouhast doubtless been wettedwhile waiting for me!

.Lgo (for aga) oltokimi, "my great lord."\Vhen followed by the possessive particle ga, zua is still

in use.Examples ;-

IVaga kitlli, "my lord."IVnga ko, "my child."IVaga tomognra, "my companions" (used in the sense of

"we "),~Vaga atsurahe yflriS/Z£ saknd:;uki, "the wine cup which I

ordered from you."

PRO 'OU .~. 5 (

lVaga has also the meaning" one's own." Wngn Lo, forinstance, may mean "his or her own child" as well as••my child." IVa 11a1l1iis properly a plural, but it is oftenused as a singular.

Are, another obsolete word for" 1," is a with the syllablere, which is also found in sore, lsare, fare. &c.

~Varl' (plural" u/arera, tuaretoare, or ~"a1'edallla) is formedby adding the re just mentioned to zua, "I." It is the mostgeneral word for the pronoun of the first person, and is foundin the most ancient as well as in the latest forms of thelanguage. It is occasionally heard in the spoken languagein the plural form tuarera, which is used towards inferiors asa pronoun of the second person plural equivalent to orera,Y n the modern epistolary style, uiarera is used for" I " inaddressing inferiors. Instead of urare 110 and W(Wl' gn, wagnis used.

Examples of ware :-IVare uakam» ato uari tonto.IVan ui yoki hakarigato an'.IVaI'. kalteri kilnrlt made,

kokolli «rite IIInlsllbeshi.,,flare-ware ha Hida 1/0 ktmi

Even after I am dead.I have got a good plan.You must wait here till I

return.

11n1'11talm /JIi nari.\VCo: are artisans of the pro-

vince of Hida.IYam is an obsolete word for" L" It seems to be only

a variation of ware.IYatnkusht".-As a pronoun, watakushi belongs to the

spoken language. and to modern epistolary correspondence,where it is the commonest word for ••I." IVatakuslti gr(thing) and wnlnkllshi knla' (side) are also used. In theliterary language walalmshi means u selfishness." u that whichis private or personal." Its derivation is doubtful.

* The editorial" we ••is svare hilo••• I and man," and sometimes wagahoi, or wag,,. IOll/oga,.Il,

52 PRONOUNS.

JV/aro.-Maro is used chiefly, although not invariably, toinferiors, or to persons with whom one is on terms of closeintimacy. It has much the same force as the ore or washiof the spoken language. Towards persons with whom oneis not on familiar terms, mayo is a haughty word for" I."The author of the lI{akura ZiJshi remarks that the Courtnobles, in addressing the Mikado, should not say mara for" 1," but should use their own names instead.

In the Tosa Nikki a child says,-Ullfaro ;"0110 lila 110 kahesllisell," " I will compose a reply to this verse of poetry." In oneof Motowori's works he says: "A rn Itito toltite illflk"," U VIato 1mikatlanl 11101101IJOifu coya f" "ill aro I?olal,etciltakll." "Acertain person asked of me, ' How do you define poetry?'and I answered.......••

The Mikado and persons of high rank are in books madeto use maro towards inferiors, as Maro 110 yo 1Ii, U in myreign." It is little used in the modern written language.

Waraha (literally, ••the child "), corresponding to theChinese t! (slrO), is only used by women. Ex.: Waraha wo1110uc )IIIN; tarua/r«; "take me with you, too."

Onore (plural onoreray is properly of no person. It meansu self," "oneself," and may be used indifferently for" myself,""yourself," "herself," and "himself." In practice, however,it is so little different from "I" that a place has been givenit among the pronouns of the first person.

In the spoken language, ouore is usually of the secondperson, and is a contemptuous word oftenest heard along withabusive language.

Examples of 0110re :-

Ima onore nusute-tatematsu-mba, ikade yo ni ohasen f

I f you should now abandonme, how could I exist inthe world?

PRONOU'S. S3OIIOI'e kim; 110 kokoro ),oku I have well known your heart.

slarin«.Onorega chichi 110 tolmi uari. He is a customer of my

father's.Onore latori snakaran to ihite. Saying" I will go myself,

alone."Mi, midomo, midsuleara. - Jl,fi literally means "body,"

" person," and hence" self," but like ouore it is often used asa pronoun of the first person. IVaga 111; has the samemeaning as 1IIi. The derived form lIIidz/(!..'aYfl is, however,commoner. It is formed by adding to 1IIi the genitiveparticle tsu, and the kam which also appears in nagara, 1110110

kara, &c. Midzllkara means "by or of oneself," "by or ofmyself."

Mid01/l0 is used in the spoken dialect by persons of thesamurai class for the singular and plural indiscriminately.

Nau:« of tIle speaker used instead of Ihe prouou« of the firstpersoll.-Both in speaking and in writing, the name (thenanori, or if the speaker or writer has no IUlIIOri, the na) isoften used instead of" I."

Examples :-Chikuzelz mairite sono lIlukashi

ItO kotod01J/O hita-hilO ui ka-laralti haberi-shikaba.

Norinagn ansuru Iii.

After (1) Chikuzen came andrelated to them all thethings that had taken placepreviously. to that.

In Norinaga's opinion [i.e., inmy opinion).

Soregas/lt:-Soregas/li properly means" a certain person,""somebody," but it is generally used III the sense of ••1."It is peculiar to the written language.

Example:-Soregasla ga me "0 mltaka Iii

llaku narite Ilabereba.Inasmuch as my eyes

suddenly destroyed.were

54 rRONOt;N~,

Yatsugnre is a humble form of expression, equivalent tothe Chinese boku (~). It is not in use in the spokenlanguage, nor in the eai lier written language.

2.-Clti1zese Words.CMII nJt is the word used by the Mikado in his official

ch aracter. It corresponds to the' we' of European sovereigns.Sltill r.! (plural sllllt.ra) is the converse of clsin, It is the

word used in petitions and memorials to government, or topersons in authority. In China this character is only usedby officials of the highest rank, but in Japan all classesemploy it. It is often preceded by the character gIt ~.

" stupid."I Yo ~ (plural yom). is peculiar to the written language.It may be used to superiors, inferiors, or equals.

Sess/ia tIl;lf, "the awkward person" (plural sessltndolllo), isthe word used for" I "in the official epistolary style whenaddressing equals. It is not altogether unknown in thecolloquial langu Ige, but in speaking it is rather a formalword. In Aidzu it is commonly used for wataktishi. Setsu,the sound of til. the first of the two characters for sesslm, i;'also in use in the spoken language,' as in the phrase setsn llt

1'011 IIi Ita, "in my poor opinion."BoklL ~, ":,ervant," is a humble word. It corresponds to

the Japanese yatsugare, which, indeed, was probably intender'as a translation .of bolsu. BONtt also belongs to the spoker-language.

G" J~ also implies humility. It is confined to the writtenlanguage.

Examples:-

6'tt ga senlie» IlllkIlSI,;/.:/ 11J0

1110Cltill'.G,t i/.>/.:o110 shOni11 10 ihe-

r/{IIII0-

With my despicable viewslind slender intelligence.

I am nothing but a poormerchant, but-

PRONOUNS. 55

S/U7, " handmaiden, concubine," is a word used by womenin addressing superiors.

The modern epistolary style has numerous other words,mostly of Chinese origin, for the pronoun of the first per on,such as-

Ge-setsu, " the mean and awkward person"; gu-setsu, " thestupid and awkward person" ; yn-fu, " the rustic, the clown" ;gu-tei, "the stupid younger brother"; set-lei, "the awkwardyounger brother"; fu-nei, "the simple one" ; fit-sho, "thesilly person"; Iu-sei, "the clownish student"; rs-sei, "theignorant vulgar student"; slll)-sei, ••the small or inferiorstudent."

The student will probably find that among the numerouswords for" I," ware, waga for the book style, sessha for officialletters, and w(ltakltshi for private letters, will be sufficient forall his requirements.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS OF TilE ECOND PER ON.

r.-Jnpallese Words.,Va or uare (cf. toa, ware) is the word used for the pronoun

of the second person in the oldest form of the Japaneselanguage. It occurs frequently in the Kqjiki and lIfallj'oshill,but has now been long obsolete. The Loochoo language stillpreserves it.

The ~V(llutll-shiwori looks upon it as identical with na,••name," but it is better to consider it as the original pronounof the second person.

Ex.: Na 10 a to, "you and 1." (Kojiki.)Nat!!i (plural lIfl1IJi'm) is derived by Japanese grammarians

from na, "a name," and 11toclzi,root of 1Il01S11, •• to possess."Its original meaning is, therefore, "the name possessor,"-"the famous person." This derivation is confirmed by thefact that a form oho1lat!!i, or 01101la1/luchz;is found in old booksas the name of a god.

]'.

56 PRO OUN!;.

Nt/1Iji is perhaps the commonest word for the pronoun('f the sc ond person in the hook style. It is the wordused to translate the Chinese Uc and the Engli~h ••thou."which latter it very much resembles in force. In the laterliterary language it usually indicates that the person addressedis the speaker's inferior. N(lIIji is not used in the epistolarystyle or ill the spoken language.

Examples:-Nanji gun}i wo bn iRn uaru

1110110 10 OIllO/U'!

Nmzji osoruru koto uakare.Nanjira hlsokani /It-jlt to

uarite.

What sort of a person do youthink a district magistrateis? [Said by a magistrateto a person who has beendisrespectful to him.]

Be not thou afraid.Yc having become secretly

man and wife. [A judgeaddressing criminals.]

The Mikado asked," Is thisan image made by you?"

lIfikado "<Kore ha tta/I)z gatsnknrert« 1Ili /Iotoke uiya "to tohase-tamafu./mt/shi, lIlilllnshi, or /ltashi is an old word for "you." It

resern bles ll11tzji in its force and application.Kimi, "lord," is used towards persons not differing greatly

in rank from oneself. The SMsoko Bnnrei says that in spiteof its literal signification, kiwi is not a sufficiently respectfulterm to use in addressing one's own lord. In poetry it is thecommonest word for" you." In the spoken language personsof the educated class sometimes address each other as killli.

Wa-gimi, " my lord," is also found.Example:-

Hlagillli klidarase-tflllla/u 1m saiisai 1Ia1'i," it is fortunate thatyou have come down" (from Kioto),

Oil/a/Ie or o/l1Ilfl/le (pran. omtuaye : plural otuahe gnla or

PRONOUNS. 57

olllahe tachi), omunhe santa, otelll,,/te.-O/I/a/te or oumnhe iscomposed of 0 or 011, abbreviations of the honori fie wordohomi, and maize, .( before." The meaning is therefore "thehonourable presence." Olllaiu is, in writing, a highly respect-!ful word-more so than /':ilJli-and is used to superiors; butin the spoken language, where it is very common, it is onlyused towards inferiors, or to persons with whom one is onvery familiar terms.

Omahe is seldom or never met with in the modern writtenlanguage, but the derived form oumahe sama is a commonword for" you" in letters written by women of the lower class.

Otemabe belongs to the epistolary style. It is used towardsinferiors, and is also met with in the spoken language.

Nuslli (plural 1U1slti-tacht), um-nuslii, 0 1lUShi.-1Vuslli isliterally "master." As a personal pronoun, it is only usedto inferiors. It is also found in the spoken language.Wa-nustu, literally "my master," and 0 nlls/ti, "the honorablemaster," do not differ from nushi.

Example:-Wauustu wo 1110 umitari, " I gave birth to you also."

Soko(literally "that place," from so, root of sore, "that," andko. an old word meaning "place "), with the allied words soko-moto or SOII0-1IIOtO, "that quarter," sonata (for SOIIO kala), "thatside," and SOI/O IlO (/10 being Chinese for kala, "side "), are usedtowards persons of inferior station to oneself They formtheir plurals by adding tada:

SOIIO IzO is the word with which a criminal's sentence begins.Examples of soeo, &c.:-

Soko wo ba ika bakari ka Itaomoni kikoes/u:

Sokotadd 110 iflt tokoro koko-rogumsht'kereba - sarabayukitell.

How much did I think aboutyou? [i.e., Do you ima-gine I thought of you ?J

As what you say makes mesorry for you-well then,I will go.

r :2

58 PRONOUNS.

Soko H'O ruadu-tamafu kotohisashi.

S01Z0 1t8 "ri, slari wo in toItosslzi,-

Their waiting for you hasbeen long.

You, in the desire to aim atyour own selfish advan-tage,-

011-111£(pron. 011l11lz), composed of the honorific word 011

and 1IIi, "body," "person," is a respectful word for "you,"common in the later book style.

On-mi idzuku wo sashue Yllkase-/a1l/a/1l? "whither are yougoing? "

o koto also belongs to the later book style, as okoto gaseuaka Iii oharete, " borne on your back." In this sentencethe speaker is a mother addressing her grown-up son.

1I£alllo (pron. 1118(0), from sua, "correct," "just," and kilo,"a man," is only used toward inferiors, as for instance bya noble to his retainers, The following example is from theGcnJi' 1IIonogatari:-

Kono anegimi J1a mal/to no nochi. no oya ? This elder sisteris then your second parent?

Koyatsu, or ko£lslt, lit. "this fellow," is an extremely con-ternptuous word.

Ki-snma is a hybrid word composed of the Chinesehonoriric prefix k£ ft, H noble," and the Javanese \\'01'0

santa, " sir," Kisauta occurs frequently in the modern epis-tolary style, and although not employed in addressingsuperiors, is by no means an impolite word. In the spokenlanguage it is a contemptuous or familiar expression.

A uatn, in the sense of II you," does not belong to the writtenlanguage.

2.-Ciz£1/ese Hlords.I Kak-ka, Ki-ka. These are the principal words for" you"in the modern officialepistolary style. Kak-ka is consideredas equivalent to" Your Excellency," and is used in addressing

PRONO NS. 59

Ministers of State, nobles, the Foreign Representatives, andother persons of similar rank. Ki-ka indicates much thesame rank as ., Esquire." It is the word used to ForeignConsuls, the principal local authorities at the open ports, thesecretaries in the public departments, &c. Kak-ka and Id-kaare also placed after the name in writing the address, asE-kolm /{oslti Kak-ka, ••His Excellency the British Minister."

Hei-ka, Deu-ka. In the same way Hei-ka (Your Majesty)is used in addressing the Emperor, and Deu-ka (Your High-ness) towards Princes of the Imperial family, and formerly tothe Taikun, as Tell1z~ Heika, ••His Majesty the Tenn6";Taik1t1l Deulea, •• His Highness the Taikun."

Sok-ka is also much used in the official epistolary style. Itis a moderately respectful word.

I n private letters, ki-kllll, SOli-kim, or son-ko may be used toequals or superiors, and ki-dm, or Id.;jo, to inferiors.

Go-ee« is the pronunciation of the Chinese characters bywhich omahe is written. It is, like omahe, a respectful word.Go-cen belongs to the book style. Go-he« (plural go-hen ra)is the Chinese equivalent of suauto, and, like it, is only usedtowards inferiors.

The student will probably find that 1zm;Ji for the book style, Ikak-ka, ki-ka or sok-ka for official letter , and ki-kllll or ki-denfor private letters will be all that he requires for writingJapanese.

PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PER ON.Ka, kare (pI. karera), a, are (pI. arera). These words are,

properly speaking, the substantive forms of demonstrativepronouns, and mean literally ••that person," ••that thing."They are, however, used for" he," ••she," ••it," ••they."

At the present time the distinction between kare and aye isthat the former is confined to the written language, and thelatter to the spoken idiom. In the older language both wordsare in usc. but a difference of meaning is recognized, Na1'/!

60 PROr\OUl\S.

being applied to the less remote, and are to the more remote,of persons or objects not conceived of as immediately presentbefore the speaker or the person addressed. Kare wouldtherefore correspond to the Latin is, and are to ilk.

Kn and a are old forms. They are usually followed by theparticle Ita. .

In the written language a and are are "\uch less frequentlymet with than ka and kare.

Examples:-Kare ga akllgi8 wo lIilm1lli- Inasmuch as he hated his evil

tuorikereba. conduct.Ka Ita to mite umrammi 1Ichi Seeing that it is she, whilst I

Ita- do not cross over-t The Japanese are fond of punning on ka Ita. Thus in theabove sentence it must be taken in two meanings, viz., ka ha," she," and kalta, ••a river,"I It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the studen, thatthe Japanese language, although so abundantly supplied withpersonal pronouns, is very sparing in their use. There areoften pages and even whole chapters without a single personalpronoun. In writing Japanese it is a good rule never tointroduce them except when absolutely necessary for thesense, and always to think first whether one of the numerousIhonorific or humble words or forms will not serve the purpose.These remarks apply equally to the spoken language.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.Root and Archaic Form. Substantive Form. Adj. Form. Muning.

*Ko kore (pI. korera), kOllo, this.,So, sore (pI. sorem), SOI/O, that.Ka, kare (pI. kam'a), kano, that.A, are (1'1. arem), (7110, that.

•• Korc lind ktJ1/()correspond to the Italian 9"ul() (Latin Ide), sort andSOt/() to cotesto (Latin isle), and kaye and k(l1I(), are and ana, to 9uel/()(Latin is, ,.Ile)

PRONOUNS. 61

Ko, kore, kono are said of things conceived to be near, orbelonging to the speaker. They may be described as demon-strative pronouns of the first person.

Ko and korr JIb are substantive forms. Ko is only usedwhen followed Ly one of the particles 110, wo, ha, or ya, orin forming compounds, as, for instance, /';01.:0,••this place,"••here'" kO-loshi •• this year'" /,;O-1Jolri •• this evening'" /"0-, , c, J , ,

)'"-lIaki, ••unsurpassable." r n the KOji'ki, however, /,;0 is morefreely used, and such constructions as ko wo o« are foundwhere the later language would have kore zuo ba.

Kono (i.e., ko followed by the genitive particle 1/0) is theadjective form. It should be distinguished from kore 110.

KOIlO uedau, for instance, would mean" this price" ; kore 110

nedan, ••the price of this."Exarnples s-;

Might this be the note of thematsu-mtrs/u ?

This is the skin of a differentanimal.

Making it a very bad thing,he said this and that. [I.e.,He made all manner ofobjections to it.]

So, sore, and SOIIO, "that," are said of persons and thingswhich are regarded as near, or in some way connected withthe person addressed. They may be called the demonstrativepronouns of the second person. Sonata (for SOltOkala, ••thatside ") and soko are actually used as personal pronouns of thesecond person, and S01l0 is frequently best translated by theEnglish u your." The most common use of sore and S0110 iswhere they refer to something which has just been mentioned,it being conceived as present to the mind of the personaddressed.

Ko ya utatsu-musln 1/0 koe niIra aran ?

K 0 11(/ kolo-JIlollO 1/0 kalJanari.

Ito aslliki koto to te, kure karekikuyu.

I'RO:\01.:XS.

,<'''0 is seldom found except with one of the particles no, gn,1II1',J'O, '"!O, or hn affixed, or in compounds, as soko, sochi.

,<';0 and sore are substantives; S0110 is the adjective form.The same distinction is to be observed between sono and

sore 110as between kOl/o and kore 110.Sore is sometimes seen in a detached position at the

beginning of a chapter. This is a Chinese idiom, and isconfined to the style imitated from translations of Chinesebooks.

Examples of sore:-Sohl1 shiln'Cli.So.fl1 illl·,I.·er,zI.:II.Tarsn 110 I.wbi IIi itsu tro III

hilMrll 1<11l1atlri-sorc '"!O

torite tamahe.

Y(Wile /"'ose) sore /"'11 10 1110

mtme,

Sore IIi 1110yorazu.SI'>IIO hoktl.SOIlOkoro,

That I did not know.That which he said.In the dragon's head there is

a jewel which shines withfive colour ; it take andgive to me.

Xot until one has approachedwill one see whether it isthat or not.

\\' ithout reference to that.rn addition to that.At that time.

KtI, ktlrlc, and a, are have been noticed as personalpronouns of the third person, but, as already observed, theyare really demonstratives. The forms kmlO and ana are neverpossessive adjective pronouns, but demonstrative adjectivepronouns. In other words, kmlO and ana (ka and a, with thegenitive particle 110) mean" that," not" his" or ••her," whichwould be, in ] apane e, km'c gn or km'c 110,are gtl or are no,A'<111o is also found in the sense /I a certain."

Karc, /..'11110,"are, auo are used of persons or things not

., Art and uno are of rare occurrence in the written language, but inthe spoken language they have almost superseded kare and Eano.

PROr..OU/,\ .

immediately pr cnt. Theypronouns of the iird person.

Karl' Ita 1If1111 10 nan u/o-10/.:0 IIi 101';-;"/ ,

Kare Ita nani /Ii :;0 '1

Kana ho IIi hay, eogi-yose yo,Kano hilo 11/0 'tlni Oll/O/U-

ran.Kauo 011 tcuara tori.

may be termed demonstrative

••What is that?" he ask dthe man.

What man is he? Who IS

he?Quickly row to that side.I wonder what somebody

thinks of it.Taking the copy-book 111

question.

"ITERRO<;ATlVE PRO·O l'\

Root and old SU st, 10 m Modem .u.bst. (arm. Adjtetlvc form I Mu"I""

Ta TareD1I1·e

Na Nmu"Id:;u I'dsnre

Dore

Nani 1/0

Id::11 re ItO

Dono

I who (written I.)who (spoken I.)what

I which (writt n I.)which (spoken I.)

Ta, tare, ••110." The root III is preserved by the oldlanguage in t expressions ta EO, ••who "; ta gIl, ••whose."The Kqjzki h. til ui, "to whom," instead of tare IIi. Til,

tare are used c persons only.Nan], "what (plural lIallirn), is used of things only, except

in the cornpoi d nani-Into, ••what man," ••who! " l\'alli 11(1,

usually pronouced 11f111110,is the adjective form, as uau] 110

111110,•• what hi se."The root 0 nani is probably 1W, the lIi being originally

the prepositio ••to." Nani is found in the older literaturein the sense ( II for what," ••to what end." The root na isalso found in rase, nado, II why." Nalli belongs to both thewritten and tl spoken languages.

PROKOU ·S.

Idaure," which,"" where," is used both of persons and things,Idanre 110 is the adjective form, The same root is found inthe adverbs idsut», "where," idzuclli or id::;/~kata, ••whither,"

1&c, In the spoken language all these words change idsuinto do, Thus id:::uko becomes doko ; idzuchz', doc/d, &c,

, Classical Japanese does not recognize the meaning" at anyrate," in which the spoken language and later writers oftenuse id::11re,

f/~a, ••what manner," is found 111 conncxion with a fewwords and particles only, as-

11.·auaru, ••what manner of,"Jka Iii, ••in what man ner,' ••how."lkade (for ikfl1lite), ••how,"1kaga, " how."!kaga 110, u what kind of."lka-bakari, " how much:'lka-Itodc, ••how much."

llw, ••what number," appears in the following combina-tions :-

Jk1l/SII, "how many";Ileura ••how much" or ••how many ", , ,lklllllai, ••how many" (of flat things);lkuka, ••how many days";lkubaku, .•how much ";

and also before many nouns, as iku-ki, ••how many trees";ikll-!lIzru, "how many springs,"

Itsu, "what time," ••when," is found alone and also incombination, as' itsuka, itslishika, "some time or other";itsngoro, ••when," &c,

Examples of Interrogatives:-Kouo yaina 110Ita uro uani to What is the name of this

ka mafus« ? mountain?

PRONOUNS.

Kana uiomina tnso to 10/11.

Idaure IIi 1110are.Ta ga lIla/.:otowo ka wore 1m

tanotnan ?Kie« Itilo Ita tare uaran ?[kalli sltile idanre 10 shirmt?

Its« mairitsnru co ?Kouo luto 1m ikalli narinuru

eo ?Ikaga slibe/.-i to oooshimeshi-

wlld:mmjit ni.

Ikll tabi /0 if" !toto uakll.

He asked who this womanwas.

Be it whichsoever it may.In whose truth shall I put

trust?Who can he be who inquires?How shall I know which it

is?When did he come?What has become of this

man?Whilst sick with anxious

thought what she shouldclo.

of times beingAny number of

No numberspecified.times.

INOEFINITE PRONOUNS.The Interrogative Pronouns tare, idzure, and uaui become

Indefinite Pronouns by the addition of the particles ka ormo. Thus tare Ita is Japanese for" somebody," nani ka forCI something," tare 11/0 for" anyb dy," and naui 1110 for ••any-thing." Kn, however, sometimes only intensifies the inter-rogatives. When tare 1I{0 and nani 1J{0 are followed byllt.gatives, the negative may be joined to them in renderinginto English, and the whole translated" nobody," "nothing."Thus tare mo s/urasu. is" nobody knows" ; nani 11/.0 s/urnsu,••he knows nothing."I 'dcuremo idcuremo kallerigo/a

lIIihe:;u.Nanika ito kokoro-uki kolo.Iretaru mouo uanimo k6ba-

slziki mono nashi.

To none of them did anyanswer appear.

Some great cause for sadness.Among the things contained

in it there was nothingsweet-smelling.

66 PRONOUNS.

Other words used as Indefinite Pronouns are:-Hilo.-This word literally means" man," and is used in a

similar way to the French ••on" or the English ••one,"••people." It may also mean" other people" (French aulrllt).

Examples:-The talk of the world is for

seventy days.He went away to a foreign

country.Everybody.He does not look on people

as human beings.

Soregnsld originally meant a ••certain person,"" somebody,"but it has come to be merely a humble way of saying" 1."

Nmligashi, ,. a certain person," ••somebody," is used wherea~person's name is not known, or is purposely left unindicated.

Ant Into, lit" an existing man," is also very commonlyused for" somebody."

Mina, " ali," is used either alone or with a noun. The oldlanguage put miua before the noun, as milia Iuto, " all men";the later language puts it after, and in fact makes it anadverb qualifying the verb of the sentence.

Hito 110 nzuasa shichi Ji'u melzinart.

Hito 110 kmzi he makari-keri.

Mitla ilito.Hito uio llito to 1Il0 seen,

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOt;NS.

Ono-ouo, mei-mei, correspond to the English word "each"when used as a substantive. "Each," as an adjective pro-noun, is rendered by 0110-0110' 1/0 or mei-mei 1/0. 1I,fei-1JIei isChinese.

REI'LI::XIVI:: PRONOU 'S.

SIIi. The most ancient reflexive pronoun in the Japaneselanguage is shi, ••self" or ••own." It occurs frequently in theMmzy6slliu, but is now entirely obsolete.

PRONOUNS.

Ouore is at present the ordinary word for" self," " himself,"" herself," " itself," &c. The final syllable re is omitted beforethe genitive particle ga, as in the phrase 01lOga wantki koto"one's own faults." The derivative word ollOdcukara, ••ofoneself," is also in use. DZII is here the genitive particle ISIt

with the nigori.lIfi and lIlidzukara are synonymous with OHareand 0110dzlI-

kara. 1I-li means" body," hence" person," " self."IVaga is properly a pronoun of the first person, but it is

also used in all persons in the sense" one's own," as waga ko" one's own child."

Ji-sltin and Ji'-blm are Chinese words for "self." Theybelong to the later language.

Examples of reflexive pronouns :-

Onore sakad:;uki te ni torite.

A me no sltita ni IJ1lOre 1lZmasaru taNumi aru to 1110

c01lji-safitmltazll.Onore 10 urarobi.

Jishill 1Ii 1110ceuinuai 110ata-hacaru wo shiri.

Shi ga haha wo toraku woshirasu,

Taking the wine-Clipinto hishand himself.

He did not think that underheaven there was any betterworkman than himself.

Rolling over of itself.He knew himself that it was

impossible that he shouldrecover.

They know not of their ownmother's being taken.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

The Japanese language has no relative pronouns, norindeed relative clauses at all. 'What is a relative clause inEnglish is in Japanese converted into an attributive clause,and like other attributives, is placed before the noun whichit qualifies-viz., the noun which is in English the antecedentof the relative clause. The verb of the relative clause is put

68 PRONOUNS.

in the attributive form in the Japanese construction. Thus,"the man who comes" is in Japanese kuru hito; ••the manwho came yesterday," killf> koslti ldto. The same constructionis found in English in such phrases as "the murdered man"for "the man who was murdered," ••the stolen goods" for••the goods which were stolen "i and it is still commoner inGerman, where it is often applied to long phrases which wouldinevitably be relative clauses in English.

The same construction is allowable even when the relativein English is not in the nominative, but in one of the obliquecases, as in the following examples :-

Halla sak« yallla. The mountain on whichRowers are unfolding.[Lit., the Rower-unfoldingmountain.]

Malslt Ililo komi 11/0110)'uyel1i. Because he comes not whom(1) await.

Ug-ullis1Ino naki-tsurn hnua. The Rowers amongst whichthe uguis« has just beensinging.

A river ill which fish areplentiful.

Uwo ollOki kahn.

Where in English the verb of the relative clause is in thepassive voice, the Japanese language usually prefers a con-struction with the active verb. Thus, instead of saying "II

country which is unknown," they say slarnnn /;;1IIIi, i.c., "a(people) not know country"; "a man who is called Denkichi"is in Japanese Dmkiclzi to ifu mono, lit. "a person whom(people) call Denkichi."

The construction in which the words toeoro 1l0, "of theplace," are inserted bet ween the noun and the verb, as in thephrase" kllrll tokoro 110 lli/o," ••the man of the coming place,"i.e.•• the man who comes," is an imitation of a Chinese idiom.

PRONOUNS. 69

and is not found in the more ancient literature. The oldestexample of it which the present writer has met with occurs inthe Tsure-dcure g"sa, a work of the fourteenth century. I t issparingly used even at the present time.

Examples of tokoro as a Relative ;-Kiris/ata« sintouon to ifu ha That which we call the

Nalllbankokll yori zuataru Christian religion is antoeoro ItO jaM nari. evil doctrine which came

over from the country ofthe southern barbarians(the Portuguese).

Korosu tokoro no tori wo kllbi Having caused the birdsni kakesasele. which he had killed to be

. hung about his neck.NUMERALS.

The Japanese language has two series of numerals, oneconsisting of words of native origin, and one composed ofChinese words.

JAPANESE CHINESE.1 Hito-tsu /chi2 Fura-tsu Ni3 Mi-tslt San4 Yo-tsu su5 Itsu-tsu Go6 JJb~-ISIt Rolm7 Nana-rsu Shic!/i8 Ya-tslI Haehl'9 Kokono-tsu KIt

10 Towo jiu1I Totuamari /ato-ts» jiu-iehi12 Towo' mari futa-tsu jill-lIi13 Touio'mari 11Ii-ISII Jill-sail14 Tozoo'mariyo-tsu jilt-shi15 Tozuo'mari itsu-tsu jill-go

70

16171819202130405060

708090

100200300400500600

700800900

1,000

2,000

3,00010,00030,000

100,0001,000,000

NUMERALS.

)APANI!SF..

Touidruari 1II1t-ISIITowo'mari nana-tsuT owo'man ya-tst«Tozuo'mari kok01l0-IS?tHata-chiHata-chi amari hito-tSltMi-so-d.fiYo-so-dfiI-so-djzMu-so-dji'Naua-so-dfiYa-so-djzKokono-so-dfilI~ollto-chi

I-llO-chi or i-ho-tsu

Ya-Ito

Chi-djz

Yorodzit

CHII'ESE..

jill-rokujiu-shichijilt-Ill/chijiu-kltNi-ji'lINi-ji'u-ichiSan-finShijiuGojiuRoku-j'iuSJzichijiuHachijiztKlI-jz1tHink//.Ni-hiakuSam-biak«SIti-hia},;nGo-hiakltRop-pin1mSluchi-hiakitHap-piakuKu-hiakuSenNi-senSail-ZenMallSalll-maltos«CM

The terminations tsu, cM, and dji' of the Japanese series ofnumerals, and perhaps also the dsu of yorodsu, are onlydifferent forms of the same particle. They are probably allidentical with the genitive suffix tsu. Tozoo,"ten," does not

NUMERALS., 7f

take this termination, but it is preserved in the phrase tSIIrC;U

ltalaeili, which properly ignifie ••ten or twenty years of age,"although later writers have given it the meaning of" nineteenor twenty year of age."

Ya/slt was originally a general word for" a great number."Thus, in the .lIImtygslli1t we have It· wo yats« kadzlfke, " keep-ing large numbers of cormorants." 1'aso andyalto are alsoused in the same sense.

The numerals of the Japanese series above ten are obsoletein the modern language except Italachi, lIlisodji, &c., as fara' yosodji, which are still in use, but only with the meaning"twenty years of age," ,. thirty years of age," &c. Yorodzualso remains in use, in the sense of "a very large number,""a myriad."

The mari in lowo'man /uto-tsu is amari, "over and above,""in addition," with the initial a elided.

Immediately before a noun, the numeral of the Japaneseseries is used with a Japanese word, and of the Chinese serieswith a Chinese word. In this position the Japanese numeralsare commonly put in the root form, i.e., without the finalsyllables tsu, chi, or d;i', but the longer form is also used,though more rarely. VVemay say, for instance,fittatslt toseas well as futa lose," two years." For numbers above ten,Chinese numerals are used with Japanese words, except inthe old language.

In counting, Japanese use the root form, except that insteadof Mto,fitta, they say IIi, fie.

Whenever a Japanese numeral does not immediately pre-cede its noun, or where it does not qualify any noun, it isinvariably put in the longer form, as futatsu 110toslli, or loshifutatsu, ••two years" ; fiaatsu tamah«, ••give me two."

The words before which Chinese numerals are placed aremonosyllabic, and are mostly names of weights or measures,or belong to the class of Auxiliary Numerals described below.

G

72 NUMI::RALS.

Larger numbers than ten thousand are usually expressed bythe help of multiples of 1IIa1l,oku and c//~ being very rarelyused. One hundred and fifty thousand, for instance, is ex-pressed by ji/{-go-lIInll rather than by ,dt£ oisn go man.

In numerals consisting of several words, the same order isfollowed as in English, e.l[., sen Itnppiaku rok« j£,. haelti, 1868.

ORDINALS.

The Japanese language has no separate words for ordinalnumbers. They are expressed by prefixing dni, or adding

Iban 1I/e or g~to the cardinal numbers. These particles areusually combined, as in the following examples :-Dai ni batt 1IIe. No. 2, the second.Dai It£nku nijiu ,·oku go. No. [26.Roku bnll or rok« ban me. The sixth.

Sometimes the cardinal numbers are used without additionas Ansei ni ueu, "the second year of Ansei."

AUXILIARY NUMERALS.

Instead of joining the numeral immediately to the noun,the Japanese language generally prefers to use what I haveventured to call Auxiliary .urnerals. They correspond tosuch English phrases as "six head of cattle," "two pair ofshoes," "five sail of ships," which would be in Japanese US/Ii

1'0p piki, Itnkimollo IIi soku, flute go so. Auxiliary numeralsmay either follow the noun, as in the examples just given,or they may be placed before it, with the genitive particle 110

intervening, as futa /Ias/tinl 110knmi, " two gods."The following lists contain the more common of this class

of words.AUXILIARY NUMERALS OF JAPANESE ORIGIN.

Eda (branch), for eMs/ti, a kettle with a long handle.Fun (brandish), for bills (llaginn/a), swords (tnc/u), &c.Halle (wing), for helmets.

NU)lERALS. 73Hari (stretch), for bows, tents, mosquito-tents.Hashim (pillar), for gods of the Shinto mythology; also, in

the older language, for men.Kake (hang), for cruppers and several other parts of harness.Kara (empty), for drums.Kasaue (pile), for official clothes.Kashim (head), for cbos/Ji (a kind of cap) and deer.Kasari (ornament), for Jo'IIlIllllllri, a sort of cap of ceremony,Kosh£ (loin), for swords of alI kinds.Kuch: (mouth" for saddles, stirrups, and bits.Kudari, for trowsers.KU11Ii(pile, for jill-bako, sets of boxes piled one on the other.111010 (stem), for plants, and for a large kind of falcon, on

account of the perch on which they rest.Nagarc flow), for flags.Ori (bend), for small boxes.Sa/zo (pole" for 1lagalllochi, a travelling chest carried on a

pole.Saslu, for mackerel.Sorohe (set), for horse-gear.S/I/lt (seat), f r falcons.Stdi (line), for bridles, bowstrings, arrows, girdles, spears.Toumhi, for storehouses.Tsuga/ri (brace). In ending presents of wild geese, wild

ducks, swans, and pheasants, they are usually reckoned byISligalli, or brace.

AUXILI.\RY NUMERAL OF CHINESE ORIGII'.

Bi (tail), for fish.Bu (class), for books, or for copies of a book.CM (handle), for norimons and jinrikishas, tools with handles,

muskets, small drums (1m/swItZ), ink sticks.CM (stretch), for bows, stringed instruments.

o 2

74 N MERALS.

eM (card), for packets of medicine.Fit (seal), for sealed letters.Fllku (border), for hanging pictures.Gil (set), for clothing, &c.H ai (cup), {or cups, glasses full.lie; (handle), for things with handles, such as uclsitua.Hi!.:i, for animals, except birds and men.Ho (ear of corn), for 1I1s1Ibo,a kind of quiver.Hon (stem), for cylindrical things, as pens, fans, sticks, large

fish, spears, whips, &c.In (number., for officials, &c.Yiktt (roller), for hanging pictures.Kai (cover), for hats.Ken (eave), for houses.Kiak« (leg), for chairs and other articles of furniture having

legs./(0 or ka, for things generally, especially where no other

auxiliary numeral is in use, as for places, days, months,years, &c. This numeral is placed immediately beforethe noun, as ik-ka-sllo, ••one place."

Kio« (bali), for balls.Kwall (tube), for wind instruments, also pens.Kusan (roil), for books, also stuffs made up into rolls.lIfai, for Rat things, such as sheets of paper, flat fish, clothing.l![m (face, surface), for mirrors, cup-stands, ink stones, I~oto

(a stringed instrument).lJlOI1 (gate), for cannon .•\Till (man), for men.Rio (rim), for carriages.Rio (collar), for armour, clothing.Rift (grain), for pills, grains of rice.Sa/sit (vol.), for volumes of a book.Shill (burn), for sticks of incen c.Sltill (head), for poems.

NUMERALS. 75

SIJ (boat), for ships.SIJ (pair), for pairs of screens.Soe« (foot), for pairs of shoes, stockings, &c.To (head), for some animals, as dogs, oxen.Tsa (communication), for documents./tVa (feather), for birds. ."Va (bundle), for bundles of grass, straw, grapes, firewood,

vegetables, &c.Examples of Numerals :-

Fune Ilitotslt IStlklwi-tari.Ya-clli-Inbi kflttnslliki.

Sen shi-Ilialm ni-fiu-go dora.

Hito lose ni futa tam:Sa71slzi me,yo saJlyIJ.

Go ka lien no ahida.Miso moji amari MIO 1ttl?;i'.Hitotsu wo kikite, tou/o wo

slziru.Usld ippiki udzi-leoroshi, ho-

kalzi 1IZIzikiuballi-Iom.

lie has made a boat.Many thousand times la-

mentable.One thousand four hundred

and twenty-five dollars.Twice in one year.Three passports for three

men.For the space of five years.Thirty-one letters.Hearing one, to know ten.

They killed one ox, and car-ried away as plunder twoothers.

The class of tin or uninflected words comprises numerousadverbs." They generally consist of a root, followed byone of the particles lli or 10. In some words, however,it is optional to omit the particle, as naze 1Ii or nate, " why" ;haru-baru to or haru-baru, "from afar"; and in numerousother cases the root stands alone without any particle, as I

itllsltille, " anciently"; i1lln," now"; kOtz-tlichi," to-day."The derivation of most words of this class shows that they

* For other classes of adverbs, see under the verb and adjective.

76 AD\'ERB_.

are really nothing more than nouns, as for example ima," now" from i root of im ., to remain" and ilia .,a space."" , , ,. ,koko, "here," from ko," this," and /':0, an old word meaning" place'" ollokala "probably" from ohoki "great" and kata, , , " ,U side," H part."

The root is often reduplicated, sometimes to convey theidea of repetition, as dan-dan," step by step," "gradually";tabi-tabi, " frequently"; but oftener merely for the sake ofemphasis, as lmru-barsc to, .• from afar"; tsura-tsura," atten-tively."

The Japanese language is rich in onomatopoetic adverbs.Examples:-

Gata-gnta, with a rattling noise.Do-to. with a thud.Soyoro or SO)IO-SO)'O, with a rustling sound.Pilla-filla, with a Rapping noise, as of a fan.Dobun-to, with a plunging sound.Sara-sara, with a rattling noise.

Examples of ua as adverbs :-Ima Im taYII. It hath now ceased.Yoso IIi sidle kofil1'eba kuru- Being away [from him], I

shi. pine for love.Hamka IIi lIliy/{. It is visible afar off.Wadsuea IIi ltiloriflltari. Only a few - one or two

persons.The desire to see thee fre-

quently.Because he does not yet

Sfziba-sMoa lito lIIilllak" noIzoshisa.

Imada l.'Ontoa.come.

CONJUNCTIONS.

The Japanese language is sparing 111 the use of con-junctions. The necessity for them is in some measure

co 'JU 'CTIONS. 77obviated by the Rule (see Chap. IX.) according to which theadverbial form of the verb or adjective is used instead of theconclusive form or attributive form whenever followed by averb or adjective co-ordinated with it in the sentence. Thus,in the sentence kokoro tao tS1(kuslti, eltikaY(l wo kiwa1Jlcle, abi-Ilataraku-beshi, ••you must work together, giving to it all yoursoul, and devoting all your strength," the circumstance thattsuklls/d is put in the adverbial form is a sufficient indicationthat this verb stands in the same connexion with the followingverb kiw(lmelc, which is expressed in English by the use of theconjunction" and."

Where in English the conjunction "and" is insertedbetween two nouns, it i commonly omitted in Japanese.Hiakll-sllO eM-1Ii11110autai, " the security of the peasants andtownsfolk"; sake sakana, « sake and fish," Most words usedas conjunctions are verbs or particles, or combinations ofwords of these two classes. A few. however, are na, alone,or with a particle added.

Ex. : Katsu, and, moreover.

Katsu Illata, and again.Hata, further.Mata, again.1"1 ata ha, or.Hata mata, again.Motsutomo, still, nevertheless.

The above are placed at the beginning of the clause towhich they belong.

Akida (lit. "space "), because.Yuye or YUJ1eni (lit. " cause "), because,

Jo (lit. « article "), inasmuch as, because that.

The last three words are placed at the end of the clause

INTERJECTIONS.

after the verb in the attributive form. They occur veryfrequently in the modern epistolary and official style.

INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections belong to the class of uninflected words, Theyrequire little remark.

Examples of interjections:

Isa ! tonroui 1IIi niynkan.

A no ! omoslaro IAna I u yo 1101U1ka!

Ahore! ima ha yo ui 11akihilo 110 kO::11 71i iris/Ii IIiyo!

IVos/li ! woslt£ !

Come! let us go and ee itit together.

Oh ! how amusing!Ah! what a wretched place

this world is!Alas! can he have now en-

tered the number of mennot of this world!

Hush! hush!

CHAPTER IV.

INfLECTED PRINCIPAL WORDS.

(Kotoba or Hataraki-kotoba.)

This class of words corresponds to the" verb" and" adjec-tive" of the grammars of European languages, but withlimitations which will be understood from the followingobservations. The reader had better at once discard fromhis mind any notions of the functions of inflection which hemay have acquired by the study of European languages. InJapanese, inflection has nothing to do with voice. mood, tense,person, gender, number, or case. Instead of a passive voice,Japanese verb have derivative verb with a conjugation thesame as that of active verbs; mood and tense are indicatedby teniuroha or suffixes; person is only occasionally andindirectly intimated by the use of honorific or humble particles;gender is denoted by compounds similar to the English words" he-ass," " she-ass," and number and case are expressed, if atall, by suffixes or particles distinct from the noun, which, ashas been already stated, is never inflected.

In the Japanese language, the principal office of inflection,as distinguished from the addition of suffixes, is to give tothe same root the force of a different part of speech accordingto the inflection employed. In Latin, and even in English.inflection has to a limited extent the same function. Thus,for the verbal root fac we have faa«, a verb•facere, which isvirtually a noun, and factus, which is an adjective, and inEnglish the same root lend appears as a verb in lends, and inthe participle lending as an adjective or a noun accordingto circumstances. The extent to which this system is carriedis one of the chief distinctive features of Japanese grammar.

80 INFLECTI-:D PRI' II'AL WORDS.

Not only have all kOloba (inflected words, i.e., verbs andadjectives) forms in which they appear successively as nouns,adverbs, adjectives, and verbs, but the suffixes indicative oftense, &c., have inflections by which they are affected in thesame manner.

Inflection has a second function, viz., to provide bases towhich are added the suffixes or tenizuo/:«. The form for whichthe term" Negative Base" has been adopted in this treatiseis employed solely for this purpose, and each of the fourother forms, although at times a separate and independentword, may also be a mere base to which certain suffixes areattached.

The following table gives a synoptical view of all the inflec-tion' of which Japanese principal words or kOloba are capable.It should be studied in connexion with the table of termina-tions given at the close of Chapter VII.

vir.cf-<uW.....l

"'"Z-

...: ::

.~.~:

82 VERB A '0 ADJECTIVE.

ROOT.

I. The roots of verbs and adjectives are often used asnouns, as yorokobi 1/0 fill/an', " excess of joy"; e-ga/a no girt',••a meaning hard to apprehend"; shiro 110 Satsuma jojit,"white atsuma fine cloth"; tsukahi," a messenger." Inthese examples yorokobi. amari, ega/a, shiro, and tsuka/zi arethe roots of yorokobu, ••to rejoice," atnaru, ••to exceed," ega/aki,"hard to apprehend," sluroisi, ••white," and /s-ukaju, "to end."It is more convenient, however. to consider these nouns as naderived from I.·o/aba, and they have been accordingly noticedunder that head at p. 41.

2. The root is also used in forming compounds, as kasni-ya,"a house to let"; yo-hodo, "a good deal"; waru-gashikoki," badly-clever," i.e., u cunning."

3. In exclamations the adjective is put in the root form.

PRIl\CIPAl. PARTS OF KOTOBA (VERB AND ADJECTIVE).ADVERB OR ADVERBIAL FORM.

In verbs this form does not differ from the root; in adjec-tives it is distinguished by the addition of the syllable klt.-As will be seen below, the term" adverb" or "adverbial form"-does not cover all the uses to which this form is applied.Sometimes it is a true adverb (I), at other times it is joined toa verb or adjective, but without qualifying it (2), and maytherefore still be called an adverb, although not exactly in theordinary sense of the word, and it is sometimes not an adverbat all, but a noun (3), or merely a base to which suffixes areattached (4).

I. The adverbial forms of adjectives are sometimes adverbs,as hayaku /l(ISnil'1t, ••to run fast," atS1//m shasuru," to thank

* The spoken language drops the letter k in this termination, and thecontracted form is also frequently found in books of the nalsa-mubashi,-or middle-age of Japanese history, as (0 instance the later lIfollogatari.

VERB AND ADJECTIVE.

warmly." The adverbial forms of verbs have often the sameforce. For instance, in the sentence cllikaku /lasliiri kitari,"he has come near running," it is plain that cltikaku andflasitiri both stand in precisely the same relation to kitari.Both words describe the manner of the coming, and aretherefore adverbs. It is this use of the adverbial form whichhas uggested the term applied to it in the Kotoba 110

Cflikallliciti, viz., :;oku-yo-gen, or "word joined to inRectedword ."

What we should call compound verbs are often nothingmore than verbs preceded in this way by the adverbial formsof other verbs, as buclli-I.:01'OSU,to "beat-kill," i.e. •. to beat todeath"; kin'-haya/II, •• to cut-clear-away," i.e. "to clear awayby cutting."

2. A most important function of this form is described inthe term invented for it by a native grammarian, viz., yen-yo-8,m, or ••word co-ordinated with inRected words." It is a ruleof Japanese syntax that when two or more kotoba are co-ordinated in the same sentence, the last only receives theinflection which properly belongs to all, those which precedebeing placed in the adverbial form. [See below, Chap, IX.]

In compound verbs the first element is sometimes co-ordinated with the second in this way, as yuki-kaheru, "to goand return."

3, The adverbial form may be a noun, as in the followingexamples :-Flly"k" yon'. From of old.Kore wo tanotui ni te, Trusting in this.

4. A number of the lelliwofla are added to the root-form asa base. [See below, Chapters VI. and VI I.]

CONCLUSIVE FOR 1.

This form has been termed variously by Japanese writerskimru kotoba, eet-tei-geu, or sai-dan-geu, literally "cutting,"

YERIl AND ADJECTIVE.

"determining," or " dccisive word." These epithets havereference not only to the force of the conclusive form, whichis the same as that of our indicative mood, but to the positionwhich it always occupies at the end of a sentence. trictlyspeaking the conclusive form is not of an)' tense. In thesentences kaha 1lngaru, kalto fukaslii, the properties" flowing"and" depth" are predicated of the river without reference totime, and it is only from the context that one can judgewhether time past, present, or future is intended. But asthe past and future are generally indicated by suffixes, thepresent tense is in the majority of cases the most suitabletranslation for the conclusive form of verbs or adjectivesThus, in the absence of any indication to the contrary inthe context, the above phrases would be translated" the riverflows," u the river is deep," although it is quite possible thatthe context may render it desirable to translate them ~theriver flowed," or "the river will flow," "the river was deep,"or ••the river will be deep."

The want of a proper system of punctuation in Japanesebooks often renders it difficult for the student to distinguishwhere one sentence ends and another begins. The onlyremedy for thi lies in his making himself familiar with theconclusive forms both of verbs and adjectives, and of theinflected tenruioha or suffixes.

Examples of Conclusive Form :-

Noch] 110Ilifo 110sndaure wosuatsn,

Kono tenizuoha ni filfa kokoroan.

Kouo hataraki-kotoba ito oho-shi.

Ohonl/we ya lli o1lllji.

J await the decision of pos-terity.

This suffix has two mean-ings.

These inflected words arevery numerous.

J ts general meaning IS thesame as that of :fa.

VERB .\;\"D AIlJF:CTI\'F. 85

A few adverbs are obtained by reduplicating the conclusiveforms of verbs. Ex.: Osorn-osoru, ••tremblingly "; yul.:l1-Yllkll, "as timc goes on," ••while on our way."

·For thc suffixes to this form, see haps. VI. and VI I.

ATTRIBUTIVE OR SUBSTANTIVE FORM.

This form is denominated in the Kotoba 1i<J CII1A'flmidlizoku-tai-gen, or" word joined to nouns," i.e., "adjective," andother names of a similar purport have been invented for it byother native writers on grammar.

I. This form may be al1 adjective. In the case of verbalroots, it then corresponds to the participle in illg of Englishverbs, but it may oftener be translated by placing the verb ina relative clause. Like the conclusive form, it is of no tense,and the context must decide whether, in translating it, thepresent, past, or future tense should be employed.

There is an ambiguity in the use of this form as an adjec-tive which a glance at the context is generally sufficient toremove. 1I1alslt hilo, for instance, may mean either "theman who is waiting" or « the man for whom I wait" ; sldr«

., The conclusive form has almost entirely disappeared from the modemform of the spoken language, its place having been usurped by the attri-butive form. An exception is ntlSlti, the conclusive form of Ihe negativeadjective, which is not unfrequently used in the spoken language, althoughnai (a contraction of the attributive form "ai'" is more common. Insome of the provincial dialects the conclusive forms of adjectives are stillin use. This change in the construction of Japanese is well worthy ofthe attention of students of language. It is as if we gave up the use ofthe indicative mood, and used participles instead, saying, for instance,"he dying" or ••his dying" instead of "he died," "his being killed"instead of" he was killed." The sensation headings of American news-papers, and the verbless sentences of telegrams and advertisements, showthat English is not altogether free from the same tendency. For themanner in which this change was brought about in Japanese, see Chap. V.,under the particles no and gao

86 VERB AND ADJECTlYl::.

hito may be either" the man who knows II or "the man Iknow II ; a1'igataki koko1'o may be either" a thankful heart"or " a heart for which one should be thankful."

Examples of Attributive Form as Adjective :-Noki chikaku tobu luuaru, The firefly that flies near the

eaves.When he started in pursuit.

[Lit., the time of his start-ing to pursue.]

The past I I th day.Without any place to' go to.His not being able to learn

where Tametomo had goneto.

A good man.A river in which fish arc

plentiful.

Ouan' to S/tSU11111,oki.

{1l1117l;i'll iclzz'mchi.Vuku lie naku,Tametomo 110yuku he slure-

zarte Nolo.

Voki hi!o.Uwo ohoki kalla.

2. This form has, as a noun, two significations. Kasu, forexample, may mean either" the person or thing who lends"or "the act of lending II ; yoki may mean "good persons orthings II or it may mean" goodness." In other words, kasllmay be the equivalent either of kaSIl 1110110or of kasll kolo;J10ki may correspond in meaning to either J10ki 1/101/0or yokikoto. It will be observed that in neither of these senses hasthe attributive form the same meaning as the root, whichmay also be used as a noun.

Examples of Attributive Form as Noun :-

Zokll-tai-gm yon ukm'll Ira. Those (teniwoha) which areattached to the attributiveform.

Tatsutoki 1JlO iyaslliki mo. Both noble and mean per-sons.

VERB ANI) ADJE 'TIVE.

Hodokosu ni IIlO, slumatsn ni Both in liberality and ineconomy.

Fearing the throwing awayof even a single sheet ofpaper.

The use of this character isan error.

Its causing its fins to glistenin the sunlight is like thewaving of a flag.

They are numerous untotroublesomeness. [I.e..Theyare so numerous as to betroublesome.]

3- This form takes the place of the conclusive form whenpreceded by so, ya, or an interrogative, by a rule which isexplained in Chapter IX.

Examples:-

1110.

I(ami ie/Ii mni ?ti te 1110 SII-

tsurn WO osorete.

Kono ji too mocluynrt« haayamari nart.

Hi 110 Mkan IIi sonohire wohiramekasuru ha IUlIa wofuru ga gotoshi.

rVad::llm/laslliki made ollOslti.

Ot01lashi-galUl to so tsuini It is as the river Otonashinagare-idzuru. that it at last flows out.

Kore so lIudetaki. It is this that is beautiful.4- The suffixes which may be attached to this form as base

are given below. [See Chaps. VI. and VI I.] •BASE FOR NEGATIVE AND FUTURE SUFFIXES.

This base never constitutes a complete word by itself. Itis only found associated with the negative and future suffixes.It is termed, in the Kotoba 110 Cltikamie/ti, sM-cen-gm, or"future form," and is opposed to the "i-sen-gm, or "pastform," as the perfect is termed in the same treatise. TheSan-i?l-k8 says that this form imada sllt'karacarll lli lIlodli)'It," is used for events which have not yet taken place," a descrip-tion which seems more appropriate than the sllo-sen-gell of

H

88 VERB AND ADJECTIVE.

the Chikalllichi, as it would apply to the negative as well asto the future.

For the suffixes attached to this base, see Chaps. VI.and VII.

PERFECT.

In the modern written language, verbs of the first conjuga-tion have a perfect formed by adding am to the root, thefinal i of which is contracted with the initial a of ant into e.Thus kaktt, ••to write," has a perfect Imkem (for kaki + am),••to have written"; i/II, ••to say," has a perfect ihet·u iforihi + ayu), ••to have said."

In the most ancient literature we find a form from whichthe final syllable YII of this form has disappeared, <10 and thereit is not confined to verbs of the first conjugation, but is al '0

in use, although with some changes, for verbs of the otherconjugations and for adjectives, It is this form which is illthe present treatise called the perfect, the ki-zell-gen of theChika1llichi. The perfect form is used in the following ways.

I. I n the most ancient literature] it stands by itself as aperfect, as

Imshille 110 llilo ni zuare (I1'e

ya ?I kani otuohoshiutese ka ?

Have 1 been one of the menof old?

What has been his thought?•

2. When preceded by koso, it takes the place of the con-clu ive form. Hence it has been called by a native gram-

•• There are several other instances of the disappearance of the I'll

final of the verb aru and its derivatives. In the written languagemiy,zanl nari is often written tJtty~Eal1ari.and in the spoken languagewe have ta (the termination of the past tense) for taru, kirei-l1a for kireil1ara, waruka (Nagasaki dialect) for waruku am, and allakke (Yedodialect) for ari-tari-beri.

t The perfect form tn~ of the future suffix" or mtr is occasionally metwith in modern writers.

VERIl A .1) AOJECTIVE. 89

marian koso 110 musubu. k%blt, or " form joined with koso."(See Chapter IX.]

Examples :-

Kore koso /(l1I1II 11111'e.

YOlle koso yokere.

It is this, and not anythingelse, which is the jewel.

It is rice only that is good.

3. The most familiar use of this form is as the base towhich are added the conditional and concessive particles ba,do, and dotuo. It retains, however, its force as a perfect, asmay be seen by comparing such forms as yukeb(l, "since hehas gone" or " if he has gone," with yuk(lba, "if he went" or" if he should go."

4. In the first conjugation of verbs, and in the irregularverb (1m,· this form coincides with that of the ImperativeMood.

Example :-Yuke, " go !" ualeare, " let it not be."

•• For the mode in which the Imperative is formed in other conjuga-tions, and when combined with a negative, see under the suffixes ),0, 11«-so, and na.

The following table shows the formation of the I mperative, bothPositive and Negative, in the different conjugations :-

- - - ---VRR8. FOSITI\'E IMflRRATJ\'K. NECAT[\"It IMrSRATIn •.

rst Conj. liasu kase kaSlma or 1t(t. kasni soand Conj. lalmru labe yo tabunma 01' na In/Je SI)3rd Conj. minI mi yo miruua

Irregular f Q1"U are "akarekuru "0,,0 1mI/o or 1:111"«"11

Verbs. surn se yo suna or surunainuru illt inuruna or "a ill; so

I

II 2

CONJUGATIONS.

CONJUGATiONS.-

There are three conjugations of verbs and two of adjectives.First COlljllgation of Verbs.-To this conjugation belong

the great majority of underived verbs. It is distinguished byhaving a form for the negative base distinct from the root,

•• Of the three conjugations of Japanese verbs, the first is evidentlythe original one.

The third consists entirely of verbs with monosyllabic roots. If these'erbs had been inflected according to the first conjugation, the vowel ofhe root would have been obliterated in every part of the verb except the

adverbial form, a loss which could be ill afforded in words consisting of'only two letters. To avoid this the letter Y has been inserted betweenthe root and the characteristic vowel endings of the attributive, conclu-sive, and perfect forms, so that we have, for instance, instead of 1111/ 111/1

1IIe,lIIiYII uuru mire. In the case 01 the negative base, the obliterationof the vowel of the root has been avoided by a different means, viz., byallowing the root to remain without change.

There are a few other verbs with monosyllabic roots whose inflections,no doubt partly from the same cause, resemble to some extent (and inthe Vedo spoken language are identical with) those of verbs of the thirdconjugation. One 01 these verbs is "1''', ••to get," which is conjugatedthus: Adv. e, concl. u, attrib. U"I, neg. base e, perfect urc. UyUmay infact be considered a slightly irregular verb of the third conjugation. Itwill be seen by referring to the Table of InAections that the principalparts of trru are identical with the terminations of verbs in e of th· secondconjugation, and there is every reason to conclude that all such verbs arecomposed of a root followed by this verb uru, This is plainly the casewith Passive and Causative Verbs, which constitute the large majority ofverbs of this onjugation, KoroSat7/"e," to be killed," is obviouslynothing more tban koyosu-ari-ttrlt, i.e., "get-be-kill"; korosasuru, "tocause to kill," is koroshi-shi-uYII, i.e, "get-make-kill." The DerivativeTransitive and Intransitive verbs, such as adt:llkllrll, "to give in charge "(really to get taken charge of), miyuru, "to be visible," may be easilyshown 10 contain the same element, and an analysis of the remainingverbs in e of this conjugation will generally reveal it, The number ofthose whose roots end in" is compararively small, and many of themmay also be inflected according to the first conjugation. They are alsoplainly derivatives, but it may perhaps be doubted whether the final uru

CONJUGATIONS.

and by the circum tance that the inflections involve noincrease in the number of syllables of the root.

Second Conjugation of Verbs.-The number of underivedverbs of this conjugation is small, but it comprises all passiveand causative verbs. The Japanese grammarians make twoconjugations of it, drawing an unnecessary distinction betweenverbs whose roots end in i and those whose roots end in e.

In the second conjugation the root and the negative baseare identical in form, and the attributive form and the perfectcontain one syllable more than the root. In the spokenlanguage of Yedo, and sometimes in the modern writtenlanguage, the attributive form and perfect of verbs in i of thisconjugation terminate in im, ire, and the same forms of verbsin e end in ern, ere.

Third COli/ligation of Verbs.-The third conjugation differsfrom the first in haloing the negative base the same as theroot, and from the second in having the conclusive undistin-guishable from the attributive form. The following list con-tains all the verbs of this conjugation. It will be ob ervedthat they have without exception monosyllabic roots. Inthis conjugation the older language often attaches to theadverbial form the te1liwoha which belong properly to theconclusive form.

Kiru, "to clothe" ; niru, "to resemble" ; niru, "to boil";

is the verb uru, "to get," Or some other verb with a monos) llabic root,as, for instance, iru, H to remain."

It may be observed that the spoken language of the east of Japan, byomitting the conclusive form and preserving the vowel of the root in theattributive and perfect forms (having en. iru, ere ire instead of uru, lire),makes the second conjugation agree entirely with the third. It is notImprobable that in this case the spoken forms are really older than thoseof the literary language.

The above remarks may be summed up by saying that the First is theOriginal conjugation; the Second, the Deriuatiue or uru conjugation;and the Third, the ,lIonosy//abic conjugation.

C:ONJUt:ATIONS.

Idr«, .• to dry in the sun"; hint, "to winnow"; hinl," tosneeze"; miru, "to see" ; iru, "to shoot with a bow"; Wit,•. to melt", im "to dwell " lscrn "to kick.",J 'J

IRREG LAR VERIlS.

A YII, ••to be." The conjugation of ar« differs from that ofverb of the first conjugation in the conclusive form only,which is an' instead of aru, The latter form is, however,retained as a base for the suffixes (except to, which is rathera conjunction than a suffix proper) of the conclusive form.Like arn are conjugated om, ltaberll, and imasokaru, and thesuffixes into the composition of which aru enters, viz., keru,tnru, sam, tuern, 1{(l1'lI, and sern," The imperative of nyu isare, and the negative imperative nahare (for Ilak/NII'e).

Ku1'II, ••to come." In this verb the suffixes slli and s/zika,which in other verbs it is the rule to append to the root-form,are more usually, though not invariably, attached to the nega-

Irive base 1.:0. Thc imperative of I.:tt11t is ko, but modernwriters have often koyo or Noi. The negative imperative iskllll", or in the later language 1""1'Ima.

5111'lI, "to do." Like sur« are conjugated OltaSIlYU, •• to be,"and the numerous compounds of Slt17/, as Ili-surll, "to com-pare"; fi-suru, "to decline" or "refuse"; sllo-zuru, "to pro-

\

duce," &c., 'c. The suffixes sId and slli/",a are never foundattached to the root-form of this verb, viz., shi, but always tothe negative base se. The imperative of surtt is seyo. Thenegative imperative is suna or snrtom.

Innru, "to go away." Like innrtc is conjugated shinurt«;" to die," and also the suffix uuru, which is nothing more thantuuru with the initial i elided. 11I11rtt has the imperative 11Ie.

Later writers have sometimes ineyo.

* S"''It (for $/1'''1'11) and slti/:/lYII (for shil.:''''I1'II) arc, of cour e, alsoconjugated in the same way as ani.

COXJUCATIONS. 93

CON) CATIOKS OF A[))ECTIVES.Most adjectives are of the first r.onjugation; the second

conjugation includes those adjectives only whose roots endin slti or Ji'.- The native grammarians are of opinion thatthe ending kere of the perfect is compounded of ki, the termi-nation of the attributive form, and are, the perfect form ofnne, "to be," The old form )fOkellllf, )fokedolllo, which arefound in the lJlnnyoshitt, perhaps stand for )Ioki-nmlllll, )foki-nredomo, and are additional instances of the loss of the letterr of the verb aru, ••to be." (See above, note to page 88).

Only a few of the suffixes are attached immediately to thedifferent parts of adjectives. The verb am generally comesbetween.

DERI\'ATIVE VERBS.

I. Derived from 1Ia or Nouns.

Verb are derived from ua-s-I. By adding the termination rn, as

Yadoru, ••to lodge"; fromyado, ••a lodging."2, By adding 11m, utarn (intrans.) or 111111'11(trans.) as

Hammu, "to become pregnant"; from hara, "the belly."Tsukanm, "to grasp"; from tsuka, "a handle."Inamu, "to refuse"; from ina, "no,"Knuamarn; "to reach a limit"; from kiwa, "edgc."Knuamuru, "to push to an extreme"; fromkiwlI, "edge."

3- By adding gu, asTsnnagu, "to tie"; from tsuua, « a rope."

* The reason why the conclusive form does not add sid in the secondconjugation is Obviously because the root already ends in slzi (or ji, whichis the same thing in Japanese), and the repetition of the same syllableis disliked. In other respects the second conjugation is the same as thefirst, and if this difference is only remembered, the student need nottrouble himself about the second conjugation of adjectives,

94 OERIV ATIVE VERBS.

'4, By adding IUljit,asflji'unjit, " to taste"; from aji, "taste,"Tomonafu, " to accompany"; from tonto, " company,"111ahillafit, " to bribe"; from maki, " money,"

5, By adding fit, asUta/It, " to sing"; from uta, " song,"

'6, By adding Imru (root bi), asInaburu, "to refuse"; from ilia, ••no,"Otonaouru,' to be of full age"; from otoua," a full grown

person,"7, A good many derivative verbs are formed by adding to

nouns the verb snru, " to do," the initial s of which often takesthe ?ligon and becomes e. In the great majority of theseverbs the root is a Chinese word, In the later language tho everbs of this class in which the initial s of SIl1'U takes thenigori often follow the spoken form of verbs of the secondconjugation in i for the Attributive, leg. Base, and Perfect,as, for instance, ausnr«, "to reflect," which is conjugatedthus:-

OLD CON). JS'E\\, ON).

Adverb m1Jt I nllJz

Concl. Form (1I/~1t I auan

Attributive1--

fl11:U1"U allJzru

Neg. Base anze nllJl. -- I

I

Perfect anaure aujzre

DERIVATIVE VERBS. 95

Examples of derivatives of sum :-Rou-suru, modern form ron-jim, " to argue."Jltlei-zuru, modern form mei-jiru, "to command."Omon-enru (for OIllOllli-sllru), modern form omon-firu, "to

esteem,"Karon-zuru (for kor01lli-su1'II), modem form karon-firu, "todespise."

These last two verbs are derived from the noun omomi,karollli, which contain the roots of the adjectives ollloki," heavy," and koroki, " light," [See above, p. 41.]

Hi-sum, "to compare."In this example the letter s does not take the nigori, and

the conjugation of sum is therefore retained even by modernwriters.8. By adding meku, as

Knra-meeu, "to have aChinese look"; fromf{ara,"China·"1J.'tyll-lIIelm, " to have a wintry look" ; from /uyu, "winter."

II. Derived from Verbs,I. Intransitive and Trausitiue Verbs.-In English there

are seldom distinct words or forms for the intransitive andtransitive applications of the same verbal root. TIm thewords ride, sillk, brenk, bmd, and many others are either tran-sitive or intran itive according to circumstances. In suchcases the Japanese language has usually two distinct verbscontaining the same root.

These verbs are formed in several different ways, some-times the transitive from the intransitive form (1.), sometimesvice vers& (11.), and sometimes both from an obsolete verbcontaining the common root (IlL).

Intransitive mu ,t be distinguished from passive verbs, Forinstance, kirltl'7l, the intransitive form of kiru, "to cut," shouldnot be confounded with kirnl7wu, the passive form. Thelatter only is properly translated" to be cut." Kiruru means

DERIYATlVE VERBS.

"to po se"" the quality cut," i.e., " to be discontinuous." Itconveys no idea of passivity or of being acted upon eitherfrom without or by the subject itself. Many of these verbsare best translated with the help of adjectives terminating inrr/>/e and ib/e. Ururu, kiruru, &c., are exactly rendered bythe French Sf "fJtdrp, se couper, &c.

The following examples illustrate the various modes inwhich tran itive and intransitive verbs are formed from oneanother,

INTRAl'. ITlVE.

1StConjugation.SI/Z'ricoRu, " to retreat."Tn/sit, " to stand."Sustauu, II to advance."J 'aum, " to cease."

,st Conjugruion.Ugoklt, " to move."Odoroeu, " to be astonished.'l(awaRII, " to dry."Oyob«, tI to extend."TVa/nru, "to cross ove r."

l(nlterlt, "to return."lI'Ok01'II,"to remain over."

1StConjugation.l'orll, .t to approach."Noru, " to mount."

3rd Conjugation.lI'i,'u "to be like.",

and Conjugation.Kil.:oYll17l, " to be audible."Kirurn, "to be disconti nuous,"

TRAI ITIV!!:.I.

znd Conjugation.Shiri::okllrlt, "to drive back."Tatsuru, tI to set up."Snsnumru, " to encourage."1"a1JIII ru, u to cease."

rst Conjugation.Ugokasu, .• to move."Odorokasn, " to astonish."Kaumleast», " to dry."Oyobosu, " to extend."TVa/aslI, " to send over," t. to

deliver over."Ka/iesu, " to send back."Nososu "to leave.",

md Conjugation.Yosuru, " to bring near."Nosuru, " to mount."

znd Conjugation.Nisur», " to counterfeit."

II.IS! Conjugation.

Kie«, " to hear."Ki"/I, " to cut."

DERIVATI\'E YERBS. 97

INTR.\NSITlVJ::. TRAl': rnvs,znd Conjugation.

Klldakurlf, "to crumble."Tahtrlt, u to melt."

2nd Conjugation.Ml)'ltrll, "to be visible."

ist Conjugation.Tsugnr«, "to be continuous."

Ist Conjugation.Kudai:«, " to crush to pieces."Toku, u to melt."

jrd Conjugation.lIfirlt, " to see,"

Ist Conjugation.Tsugu, " to join."

III.I 51 Conjugation.

O,.OSll, "to let down."Okosu, "to raise."I 'dasn, " to pu tout."Nigasu, ••to let flee."Obiynkas1I, "to frighten."Sugos« or sugnsn, "to pass,"

••to exceed."end Conjugation.

T 'asukuru, u to help."Sadamurn, " to fix."l(a./llrl/, ••to change."

and Conjugation.01'11 ru, " to descend."0/"111'11, " to rise."1'dcnru, ••to go out."l\rigJt1,It, " to flee."Obi),lIrll, "to start with alarm."S Itgllrll, "to pass," " to be ex-

cessive."1St Conjugation.

Tasulearn, " to have help."Sodamaru, "to be fixed."Kaumru, " to change."

znd Conjugation.Shirakl/ru, " to become white

or feeble."Noburu, (root 110bi), "to Noouru (root llobe), •• to

stretch." stretch."The transitive verbs terminating in S1t or suru, although

differently inflected from SI(171,"to do," have no doubt beenformed by adding this verb to the root. Indeed, the modernlanguage often conjugates them like surn, and we meet withsuch forms as wntasc-shi instead of walas/d-shi, tsukahasure-domo instead of tsukahasedouto. The verb masu, so commonin the spoken language, is one of the verbs which has beenaffected in this way. In the older language it is a verb of

znd Conjugation.Shimgl/rIt, "to make white."

DERIVATIVE VERBS.

the first conjugation, but in the later and spoken language itsinflections have been assimilated to those of SI/1''1I. Theterminations am and uru of the above table are no doubt theverbs aru, "to be," and 111'11,"to get." The conjugation,however, of those in aru is regular.In the examples given below we have pairs of transitive

verbs containing the same root. Those in the second columnmay seem at first sight to be merely the causative forms ofthose in the first column. They are really the transitiveforms corresponding to intransitive forms which in most-cases have ceased to exist, or perhaps never have existed.Kasn, for example, docs not mean" to cau e to borrow," but'" to make borrowed," i.e., " to lend"; misuru is the transitiveform corresponding to the intransitive miyuru, "to bevisible," and does not mean" to cause to see," which wouldbe misasurn, The fact that these forms never have ahonorific sense shows that they are not regarded as causativeverbs.

Kant, " to borrow."Sadeuearn, ••to receive.".Adsulearn, "to take charge

of."Satoru, ••to understand."Tamaharu, " to receive."Kim, u to wear,"Mil'll, " to see."

Kasu, " to lend."Sadsuteur«, " to give."Adsneuru, ••to give in

charge."Satosu, ••to acquaint."Tamafu, ••to give."Kisuru, "to put on (clothes)."Mis1I1'11, " to show."

2. Causative Verbs. The causative forms of verbs may be-obtained by the following empirical nile.

RULE. For verbs of the first conjugation, and the irregularverbs arn and inurn, add to the negative base SIIYiI (root se)

-or in the modern language slumnrt: (root shillle).I For verbs of the second and third conjugations, and theirregular verbs I.:ItYil and suru, add to the negative base

DERIVATIYE VERllS.

sasurn (root sase), or in the modern language shi1Ilurll (rootshimt).

EXCEPTION. Verbs with monosyllabicmuru, the causative of sura, to the root.course, an exception.

Examples:-

roots add seshi-Snn« itself is, of,

1St Conjugation.lIfa1lt0YII,••to guard."

Korosu, ••to kil1."

Ma1ll0rasllrtl or momorashi-muru ••• to cause to guard."

Korosasurn or korosas/amuru,••to cause to kill."

and Conjugation.l'asur71." to become lean." Yasesasurn or yases/nmuru,

••to cause to become lean."T 'adzunesasurn or ladstme-

shimuru, "to cause to lookfor."

Tadmunru, " to look for."

jrd Conjugation.Mint, ••to see." Misasze1'u or miseshimuru,

••to cause to see."

All causative verbs have their root!' terminating in e, and Iare of the second conjugation. ;

The causative forms are-very' commonly used instead ofthe original verbs in ••.honorific sense' The reason is that.according to Japanese ideas, i: '-is' 'considered polite to repre-sent the man of rank as surrounded :)} vassals and attendants,whom he causes to e).ecute his <;:0IT.rN·.11ds.••· • : :

3. Passive Verbs. The passive forms of verbs may beobtained by the following empirical rule:-

• In SIInl, sasuru, or shimunl, the terminations of causative verbs, itis easy to recognize the elements suru (root Shll' ••do." and uru, "get."The passive terminations runt and raruru are evidently composed of theverbs ant, ••be," and "1''', "get."

100 DERIVATIVE VERBS.

RULE. For verbs of the first conjugation, and the irregularI verbs ant and inurn, add rum (root re) to the negative base.

For verbs of the second and third conjugations, and theirregular verbs kuru and suru, add raruru (root mre) to thenegative base.

Examples :-

ACTIVE.

Kasu, « to lend."Taouru, ••to eat."Mil"tt, "to see."A ru, " to be."Kuru, u to come."Suru, u to do."Inuru, " to depart."

PASSIVE.Kasaruru, ••to be lent."Taberaruru, " to be eaten."1IIirarltr1t, ••to be seen."A raruru, "to be able to be."Korarurn, "tobe abletocome."Seraruru, "to be clone."Inaruru, "to be able todepart."

All passive verbs have their roots terminating in e, and areof the seconclconjugation.

In the case of intransitive verbs these forms have apotential signification, as in the examples kOt'amru, inaruru,cited above, and the passive forms of transitive verbs mayhave a potential as \Ve~1as ~ passive signification. lIfiraru1"tt,for instance, may be "to be' seen" or " to be able to see." Thepotential often merges into a honorific sense, it being thoughtmore respectful to' ~~rih~.t a' man (,has been able to do some-thing" than simply that ,. he has done something." Thepassive forms of causatives are very frequently used ashonorific substitutes tor the Ori~!lIal verbs. A familiarexample of this is araseraruru, the passive of the causativeof aru, a form much used in speaking of the Emperor."

Examples of Transitive and Intransitive, Causative andPassive Verbs :-

* The Kofoba 110Kayo/Ii.ji, Vol. I., is the best native authority onthe subject of intransitive and transitive, causative and passive verbs.

DERIVATIVE VERBS.

Ko wo tuomiua IIi ad:;uketeyasltill(1ll(1S7t.

Hi 110 1Ulka IIi lIclli - kubeteyakase tamafit tu, meramera to yakelllt.

Hi ni kuhet/!, yakitari.

Sashi kosaresla (honorific useof passi ve) edcumeu.

Tenc/d 110 all ida Iii umaruru1110110.

Kwoto kawal'ase (honorificuse of causative) tmnafitkoto nashi.

Tam; yasukare to asaua yunaiuorase tamaft« koto.

H ito ItO /;;OkOl'Owo tanoski-suaslumuru.

Onore ga ta1llasltilti wo l11tSU-mare/e.

H ito Ita 11IilteJlu nari.

101

Ilaving given the child incharge to a woman, hecaused her to nourish it.

When he caused (his attend-ants) to burn it by throw-ing it into the middle of afire, it burned away with ablaze.

He burnt it by placing it onthe fire.

The map which you havebeen good enough to sendme.

Creatures born betweenheaven and earth.

The imperial line of descenthas never changed.

(The Emperor's) prayingevery morning and cvcryevening that his subjectsmay have case.

To give pleasure to the heartsof men.

Being robbed of his own soul.

There is no one to be seen.

4. In the Mallyoslzitt and KOji·kithere are found many verbswhich differ from the ordinary forms of the same verbs byhaving ant, afu, or asa instead of the tt final, or by beinglengthened in other ways :-

Examples:-Tsutsushiruaru for tsutsuslamn, ••to be quiet and respectful."

102 DER[\'ATIVE VERBS.

K(lkllS(lfie for ImlmSII, "to hide."Nabikafu for unbileu, " to bend."Nagekasu for nagektt, "to lament."Tsumasu for tsumn, " to pluck."

These seem to be merely poetical forms, of the same mean-ing as the original verbs.

III. Derived from Adjectives.J. By adding uu« to the root.Ex.: Shiromu, "to become white"; from shiro, root of

slliroki, "white."Kuromu, "to become black"; from kuro, root of

kllroki, " black."The lengthened forms shiromaru, kuro1Jlnne, &c., are also

found. The corresponding transitive verb end in muru(root me), as sluromuru, "to make white," llaga11luru, "tolengthen," " to gaze upon."I 2. By adding ra to the root

Ex.: Slligcnt," to be dense"; from skigeki, " dense."Nigam, .• to feel bitterly"; from lzignki, " bitter."

The final vowel of the root is sometimes changed, as inA suru, " to be shallow"; from asaki, "shallow."Katsuru, " to be hard"; from kataki, " hard."The last two examples are, however, verbs of the second

conjugation.

I 3· By adding garzt to the root. These verbs arc chieflyformed from the desiderative adjectives ending in lakz:

Ex.: Yukitngnru, "to wish to go"; fromyukitnki, "desirousof going."

H oslugaru, " to be eager for"; from Iwshiki, "eager."Ayashigaru, "to think strange" j from ayasltil.:i,

" strange."Garu is no doubt compounded of ge, the termination of

nouns described at page 42, and aru, « to be." These verbs

DERrVATrn:: n~RBS. 103

are, however, not conjugated like ant, but as regular verbs ofthe first conjugation. They must not be confounded withthe combinations so frequently met with of the adverbial formof adjectives with am. Hoshigarn, for instance, must bedistinguished from IlOsltik'aru.

COMPOUt\U \·ERBS.

The first element of a compound verb may be a noun oran adjectival root, but is more commonly a verb in the rootform. The first element of a compound may stand to the Iother-

3rd.Ex. :

rst. In the relation of iU1 object direct or indirect.Ex.: Tabi-dalslI," to start on a journey."

Mono-gaiar«, "to relate."and, In the relation of an adverb qualifying it.Ex.: Ni-korosu," to boil to death."

Seme-Eairu, ••to enter with violence."Bltclli-koroslt, co to beat to death."A tSlt-gohetaru killll, ••thick clothing."It is sometimes co-ordinated with it.Yuki-kalunt, " to go and return."Nige-cluru, "to flee and scatter," "to be

rout."

J

put to the

DERIVATI\'E AD]ECTl\"ES.I. Derived from na.

1. By adding mslliki. These adjectives have a similarsignification to English adjective. in ish. They belong tothe later language.

Ex.: Kodamo-rasldla," childish" i from kodomo, "a child.".Bakn-rasltiki, " foolish" i from balla, " fool."

2. By adding sltiki or jiki. IEx.: Hattalzadashiki," extreme" i from Ieanahoda; ••very.'

lfitosltiki, " uniform," " similar" i from lata, u one."Kohishiki, " beloved" i from kolti, " love."

I

104 DERIVATiVE ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives in shiki often reduplicate the root for the sakeof greater emphasis.

Ex.: HakabakaJ'hiki," efficient."Chinese roots sometimes take this termination.Ex.: Bi-bi-sltiki," splendid"; from bi, " beauty."

I 3· By adding keki. Keki is a poetical form. It simplychanges an uninflected word into an inflected word, and doesnot alter the meaning. Thus tallirakeki, from talura, means" level," " fiat," and is the same as tahira naru of the ordinarywritten language, or tairaua of the spoken language.

Such form as 1Ulga-keku, sanm-kela«, where keku (neverkek,) follows the root of an adjective, have an entirely differentcharacter, and must not be confounded with the adjectivesjust de scribed.

I I. Derived from kOloba.I. By adding sltiki to the root, the vowel of which is usually

modified at the same time.Ex.: K01/oll/aslliki," lovable'" from k01l0llli, root of kOIlOJllIJ,

" to like."is(1gasitiki, "busy"; from isogi, root of isOgll, "to be

busy," " to be in a hurry."Osoros/uki, "dreadful"; from OS017', root of OS01'lt,"to

dread."All verbs have derivative adjectives formed by adding taki

to the root, and be!.:iand lJla!i'ki to the conclusive form, but itis more convenient to include these terminations among thetCiliwoha.

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.The first clement of a compound adjective may be either

a noun, a verb in the root form, or the root of anotheradjective.

Examples of Compound Adjectives :-Na-takaki, " famous"; from na, ••name," and takaki, " high."Te-bnynki," dexterous"; from te," hand," and ilflyn!.·i, "quick."

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 105

Kiki-gllrllshiki, ••harsh"; from kikl(, "to hear," and kll17fShiki," painful."

Nogare-gataki, " inevitable"; from nognrurn, "to escape," andkalaki, " difficult."

Slti-yasuki, "easy to do"; from sura, "to do," and yasnlei," easy. II

Usu-almkt: "light red"; from us"ki, "thin," and a/tald, " red."

I 2

CHAPTER V.UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFF/X£O TO NA.

I. CaseSuffixes.Genitive, IlO,ga, tsu, " of."Dative, Locative, Instrumental, IIi, ••at," "in," "to"; uue,

••in," "by means of"; he, gnri, ••towards" ; made, ••afar as."

Accusative, too.Vocative, yo, yfl, yayo.Ablative, yori, km"ll, " from."

II. Plural Suffixes.Rn, domo, ladli, gala, bam, nado, s/liu, 1o.

III. Oilier Suffixes.Ha (read wa), Distinctive or determinative particle.lITo, II also," U even."Ka,Interrogati,·c.Ka1/lI, Exclamatory.Ya, Interrogative and Exclamatory.Nan, Emphatic.20, do.Koso, do.To, Conjunctive.Dcutsu, ••each."Daui, "at least."SIlI'a, "even."Sotre, ••even."SIIi, "only."Nouti, bflkari, ••only."Gaclii, ••all over."Nngnra.Datera.

UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA UFFIXED TO NA. 107

Many of the Ietliwollfl in this chapter may be suffixed notonly to ua, but to those parts of koloba and inflected tcnituoha\\ hich are capable of being treated as substantives, viz., theadverbial form and the attributive form.

/. CASE S FFIXES.

There is no suffix to distinguish the nominative case. Asshown below, Ita and ga do not indicate the nominative.

Genitiue or Possessive Particles.No, s« tsu, "of."The distinction between 1/0 and ga resembles that between

the English preposition of and the s added to form thepossessive case. This is probably what the Japanese gram-marians mean when they te\1 us that ga 1tOyori omos/ii, i.e.,"s« is heavier than 1/0," the possessive relation being lookedupon as a closer one than the partitive relation.

In the classical period ga was used only after the substan-tive forms of verbs and a few other words, chiefly pronouns,as, for instance, ta ga, uia ga, kimi ga, uno ga, chielti ga. Gaand 110are in later times used without much distinction. Thushana ga saku and /lfIlla 1/0 saku mean precisely the same, vi1.•

••the unfolding of the flowers." There is, however, a tendencyin the Japanese language to treat phrases of this kind as ifthey contained an assertion, and hana 110 saku or hann gasaku are sometimes met with in poetry in the sense of ••theRowers unfold." In the spoken language the last-namedmeaning has become much the more usual one in the caseof ga, and so entirely has the proper force of that particlebeen forgotten in these cases that it is either considered asign of the nominative case, or is omitted altogether. Thisconstruction-viz., the attributive form with or without ga-isnow used in speaking to the exclusion of the conclusive form,which has passed out of use both for verbs and adjectives.Thus for midsu nagnru, "the water flows," the spoken

108 UNINFLECTI-:D TENIWOllA SUFFIXED TO NA.

language has 1II1dzII gn nngnrum (or oftener 1lflgareru) 1IIid:./(nagarllYU, or midsn wa naganwu; for Iiana Ita slurosla, "theflower is white," hana ga shiroi (for shiro/d) or ltalla wasluroi. [See above, page 85.]

In the later part of the classical period there are instanceswhere Ca with a pronoun of the first person seems to implyhumility, and with pronouns of the second or third person,contempt or disparagement; but this use of ga is unknown inthe more ancient language, and also in its modem form.

No (not ga) is used where the same thing is meant by thetwo nouns which it joins, or where one is a part of the otheras in the examples Yamato 110/.;1111£,"the province of Yamato,"chic/u' no Daiungo», "her father the Dainagon," S01l0 lOS/Ii I/O

uatsu, " the summer of that rear."A noun is sometimes omitted after no if it can be easily

supplied from the previous clause, as hito tsuma 10 tuare 110,U some one else's husband (or wife) and mine." TSIIlIlfl is ofcourse to be SLI pplied after 1U).

No frequently occurs in the ancient poetry in the sense of110 gOloki or 110 golokll, U like," a tori 110 tuuragnrite matsu,"to wait assembled in a flock like birds."

TSIl (sometimes d:;u) is an old word for the genitiveparticle. I t is obsolete in the modern language except inOIIOd:;/tNlIYil, midsulsara, ••of or by oneself," and a few otherwords.

Examples of Genitive Particles r-«TSllki 110 J'o,Jfllki 110 ashita. ,A moonlight night, a snowy

morning.Taregasla g,l 1II/(ko ni naru. To become such a one's son-

in-law.0110 g(1 umrnki kolo 110 snnge. The confession of one's own

sins.Saki 110 kmlli 1110, ium 1/0 mo. Both the former lord, and

the pre ent one.

U 'INFLECTED TENIWOI-IA SUFFIXED TO A. 109

lIfiyrrko If( toOuiof« lIUI /IlOI/O110

f(mlfTsht'ki lIfTKaherant« lzito 110

A reba uari keri.

III/a 110yo no hito 110111OIIose171futui uta zoo mint ni.

Oki ISIt s/urauami.

IVaga llaku lIilJllida.Nnru grr uclli IIi.

Itsutsu 1101//1/ tsu,Seieai« kOga kotoba ui.Yuku midxu 110 kayak"

(poetical).Kiru! kofitnt uamida 110 toko

lIi lIIichiltllrebrr.

Fuyu-gare uolitori 110kllclti-ba 110

SIu'IIlO ItO uhe 11;

Oc/utaru tSllld 110

Kage 110sayakesa.MITtSit Ilito 110 kOIl ya koji ya

110sadame Itakereha.

Even with our joyous anuci-pations of returning to thecapital is mingled the sadthought that there aresome who never will return,[In this sentence it IS

necessary to supply fromareba the substantive formrrnt.)

In reading the prose andpoetical compositions ofthe men of the present day.

The white waves of the opensea.

The tears which I weep.During my sleep.Five times six.In the words of Seikan.Swift as running water.

As the tears of longing forthee have filled my couch.[!n thi phrase 11(1 joinsuamida with mictiinnru,which must be suppliedfrom 1Ilicltilluyeba.]

Oh! the brightness of themoonlight that falls on thehoar-frost of the decayedleaves of the winter -withered woods l

As there is no certainty as towhether he whom I expectwill come or not.

110 NINFLECTEO TENIWOHA S FFIXEO TO TA.

Hartt ILakagiri 110 uaimrama-slti!.:aba.

Ille ISIt dori.Harn 1/0 SIIIte/SIt kala.

If there were only no end tospring.

The house-bird, i.e., the cock.The latter part of spring.

Dative, Lacatiue, and Instrumental Cases.lV£ "at" "in H or U to" U into" "by"· 11t' te "by n U by), , J , , J

means of'" Itt' and "'art' ••towards'" made ••as far as", b' , " J

" until."Ni is sometimes the sign of the dative ca 'e, as in the

following examples :-T Vare tti miseyo.

Hito ui ad:::lIkurlt.Show me.

OJ'll IIi niru.

To give in charge to orneone.

To be like one's parents.In the following examples lIi means" to," " in," or "into."

Yokohama 1IiYlIkll. To go to Yokohama.YokolLallla ni WOYII. To live in Yokohama.Hai» Iii irurn, To put into a box.

Ni has the meaning of "along with" in the foil wingexample :-

1IZ mIla 110 Along with the wind throughthe obana (a kind of grass)the moonlight in the court-yard.

In such expressions as isami m' isamite, " full of eagerness"(lit., "along with eagerness being eager "), ni has the sameforce.

The instrumental case is represented by the noun followedby 111 te, This is the equivalent of 7.1101II0tle of the modernsemi-Chinese style.

Ex. : Chi 1Ii te eM 7.110arafu.

Ooan« ga ka::etSlfki-kage.

To washblood.

away blood by

U INFLECTED TE 1\\'0 II A SUFFIXED TO 1'A. III

Ni is sometimes apparently the root of an obsolete verb1lU, " to be." Ni te, for instance, may mean" being" as wellas "in," and narn Clli+ aru) may mean" to be" as well as••to be in." Ni te is then the equivalent of de atte of thespoken language.

Examples :-

I am an old man who residesin the neighbourhood ofChain.

What manner of man.' [Lit.,a how being man.]

\Vhat country-men are yc, mymasters?

In this neighbourhood.A flute which was in his

bosom.

Ni may often be conveniently regarded as the sign of thepredicate of a proposition.

In the semi-Chinese style wo shite or wo motte sometimestakes the place of ni, as s/dura wo motte uani nani ~,'Os/nra-slumurn, " to make so and so known to your servants."

lIN is added to indeclinable words to form adverbs, as ji!.:ini, It quickly"; 11111171Ii, "violently," It wrongfully."

Ni is used with causative verbs to distinguish the personwho is caused try perform the action, and with passive verbsto indicate the person by whom the action is performed. Thephrases used in the KaJtohi-;i' for" causative" and It passive"are examples of this usc of 1ti.

Ouore Iw elloi" 110 hotori IIi

saburafn aeiun ?Ii saburafn.

ll:n naru hito?

r Vadono laC/,i ha id::lllm 110

Idlo-bito IIi kn ?/(0110 atari IIi teoFlId<J/.:oronartt fue.

Ta ni shiknsasuru.

Ta 11i shikaserarur/t.

Causing another to be or doso and so.

Being caused by another tobe or do so and so.

112 UNINfLECTED TENl\\'OHA SUFFIXED TO NA.

In truth.Immediately.To be divided into six.At what time?In composing poetry.To become metal.To make into a table.Making it to (i.e., accounting

it) a thing which is pro-duced of it ·elf.

In addition to that.According to circumstances.He was disowned by his

parents.

To is sometimes used in the same signification as ni in theexample kal1e IIi naru quoted above.

Ex.: Hilo to uaru, "to become a 'man," "to attain to

Other examples of lIi;-

}I!al.-olo IIi.SlI1IIi;lakn 11i.fl!lItSlt IIi zoalmrnr«.Idcure 110loki IIi?Uta youu: ui.Kane ni naru.Dai ui lsul.-lInt.

(JlIlldzlfknrtl 1I11rtt mono susltill!.

Sore IIi.

Koto ui yoritc.Oytl ?Ii Rtl1/do seraru,

manhood."He, " towards."lie not being considered a separate word from the noun to

which it is joined is pronounced e by the rule given at p. 2.

It is really a noun meaning" place," "direction," as in ihc,"it house," from 1; root of iru, "to dwell," and ltC, •• place" ;)'uku he;" the direction in which to go." It has taken thenigori in the compounds /tamabe, "the shore"; 1l0/Je, •• themoor"; umibe, ••the sea-side."

He is often confounded by careless speakers and writers ofJapanese with ui, ••to." The former is properly used only ofmotion in the direction of, the latter of motion up to. Thuskita fteYlfklt, ••to travel northwards," is the correct expression,and not kitll IIi )'1Ilm.

UNINFLECTED TEl\IWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. J 13

Example of lie ;-Mille lie fumoto he on' uobori. Sometimes ascending towards

the summit, sometime' de-scending towards the base.

jJ!1ade indicates a limit arrived at, and may be translatedu until," "a far as," "as much as," "as many as," "to such adegree," &c.

Examples :-

white.As far as Yokohama.To such a degree that there

was no road.Cari is an old word occasionally found in poetry. It has

the same meaning a3 he.Examples of gari ;-

J(ilHi ga rioHilo 110gayi ifubeki kolo arite

jil1l1i wo yaru.Hashi wo uma kosltigallete,

kOROYO 1I01l1i iiuo gnri yarite,tea ha Rokolli shite.

Jittgo ?lidli made.Karasu 110atnma sldrolm naru

made.Yokohau«: made.

lI'liclti 1110lIaRi made.

Until the t yth.ntil a crew's head becomes

Towards you,Having something to say to

some one, I send a letter.My horse being unable to

cross the bridge, I remainhere, my heart alone I sendtowards thee.

Accusative Case.IVo, the ordinary sign of the accusative case, was probably

in its origin an interjection of the same meaning with theEnglish" 0 !" It has this sense in SOIlO )la/Ie gnki wo ! ••0 rthat eight-fold barrier!" a phrase which occurs in one of theoldest extant specimens of the Japanese language.

In the tnonogntari we find instances of 'iII0 as an interjectionin answer to a call or command, something like the English" Halloa ! " or u Aye, aye, Sir! "

114 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA.

Example :-IVo 10 te (for 10 iM Ie) tadunn. "Aye, aye, Sir," said he, and

started off.Intermediate between its use as an interjection and as the

sign of the accusative case may be placed those instanceswhere too seems to be merely an emphatic particle, of muchthe same force as a significant emphasis or pause over theword. This is perhaps why Motowori calls it a yasunte-lem1voha or ••pause particle" when used in this way.

Example:-Snmidare 110 On this night, when the

Tsuki 1/0 hOllok(mi moon of the 5th month islIfi;'ul'It yo ha, seen faintly do thou, at

Horotogisn dani any rate, 0, hototogisu!Sayaka ni zuo 1take. sing distinctly.TVo has here the force of drawing attention to the anti-

thesis between the faitll shining of the moon and the distinctsinging of the bird.

The same uio is also found after verbs.Example:-

Yomosugnra1I1ite tuo akasan

All night longHaving seen thee I would

watch till morningAki 110 tsuki; 0 moon of autumn!

Ko-yoM 710sora !li On the sky of to-nightKWI/o nakarauan. May there be no cloud.The zoo here marks an emphasis on mite.Akin to this force of tuo is its meaning in sentences like

the following :-S/zim-tsltylt 110 •

/1'0 ha hitotsu 1/JO-

j kani slu'leA ki 110 kono/In woCh{ji ni S01l/1Irn" ?

Of the clear dewThe colour being but one-How then. can it be thatThe leaves of autumnA thousand-fold it dyes?

UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. J 15

IVo has in this case an adversative force very much likethe English "but," "though," " notwithstanding."

MOllo woo When 1.'<1 follows 1110110,preceded by a verb oradjective in the attributive form, it has commonly the mean-ing just described,

Example:-11liyako idete

Kimi ui alum toKoslzi 1110110wo-

Koslti kalli 11/0uakn,

IVaktlye111tYlt kalla.

Setting forth from the capital,That I might meet you,I have come hither, butMy coming having been

fruitless,Alas! we are parted.

By far the most common use of wo is as the sign of theaccusative casco This case is, however, by no means in-variably indicated by W<1. It is not found when thc noun isgoverned by a preposition, or when it forms, along with agoverning verb, an equivalent to a single verb, as in yiOji sum," to treat medically," kellli suru, "to examine," and is omittedin many other cases. In fact it is only used when it is desired,to mark distinctly the case of the noun.

Examples of wooKono ko wo mitsulsete 1lochi After discovering this child

lIi take wo tom ni /llshi wo in collecting bamboos, hehedatete yogoto Iti kogall£ every night found bamboosaru take UfO1JlitSllkuYII. containing gold on separat-

ing the joints.Takara wo 1ISltillll/li, yalllllhi He loses his money, and con-

wo lIIaukll (pron. l/Ioku). tracts disease.K0110 cMgo yashinafu hodo In proportion as they nur-

lli. [Accus. without woJ. tured this infant.1V0 is frequently found III Japanese where in English a

preposition would be used.

116 UNINFLECTED T 'IWOIIA SUFFIXED TO I\A.

Examples:-llfiyrrko wo 101LOllli.

Hi/O wo 'WaRm'll.Ollo}i wo yoPOboltiYIII•.ill'.

O-dml tuoyantu.Other particles sometimes

'I..VO, as-Kuslti to kmu;aslli to wo 1mku.

The being distant from thecapital.

To partfrolll some one.Staggering along the high

road.To be sick of jaundice.

come between the noun and

To remove comb and hair-pin.

Kore bal.-art'wo slum. He knows this only.In poetry, and in the semi-Chinese style, wo is sometimes

seen at the end of a sentence. In such cases an inversion ofthe construction has taken place, or an ellipsis has to befilled up.

Example :-Hisokoni Ilegafll--yllslu' /.:0110 I humbly pray that the

lain Iii gyakll seearan kolo officials will not opposeuio. this great principle.lVo ba. The ba of this combination is the ordinary dis-

tinctive particle lIa with the mgort: Both particles have heretheir ordinary meaning.

Example:-Hito tsukll 1Islti zuo oa, tsuno

wo kil'i, Irito kllfll talen woba, mimi wo kirite, S0110

sJliruslri to su.

We cut off the horns of anox which butts at people,and cut the ears of a falconwhich bites people, as amark of their vice,

It will be observed that the last sentence is an example ofa double accusative, a construction familiar to us in Latinand Greek.

In the semi-Chinese style wo moclnte (molle) or 'U'O sllil,' isoften put for Iii or wo only.

UNINFLECTED TENI\\'OHA SUFFIXED TO N.\. 117

Vocative Case.The vocative case is rarely indicated by any specific

particle, but when necessary one of the particles yo, ya, oryayo may be added to the noun. Example:-finla yo! finta )IO! to yobn- He never ceased calling out,

hile yatuasu. ••Jinta! Jinta!".rl. blative Case.

Yon' kara ••from" ••since.", , ,yoru, ••to approach," ••to relate to," but this meaning isforgotten in its familiar usc as a suffix meaning ••from."Yo and ylt are ancient poetical forms for yori. Yori maybe translated ••than" when used in phrases like the fol-lowing, where in English the comparative degree of theadjective is employed: sakura yori IIlIt1l1eha /layaklt snl:«••the plum blossoms earlier than the cherry." Kara cannotbe used for yori in such a position.

Knra does not differ in meaning from yori. It is curiousthat whereas it has become nearly obsolete in the later writtenlanguage, the spoken language uses it almost to the exclusionof yori.

In the old language Il0 is often put between kara and itsnoun, the reason being, no doubt, that kara was originally anoun itself. A similar construction is observable in the com-pounds te-dzu-kara and ono-dsu-eara, ••of oneself."

Kara "i of the old language does not differ in meaningfrom kara alone.

1110110 kam has much the same force as Ilagam, as in thefollowing example :-

Yori is the root of the verb

Itsuhari 10Omofn 1110110kara-

1111asara Iii

Taga 1Ilakoto soo /;;aI Vare /Ia tauoman ?

FalseWhile I think it,

Just nowIn whose truthShall I put my trust?

III:S U;\I~J LJ.CTJ.D TE;\I\\OIlA SUFFI~EII TO NA.

1·.xaml'lf·~ of yori and !'oro :-/I/lIk"SIu' )'<1n'. From antiquity./I/lIlIIil !.-1I1·1I11111j'ori otsuru. To fall from a horse or car-

riage.From Osaka.('ltoJtlka .""1 i.

(,,.,/ 1'",; IIklll'lI.

/,tI", /..-"ro."-,.hi,/tiki .1"'1; It«, II!.'; hrl

II. '1/,' 1.'" II"~?A C'" J ',i li,I/..',lIli.F II',' 1/ /:,' III 111(' rom» ,1'1/ 111,••

() 1I1"t i ~,'l't "'chili IIi sutc-1,/ /-, (,. wri.

To receive from one's parents.From here.

ompared with love, is mieryaught?

Other than this.Both from the ship" stem and

stern.Rather than Rin;; away your

life into the r-.ad.

11. ILlR~L 'l·FT\F:::;.

S 1 1.1\ be 11'<."\\ either with person. or with thir as. as, .. th,'\ " , I," the-e thin,..,": J,! 'ira.•• you, Ra

1I1I!,lk, 11, th," I "I':--:t nor II c reverse, It i- refore .Irtlc\I ',\ \\ 1\h 1\ '1111' 'r 'r n lUI ' III the' . nd per

III the \ ,\ 1,111:'\1.::- there « nit,· nII 'III it t ·II:\I!. f. 1-\ r i -: ra,

\\ I nlv

\\ 'I "

:-- \. 11

T.' in the later I.\n~u'::.'-" ~<) ••". .; :'

or pn'lh II~':i the s x nd { , s: n, or III spea-,";; res<,j ,\tty v n ......~ ;. :. . r ... ., "..I nt ..."

,) ,: Jr III , •• - ,'ani. r in III ni e- t

F" ) .. \ -n."" •. i-, 'itt e u-ed,

F',II' 1'1":-, . ..•.. '..," .

.\'I•

from

Tw). I" .u d '\'>!I1~('f\.

I.

,.•.' i..:: ;t "hn "~e

l.u •J •.'\

l....'t fh.'!Ul ". 1 r, I rt ........nb ~....hc L un r: ,'1cc.-.,.t·, " I'"

"

," i " •t' ...t' I' ",~,..............\

" It u..t " i th\\ -, ..... ,, \lOti "

120 UNINFL"CTED TENIWOHA SUFFIX!!.!) TO !'IA.

Examples of Plural Particles :-Kodouto ra or kod01l/0 sfliu. Children.NmlJi·m. You.A rIJ tokoro no samnrahi domo. The samurai of a certain

place.I felt it hard to part withKono ltilo domo waRm'egataRII

omofu. these men.

Ill. OTH ER SUFFIXES.

Ha. This particle is not looked upon as a separate wordfrom the noun to which it is joined, and is accordingly readwn, according to the rule by which aspirates are not pro-nounced in the middle of a word. [See page 22.)

Ha may be termed a separative or distinguishing particle.Its force is thus described in the Kotodama 1/0 Shirllbe:" J-la ha isasaka lIageku I.:okoro zoo obite, 1110110 tli mare, kolo nisnare, arn ga naka yori eri-toakur« yo 1/0 1.:01.01'0 suoteru 1t!1Ii-u/oha nari" I.e., ••Ha has somewhat of an exclamatory force,and is a particle which pos sesses the meaning, as it were, ofchoosing out and separating a thing or an action fromamongst a number."

In English, ha may sometimes be translated" with respectto" ••in the case of" ••in so far as regards"" at any rate" or, , -, ,its meaning may be given by printing ill italics the word towhich it refers. The French" quant it •• expresses its forcepretty accurately. In most cases, however, 1m cannot berendered in translation, and its force is often so slight thatits presence or absence makes no appreciable difference inthe meaning. In speaking, a Significant emphasis is often thebest equivalent.

Ex.: Wart! Ita 10 omohi.Kore 10 ha cldga/II.Kono toearo lze 1m kilara::lI.

Thinking I (am somebody).It is different from this.He has not come here at any

rate.

UNlt"FLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO K.\. 121

Ha has been called the sign of the nominative case. It isquite. true that it often does distingui h the ubject of a sen-tence, but this is merely by virtue of its general force as adistinguishing or separating particle. A suffix which is usedfreely with nouns in the dative or objective case cannotproperly be described as the sign of the nominative,

Examples:-Toki sluranu yalJla lUI Fuji

110ue (ll~yi).Ken ,,~ kwako wo 1I1agafit

kOloba nari.

The mountain which knowsnot time is the peak of Fuji.

Ken i a word which ex-presses a doubt concerningthe past.

In the phrase Akashi 110nra 1m? ••In regard to the Bay ofAkashi?" or ••What about the Ray of Akashi? ,. Ita lookslike an interrogative particle. The sentence is, however,really incomplete, and some such words as i/.:a uartc tokoronaru Y •• What sort of a place is it?" require to be supplied.In S01l0 /lIl11i 110kotoba Ita to 10/11,••• What is the language ofthat letter > ' asked he," a similar ellipsis has to bc filled up.

Ha is used not only to single out an object from among anumber, but to contra t or oppose one object to another.The Greek --P.(~( would accordingly be in Japanese--Iza--lta.

Examples:-Hito ha isa I Its people-ah no!

I know not their hearts:Kokoro 1110shirazu;Furueato Ita

Halla so l/Iukaslti 110

Ka ni 1II110Iti-kem.

But in my native placeThe flowers with their ancientFragrance are odorous.

.1-liyallla ni Iza.Illat SIt 110yuki dani

Kimaku ni

Deep in the mountainsE'en the snow on the fir treesHas not yet melted-

K 2

122 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA.

In the first of these two sentences the has point thecontrast between the inhabitants and the place it elf; in thesecond, between the mountains where the season is late, andthe capital where it is early.

When I{(/ is suffixed to an interrogative word or particle, itshows that the question i merely rhetorical, and not furinformation, and that a negative answer is expected But ifthe question already contains a negative, an affirmative replyis suggested. Thus, while ikngtl sen merely puts the question,"\Vhat is to be done?" which mayor may not be merelyrhetorical according to the context, ikngn lin sen is onlyanother way of saying" there is nothing to be done," " thereis no help for it." In the same way IVare Mlon kn ? "Am Ithe only person?" may be either a question asked forinformation or an indignant way of denying that one is theonly person. But if we say ware nitori kn nn, the questioncan only be a rhetorical one, and the answer- " TO!"necessarily follow'.

This rule holds good throughout the greater part ofJapanese literature. In the pre-classical period, however, Nfl

is found with interrogatives without any meaning of this kind,and the rule is not often exemplified in modern literature,which is comparatively sparing in its use of particles.

Examples :-}(o/uslziki yori lUI IIki ha

»touo 1m hn rNurn gil /(eM

lJIi1'lt zoo 110m;),fl ItaYUille to iltnll-

f/aktlllflki)'o wo 1110

(JtslllslI to 111;::11.

l1/i;'n/;o lra 110be110/IVnkann tsnnd-keri.

On the moors by the capitalWe have plucked the young

herbs.

Compared with love, ismisery aught?

Shall we call that alone adream which we see whilesleeping? - this vain worldalso I look not upon asreality.

UNINI:'LECTEV TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. 123

Jo,Til1llidaJill /m ! \Vhat ? Tears!.lfata 1110 a/llbeki doubtless a husband

Tsuma naran-:-- I shall meet again-Naku yori !toka 1tO Other than weepingNagllsame so 1laki. Consolation I have none,

Itsu h% Ittl lIItl/uslti ayamari- When did I ever inform youtam? wrongly?In the later language alii at the beginning of an interroga-

tive clause shows that a negative reply is expected.The case suffixes and the interrogative particles ka and)'a

are placed between ha and the noun. Where zuo intervenes,Ita takes the nigori and becomes btl. This is owing to thedislike which the Japanese language has for allowing twosuccessive syllables to begin with the same consonant.

Example:-Hito tsulm ?lshi zuo ba. {SUllO

tuo kiri; Ilito ku/u taka woba, mimi uro kiru.

He I

whom

Vve cut off the horns of an oxwhich butts at people; wecut off the ears of a falconwhich bites people.

frIo is the opposite of ha. Kore ha, for instance, means••this separated or distinguished from something else" ; liore1110 means "this along with something else." and may betranslated" too," " also," .C even."

Examp1es:-Kono Itt ni 1110.

Uhe ni 1/10 ilzerlt gotoku.0110 koro made mo.

I/ubeki 1ti mo arasu,

\Vhere 1IlO is repeated withthe meaning is " both-and-."

Example:-K01l0 yo 1/10,noelli 110yo mo.Ko::o 11/0 kotoshi 11/0.

On this side also.As has been stated above also.Even up till that time.It is not neces. ary even to

mention.each of two successive nouns

Both this world and the next.Roth last year and this rear.

124 L'NI1\FUXTED TENIWOIlA SUFFIXED TO NA.

lI/v after an interrogative particle has often a force oppositeto that of 1111in the same position, and indicates that anaffirmative answer is expected if the question is affimative,and a negative answer if the question is negative in form.For example-Tapuru Iti araute }'ll Im ? is ••\Vill there be a day when it will

ceasc ? [by no me.'\ns]" but Tayur« IIi araure yn 1/I0? is~\\'ill there ever be a day when it will cease? [I trust. ] ..~o.

A somewhat similar use of 1110 is where it converts inter-rogative pronouns and adverbs into indefinite. Thus by theadd ition of 1110,tare, ••who," becomes tare 1110, •• anyone; ••itsu, ••when," becomes itsu suo, ••at any time," ••always;" andnaui, " what," becomes 1I(llli mo, H anything." .

Especially in the old language 1Il0 is in many ca es nothingmore than a feeble interjection of surprise for which there isno adequate English equivalent.

Example:-Kakar« Ililo 1110 }'O 11; ide

IJIUISUYII 1110110nari-keri.Even such a man i a thing

which appears in the world,i.e. There arc such men asthis in the world.

11-[0 is contracted with nrc, the imperative of aru, ••to be,"into mare, as in the phrase Idcure 111 mare, H Be it whicheverit may"; J1/i utare 1m~~tt utare, ••Be it that I see, be it that Ido not sec," i.e. H whether I see or not."

11-[0ga 1110 or 1110 /.:n 1110,1/10gn tra, 1110gn 1110 ua express astrong desire.

Examples :-A 1J/nbaslti no 1lagaku 1110 gtl

1110.

Tnknku tobltTori IIi JJlOgn 1110(1lnn'le)

I pray that the bridge ofheaven may last long.

A high-soaringBird-Oh! that I could

become.

U:"INFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. 125

ASII )",I.·i/I'11110 11i /.-o/(ldohi.

O/ORO 111(1 zoomin« 111(1 tRadetoklt miyako he 1Il0 ga uato omofn kokor(l areba.

That I might go to-morrowAnd vi it my love.

A both men and womenwere eagcr to reach thecapital as soon as possible.

The case suffixes and the interrogative particles ka and )'tl

are placed between 1110 and the noun.Ka and )'(1. In Japanese no change of construction is

required in order to convert an affirmative clause into aninterrogative OIlC. All that is neces ary i to uffix one ofthe particles /.-a or ya.

The force of ka or )la varies somewhat according to circum-stances, being referable to one of the following heads:-

I. A question for information.2. A merely rhetorical question.3. A doubt.4- A mere exclamation, of much the same force as the

sign U l "Ka is chiefly used in the first sense, but is also common in

meanings 2 and 3. Followed by 1110, it occur in the Jl,lall-J'osliizt as a mere interjection. In the combination kana it hasalso usually an exclamatory force, though it occasionallyretains its interrogative meaning.

Ya seldom marks a question asked for information; it Iforce is almost entirely re tricted to the other three heads.

Examples of ka:-I. I{ollo Itito IIi ko Ita aru ka,

uak] ka?K(ll1l1iclti ka ?2. Kono leadc 110 malic yori

ski mo zoataru 111011(1 ka ?S01l0 killse; gne» subek; ka?

l Ias this man children ornot?

Is it to-day?How is it possible for me to

pas before this door?Is one to agree to this pro-

hibition?

126 UNINFLE TED TENIWOlJA SUFF1XJ::DTO N.\.

3. Kakabe no hotartt i:a; limaI/O /lIktt Iii ka ?

Idsure 110 ohon lol.·i 1lI kaarike».

JiilslI ka /urots« I,a lIi te 1110

aran.4. Osorostiiki knlla! Kana-

sldka kana!Hito 110 kokoro oroka naru

motto kalln !Jii/"asn 110 yaum lIZ ideshi

/suki kn 1110 !

Examples of ya;-

I. Jfigi ha ika narn fii» naruya ?

fidto ya ani?2. A IIi k01'e 'Ul0 sasseaaru-be-

km ya ?3- Halla J'a 1II0miji zoo miru.

KOI'eya /OOIllO/II.Oyayn slanru].Saru Iii 1/10 yn rui slfbeshi.

Ame /sllyoku state, /mshi odd-kent IIiyn-

4. A nn l mendo pa .I

Ureslli r« !jill/(I Y" !

Is it a firefly on the riverbank, or a fire kindled bythe fishermen?

In what august time (i.I'.,reign) will it have been?[I do not know.]

It may perhaps be three orone.

How dreadful ! How lament-able!

Alas! what a stupid thingthe heart of man is!

The moon that hath comeforth over the mountain ofMikasa !

What is the cause of this?

Have you an attendant?Is it likely that he does not

perceive this?To look at the flowers or red

leaves of autumn.I thin lc it is perhaps this.Parent or relations.He is perhaps to be classed

even with monkeys.Whether it was that the bridge

had fallen on account ofheavy raills-

Oh! what a bother!H ow joyful!Jinta!

UNINFLECTED TENI\\'OIlA SUFFIXED TO NA. 127

J}[illlasaka ya !)la1l/a.

Kmueuosnra Mimasaka !me speak

r\ar, rather letof the Kurneno-

sara mountain,Ka added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs usually,

but not always, makes them indefinite, as fare, ••who," fare ka,"somebody," irsu, "when," itsu ka, "at some time or another,"At the end of a clause which begins with an interrogative,Motowori rules that !.Ia is the proper particle to use and not

)Ia, except the latter has its exclamatory force, a uani zo ya ?"\Vhat is it?" In the modern language, however, littleattention is paid to this rule, and especially in indirect inter-rogative c1auses,ya is almost always found instead of kII.

In the modern semi-Chinese style ya often representsthe Chinese -IlI., especially after the opening words of achapter or paragraph. It has here its exclamatory force, anddraws the attention of the reader strongly to the subject-matter which is about to be discussed. Thus an article onadoption begins as follows : Y{~sll1'110slIillkwa1l tarn )111-

"With regard to the custom of adopted children-"Ya followed by aran (fut. of am) is usually contracted into

)'arml, which in the spoken language, and occasionally in thepopular written style, is further shortened into yara.

Na»: is probably the same particle as the 11a,lin, 1lt5 or ne •(Yedo dialect) of the spoken language. It is an emphatic I

exclamation drawing the attention strongly to the wordwhich precedes. It resembles, but is a less emphatic wordthan zoo Nan is perhaps the future of the obsolete verb uu," to be," inserted parenthetically in the sentence. Nama is anold form which occurs in the JII[(!IlJIosltitt and other old books.

Examples of nan ;-Kore nan sore to utsnscmits

kaslti.Kore lIa1l 2t1/1eto sluriunr«,

I would like to see this ex-changed for that.

I found that this was a plum.

128 UNINFLJ::CTE)) TE ·I"·OHA SUFFIXED TO ·A.

Kataclri ),01"; 1m ;'·0/,001"0 uan Her heart was more excellentmasari-taru. than her beauty.Zo is an emphatic particle. The Kotodama 1/0 Shirube

describes it as" a particle which limits and narrows things,or represents them, as it were, taken up and held in the hand,"and adds that" it is opposed to )'a in meaning." Very oftenthe best way to translate eo is to change the construction ofthe sentence in the manner shown in the following examples.

Examples of:;o:-O)'a 1/0 kokoro yasume-sludsu-

mete :;0 mala ide ui ker«.

Kore EO tndaslu'ki yomieamauaru.

Kara 110 uta ni mo k{um :;0

a17tbeki.

It was not until he had quietedand calmed his parents'hearts that he again wentout.

It is this that is the correctmode of reading.

This is probably true in thecase of Chinese poetry too.

Koso resembles :;0 in meaning, but it is a still moreemphatic word. It is probably derived from ko, "this," andso, "that." The AYllltisha say of the sentence yone kosoyosere, "it is rice and rice only that is good," that Y01ll! 110

"oka lin uaslu to iflt nari, i.e., "this is saying that there isnothing else but rice (that is good)." The same authorityfurther says of koso that it has the force of choosing out andrejecting other things, and of taking up in the hand andlooking at the object to which it refers. Kore koso maytherefore be translated, " This and nothing else," "This morethan aught else," "This very thing." Koso and 1Ia1l are verycommon particles in the uaka 1IIItJ.·ns/li, or later classicalperiod, but are less frequently met with in the modernlanguage.

/\OSO is sometimes seen at the end of a sentence. In suchcases a verb has to be supplied after it

'N1NFLEC1'EDTE 'I\YOHA ~UFFIXEf)1'0 NA, 129

Examples:-Ahi-1Ili1t koto nona I:oso

(Oll/Olle).H(lila ,·hz'ra:;u ari koso

(/lOs/likcn).

Examples of koso :-Yorodcu 110)la1lla/li Ilfl sake

yori koso okore.lI{uknslli lUI " ame 110shita "

10 110mikoso illere.

Tsutsu 1m tsn 110 lem'wohaWI) kaS(l1lelarlt 1110110IIi kosoare.

Homi 110ki ka to koso omolu-tsure.

lIfasa11le Iii killri tuo ahi-mi-leba koso, 'Waga kohi )la-umme.

I think of naught else butmeeting him.

IIIy whole wish is that theflowers may not becomescattered.

It is strong drink alone fromwhich all diseases spring,

In ancient times, the onlyform of expression was" amc 110sluta"

TSIIISit is 1I0thillg more thatla reduplication of the suffixISII.

I had imagined that it wasdoubtless none other thanthe tree of Mount H6rai.

Not until after I have seenyou face to face will mylonging cease.

To is a conjunctive particle. With nouns it may mostlybe translated" and," "with," " along with," as in the exampleskare 10 ware, "he and I," killli 10 )llIkll, ••to go along withyou."

Analogous to the use of to with verbs as equal to theEnglish ccnjunction II that" in introducing indirect narrationis its usc after nouns when followed by one of the five verbsutiru "to see " kiku "to hear'" Olllo'i, II to think II. sur-It II to, •• " , ~' J , J

do "; and _ifil> " to say." To ifn is often contracted, especiallyin poetry, into tefn (pron. eM), dli.fu (eMit), or tofu (t6). Tooften stands after nouns where one of the five verbs mentionedabove must be supplied in order to complete the sense. Thus

130 UNINFLECTED TI::NIWOHA SUFFiXED TO N.-\.

to te often stands for to illile or to omolnte , 10)10 for to mij10or 10 seyo; to co for to ifie EO; to uaraba for to ifu koto naraba ;to dam for to ifit koto dani, &c.

Where adverbial expressions are formed by adding to touninflected words, as in I,arll oaru to, "from a distance," !lis"Iliso to, .•quietly," slare is to be understood after to.

Tam, preceded by a noun, as in the phrase slliujill tarnhito, "a man who is it master," is a contraction for to arn,This form is rarely found in poetry, and never occurs in themore ancient language.

Examples of 10;-

Hito no kotoba to lIli{bllkam Another's words and one's110kotoba.

Kore to cltigajil.Ame to furu (poetical).Yuki to dur« saiacra 110IW.llil.

Natsu toaki to.Rusui to sadaruuru,O)la to miru.Ko tam (for to-tWit) 1110110.

own words.It is different from this.To fall like rain.The cherry flowers which

catter like snow.Both summer and autumn.To appoint rusui.To regard as a parent.One who is a child.

Deutsu means "at a time," ••apiece," as in the followingexamples ;-Hitori dzursu iru. To enter, one person at a

time.Tori 110ko totuo dcnrsu. Young birds ten at a time.Jl{i1la niyotsn dsuts« atrl,Y1I1'Il. To give them all four apiece.

Goto ni, "each," .•every "-as labi goto ni, "every time";tSliki goto 1Ii, "each month."

Dani with an affirmative means ••at least," "at any rate,"" if no more," and with a negative, "even," ••so much as." Itis used where something less than might have been expectedis spoken of, as ill the following examples ;-

UNINFLECTED TENJWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA. 131

Sore WO suite dani ka/It'rilltlll.

J,loji 10 ifit 1J/OM too kaltlchiuio dani nruar« kolo 1/10

1tnkari-kcII.

J will return after having seenthat at any rate (havingexpected more).

Probably not so much as theshape of what arc calledcharacters hac! bccn seen.

!chi 1II0nji dani s/urann 1II01l0. A person who does not knoweven a single letter.

Ke 11itosuji uro dmzi ugoknslzi I will not move even a singletateuuusurofi: hair.Sura may also be translated "even," but it is used where

something is introduced more than might have been expected,as in the examples :-Haruka no uodu, Nara no Long after, even in writings

koro 110 SIlO Iii Sll ra. of the 1ara period.Seifin sum. Even a holy man.

Salle (pronounced sa)'e) is connected with the verb sofuru(root solre), meaning" to as .ociate," "to join to," and in theold language it means "also," "in addition," as in theexamples :-Hito futa 110

Me nomi Ili arasu :Itsutsn mntsu

Milsll yo/SIt sake ari-Sugurolm 110 StU.

H.anneu n 111m"; lIdgtt1 zoo 11n-

sasu, ille IIi 1110 roM salleart.

Not only are there the sidesone and two: there arealso five, six, three, andfour-the dice of the back-gammon board.

He had done no cultivationfor more than half a year,and in addition he had anaged mother in the house.

In the colloquial language and in the later writtenlanguage, sahe is used instead of dani and sura.

S/ti is a particle of very little meaning which i sometimesfound after nouns. ••Only" is a little like it.

132 UNINFU.c-n:D TENIWQIIA SUFFIXED TO !'A.

Examples of shi :-

Killli kofuru namida sid ua-kuba.

Sliika shi nraba.lit1sl/6 110 uri shi 1110.

Onore shi.

If there were only no tears oflonging for you.

If this were only so.Even at the time of the

Emperor's death.By themselves.

NOllli and oabari, ••only," ••no more than."

Examples:-.Jfutslt baRayi.Ki1lli nouu.

Only six .You only.

BaRaYi is derived from IlaHaYII, "to weigh," and originallymeant" quantity," in which sense it is frequently used by oldwriters, as in the example Hito baNaYi Ilislzasliiki ha naslu,"there is no animal so long-lived as man."

The style imitated from the Chinese puts 1I0mi at the endof a sentence in a meaningless way. Motowori condemnsthis.

Gruflt' or gaclli IIi, also goe/d, "all over."

Examples :-

Hige gaclli 1/1: ynse-yase uaru A lean fellow all over beard.otoko.

S /1&111'0 IIi namida gaelzi uari. She became unconsciouslybathed in tears.

Hana Iuralee-hatezu, tSl/bomlgadd ni lIIiYIl.

The Rowers have not un-folded completely, butseem all over buds.

Nagnra means that the object to which it applies is takenwithout any change or modification.

UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA S FFiXED TO NA. 133

Examples:-T alJi 1UJsugala 11agtlra. In his travelling dress as he

was.Look at the dew as it lies on

the branch.Datcra resembles nagnra in meaning.Example: Oi-biro datera, ••old man as he is."Calera," by way of." Example: Katnmi galeI'll to okosetartc

koyomo, ••the clothing sent by way of keepsake."

Tsuyu zoo eda IUlgara 1Jliyo.

CHAPTER VI.

U~INFLECTED TENIWOIlA SUFFIXl::D TO KOTOUA.

This chapter gives an account of the more common suffixesattached to inflected words, classified according to the part ofthe verb or adjective to which they are joined. Some suffixesare attached to more parts of the verb than one, but in suchcases there is a difference of meaning or application. It is tobe noted that these particles may be added not only to theprincipal parts of verbs or adjectives, but to the correspondingparts of those teniwoha which admit of inflection.

It is impossible to notice all the different combinations ofteniwoha, Some of the more common are explained in thefollowing pages, and it is believed that the others will presentlittle difficulty to the student who has mastered the meaningof the several teniwoha of which they are composed.

Few teniwoha are joined immediately to adjectives, Theauxiliary verb aru is usually interposed. Thus for hoslzikuJ;uwe must say IwslLiknra::u, "he is not desirous"; for J10ktt keri,J'oknri-keri, &c. In such cases the 1t final of the adjective iselided.

The initial consonant of those particles which are added tothe negative base and to the perfect take' the uigori,particles added to other forms remain unchanged.

I. U:)IINFLECTED TENIWOIlA ADDED TO THE ADVERnIALFORM.

The adverbial form is sometimes a noun, and as such maybe followed by most of the particles described in the previouschapter. Amongst those which occur most frequently in thisposition are 11i, ha, 1110,to, and 1Ulgnr(l.

UNINFLECTED TEl' 1\\"011.\ Sl:I'FlXElI TO K TOI).\. 135

Ni. The commonest signification of ni following a verb inthis form is" in order to," as in the phrases 111; ni, " in orderto see "; yobi "i I.:ilnreri, "he came to summon." Ni alsooccurs after the adverbial form in such idiomatic phrases asnkire "i nl.:irele, " extremely amazed "; ualll; 11; isamire, " veryeager."

Ha. When 1m follows the adverbial form of adjectives, ithas sometimes the same meaning as it has when suffixed tonouns, i.e: that of a distinctive or separative particle. It rna}'also have the meaning" if" (conditional future), but in thatcase btl is more commonly written.

Examples:-That sword will not be blunt

(whatever else it mar be)./\ thing which it is still more

difficult to escape from,If it will be the same(to you),

will you please give me thesword which I desire,

Ha after zn, the adverbial form of the negative suffix, hasthe force of a conditional, aS)lo secu Ita, " if one did not takecare," but in this position most later writers prefer to write ba.

Ha after te, the adverbial form of thc suffix tsuru, has itsordinary force as a separative particle.

JJlo is frequently found with the adverbial form of bothverbs and adjectives. Here it may usually be translated•.even." It is particularly common after te, as sltiri-te 1/10,

"e\'en knowing," iki-te 1IlO, "even having gone." JJlo some-times comes between the two parts of a compound verb, asi/li 1ItOoharazu, " not even finishing what he was saying."

To is found with the adverbial form of verbs in idiomaticphrases like ari 10 ani," as many as there are," kiki to /':il.:l1Itilo, " all who may hear."

S,)JlOkatana ltibukll Ita arafi.

l\'tlWO 1l0gtlrc-ga/(1ku ha,

Ollfljil.:tt Iltl 7IJaga SItOIllO 110

kalmIa tamaharitenya.

L

136 UNINFLECTED TENJ\\'OIi.\ SUFFixED TO KOTOIJ.\.

Nag-am has a similar meaning after verbal roots to thatwhich it has after nouns.

Examples ;-In the same state in which he

was born, a cripple, i.e., acripple from his birth.

Remaining at rest to awaitthe enemy.

A defensive warfare.Though still looking on it as

a source of help.Calera, ••by way of." Ex.; liliaS/lillie gntera ni ifu /.'010

••something said by way of reproof."Cachini or godli11i. With verbs, this suffix may be trans-

lated ••constantly."

Umare 'la)[(rr(1 1/0 kataum-1110110.

Lnagara teki wo maUII.

J 1Iagllra 110ikuStl.Y 'ornbe 10 /UI omolu' nagnr«.

Examples ;-KII/uri-IIIi gachi ni ide tama-

/d,LU.011 1/(';,a 11/0 hcdatari gadd ui

te.

He went away constantlylooking behind him.

Being also constantly on badterms.

lIJ01l0 home gtlchi. Always praising things.The following particles are found in conjunction with verbs

only.Tsutsu indicates that the action of the verb to which it

'is joined is simultaneous with that of the verb following.V hen tsutsu occurs at the end of a sentence, as it often doesin poetry, an ellipsis must be supplied, or the order of thesentence has been inverted. The Kotodanm 110 Slu'rube thusdistinguishes between tsutsu and te : ••The sentence Otouikiki te kO/li-walfl1'11 is equivalent to Ololli kiki II' 1I(lchi1li ko/u'-zoatarn, but O/O1l; kiki tsutsn kohi-wa/arl/ is equivalent toO/oni /alm to oua)i loki IIi ko/ii-walaru."

UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOIH. 137

At the same time that he for-gets and thinks that theyare still alive, he Inquiresafter dead persons.

I t feeds on fish at the sametime that it ports on thesurface of the water,

--1IIi --111; resembles the --tari --tari of the

Examples of tsuts« :-Am 1110110to (olJlohile) um-

sure tsutsn, llaki I,ito wotofu.

llIid::u 110 uhl!1li asobi-tsutsnutoo ~~'OImff(.

spoken language.Examples:-

Harems kll1ll0nllli.

Nakillli umratnnn.,

Ka1llillnd::ukt furl/llli fura-sumi sadame naki sltigllreEO fliJlli no Imji1lle naru.

Becoming alternately clearand cloudy.

Alternately weeping andsmiling.

It is the unsettled. showeryweather of the tenth month,sometimes rainy. sometimesfine. which is the beginningof winter.

--lsI/ --lslt also corresponds to the --IIl,.i --tnriof the spoken language.

Example :-lkusa Iia kiritSlt kimretszt

suru m01tO nart.War is a business where

people wound and arewounded .

•Va--so. The negative of the imperative moodold classical Japanese formed from the adverbialprefixing na and adding so.

Examples:-Na yuki so:"Na Jlaki so.

is in theform by

Do not go.Do not burn.

• For which the modern language would say Yllkll"akan. IL :l

138 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOIlA.

"Kifll IItlJlli lin tachi so" tohito-bilo inoru.

IVare wo hito ua togame so.

Everybody prayed-may thewaves not arise to-day!

Let not people blame me.The last two examples show that the imperative is by no

means confined to the second person.Yo is in the second and third conjugations added to the

adverbial form, and in the irregular verb sum, to the negativebase, as the sign of the Imperative Mood. Except byignorant writers of the present day, yo is not used to forutthe Imperative in the First Conjugation, but it may be placedafter it by way of gh'ing additional emphasis, as in theexample Tore yo kashi, "Do take it, J pray you." This ishowever, a very exceptional use of yo. A yo of this kind mayoccur even after a negative imperative, as umsurnna yo, "be,sure not to forget."

Examples of)'0:-

llIiyo.Tabe yo.

Look!Eat!

n. UNIKFLECTEJ) TENIWOHA ADDED TO CONCLUSIVEFORM.

Ras/zi is connected with the adjectival termination ms/ziki,which it resembles in meaning. It is, however, indeclinable,and has always the force of the conclusive, and never of theattributive form. It has the same meaning as son« of thespoken language, as in the phrase ame gil .fllri SOfia, II it islikely to rain," which would be in the written language antefuru raski.

There can be little doubt that rashi is really added to theattributive form, and that the final ru which distinguishesthis form in verbs of the second conjugation has beendropped for reasons of euphony. The final syllable of theperfect forms in ri is also dropped before rash],

UNINFLECTED TENIWOIIA SUFFIXEO TO KOTOB..... 139

Example of ms/li:-

J-I ant sttgileNatsu kila1'll ras/u,

S/lirolahe 1101(01'01110/lOs/dtnri,A lIlello/mglt Jlalila.

Spring seems to have passedaway, and summer to havecome, for the white gar-ments are spread out todry on Mt, Amenokagu.

To corresponds to the English conjunction "that,"· and isthe sign of quotation, or of indirect narration. It may beplaced not only after the conclusive forms of verbs andadjectives, but after any word which is capable of standingat the end of a sentence.

As has been explained above (p. 129) there is often anellipsis after to of one of the five verbs mint, "to see "; kikll," to hear ". 01Jl0'"u"to think ». suru "to do », and ir" "to say"I'.Ij, " , :t', ,either in the substantive form or in the adverbial form withte added. This is often the key to a difficult construction.

In the modern language, as for instance in newspapers,the following construction is not uncommon. First we havesome such phrase as A I'll kis/ta i/taktt, "A certain writerobserves," or Hisoeau, kiken', "I have heard privately." Thenfollows the quotation, after which is the particle to, markingthe end of it. Iheri or kikeri must of course be added tocomplete the sense, and the omission of these words is con-demned by Motowori as a slavish imitation of a Chinese con-struction. In the modern language, however, to is continuallyused in this way by the best writers.

* There can be little doubt that, like its English equivalent, 10 wasoriginally a demonstrative, and that it is identical will) the so ofsore, "that."It has still this meaning in the compound to kill"" "in that war or inthis," and in the phrase 10 mare l..·a~'II II{(We, "be it in that war or in this,"In many other cases to is best construed as equivalent to "this" orIt thus."

140 Ul\INJ-LECTED TEr\IWOHA ~U~FIXED T() KOTOJ:A.

Examples of 10 :-Raslii //(1 sOlla 10 ifu ko/.:oro

uart 10 iheri.Ku'dki IIvbi?1to stint IIi.

Yulmll 10 omofu.Hidetsng» k6 III ISI/kal", ta-

teuuusnrau 10 (Olllo./u) 1/1'

lla arazn.Takara oftoki ha 1111'ilIO rna-

moru ni gai ari 10 (ifu) Imkakaru /"010 zoo mafusn.

He has said that the mean-ing of rasld is scilla.

The fiery element in itsefforts to expand.

I am thinking of going.It is not that I wish to enter

H idetsugu's service.

The saying that great richesare injurious in respect ofself-protection was meantof occurrences like this.

Hilo-gue/Ii too fusogan 10 Thinking that he would stop(ollloIiiIC). people's mouths.Ya. VII has the same variety of meanings after inflected

words as it has after uninflected. [See p. 125.] It hassometimes an interrogative force and is at others a mereexclamation.

Examples of ya :-Ari J'a naslnya ? Is there or is there not?Ito IUldzlIkllsltiki ll'aca narazu Is it not a very shameful

ya ? thing?L'resldya ! How glad I am!(Jmolri 11(/ gotoku 1110notama- Your speech is even as my

fit )'a ! thought!J itsu IIi sltt'kartt ya ina ya wo vVe did not know whether it

s/rira:«. was really so or not.Korc uro miru ),a ilia ya, As soon as we saw it, we at

sngun] k{lrl1 'WOyakltshilc- once having translated it-The last example contains a very common idiomatic use

of y". JIim J'(/ ina ya literally means "while it is doubtfulwhether one sees it or not," i.e., "as soon as one sees it."

UNIXFLECTEO TEl\'I\Y()lIA SUfFIXED TO KOTOBA. 141

Kaslli is a word which adds emphasis to what precedes,It is often used at the end of prayers to the Deity, where itmeans much the same as our" Amen." Kas/li is doubtlessnothing more than the conclusive form of kaku, " thus," andmeans literally" thus it is." It really stands by itself, andforms no part of the sentence.

Examples :-Koleoni kurtlJlla yori ori Ila- \Ve here got down from the

ben'1I11 kashi. carriage.It is difficult to give the force of kashi in this sentence,

••Thank God" is perhaps a little ncar it..lifo, yo, and IUl after the conclusive form are mere inter- I

jections.All these particles, except raski, are found after both adjec-

rives and verbs in the conclusive form.

III. UNINFLECTED TENIWOliA ADDEO TO ATTR18UTI\'E OFSUBSTANTI\'E FORM.

As a nOLIn,this form of the verb may be followed by anyof the particles mentioned in the previous chapter.

Wo has ordinarily its usual force after this form of verbs Iand adjectives as the sign of the accusative case. It has,however, sometimes the same meaning as mono WO, i.e.,"although," or •.whilst." [ee p. II S.] For this last wo,'modern writers and the colloquial dialect have gao

Ni is often found with the attributive form of the pastsuffix shi in the sense of " as " or "since." Ka::e/"kishi ut," ince the wind was blowing,"

Kara, with verbs, means" after," as- IOJ·MIIIIl Imra !,oll1shiki mono Whereas It IS after we regret

woo things that they are dearto us.

Knoe 110/llklShi kara. After the wind blew.

142 UNINFLECTED TENIWOIiA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA.

Ka. The interrogative particle ka is suffixed to this form;as has been seen above, ya is added to the conclusive form.

Na added to the attributive form of the verb gives oneform of the negative imperative of the written language andthe sole form used in the spoken language, as Yllku 1/tI, " donot go"; taburu na, ••do not eat"; tuiru. na, " do not look."

The ru final is, in one or two exceptional cases, droppedbefore this 11n,as ~';aslt1'11na, •• do not forget"; k1l ua, H donot come," The regular forms are also found.

The verb aru, "to be," has a negative imperative, or rathera substitute for one, formed by prefixing the negative adverbnak«, ••not," to the positive imperative an, thus gi\'ing theform nakare,

Ae«, kek/{, In the old language there is a form which endsin ak" in the case of verbs, and in keku in the case of adjec-tives. The difference in these endings is only apparent. Theyare identical in meaning, and may both be obtained by thefollowing rule :-

,RULE.-Add aklt to attributive form, eliding the final « of

verbs, and contracting the final i of adjectives with the a ofakll into e. [See above, p. 24.] Thus, from miru, H to see," isformed mirnku ; from koltiskiki, H dear," ko/zishikeku.

The termination aklt, whose existence is here assumed, isnot found in any other connexion, and its derivation is by nomeans obvious, The a may perhaps be the a of ant, ••to be,"and kll is possibly the same as the ko of kOlo. Salllllkekitwould therefore be snlllllki-m'lt-kofo •. suiraku, miru-arn-koto.At any rate this derivation corresponds well with the mean-ing, for this form is always a 1IOIII!, ami not an adverb oradjective, as the final k1l might lead one to imagine. ::\'0such form exists as samukeki.

In a few verbs this form is in use even in the modernlanguage, as K6s/d 110 ihn/aI, ••the saying of Confucius H;1Itgn/ln/..·" hn, "that which I beg for."

UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA SUFFIXEO TO KOTOBA. 143

Examples:-Sid gn l/alla wo !ornku wo

slurast« ..AIi11laku 110hoshisa.

In the last sentence aleu is added to the attributive form1JIU of the future particle.Nagekaku u/o todome kane-

fe-Yokektt wo mireba.

Nurr: yo ochieu

Itne lIi ha unredoUtSII!SII Ili shiTill/a IIi arauebaKolzishikekllClzilu IIi tsumorinu.

Kama 110osltikektt 1Il0nashi.

They know not of the captureof their own mother.

The wi h to see.

Not being able to restrain mylamentation-

As I see the goodness.At night when asleep without

failIn my dreams 1 see thee,But as in my waking hoursThis is not truly so,My longingIs heaped up a thousand-fold.I do not spare my horse.

Ahoslziki, the termination of desiderative adjectives inthe old language, is contracted for nkuhoslziki. It is addedto the future suffix 11111.Thus, 1IlilllalzosMki, H wishing tosee," is mi-mu-akll-hoslliki; yukalllalLOshiki, " wishing to go," isJ'"ka-1Il11-aktt-IIOshiki. These adjective belong to the econdconjugation.

Example:-Ko wo osluyurr: Ilito ha knku

koso aramahosiukere.It is of this kind alone that it

is desirable that teachers ofyouth should be.

IV. UNINFLECTED TJ::NIWOHA ADDED TO NEGATI\-E BASE.

En with the negative base forms what may be called afuture conditional tense. Thus yuknba means "if he shallgo," " if he should go," or "were he to go." Ba is probably acontraction for n, the future suffix, and lUI, which has in this

144 Ul\INI'L£CTI::l> TEl\I\YOHA SGFHXEIJ TO KOTOll.-\.

combination substantially the same meaning as describedabove, p. 120. The fact that the older language has hainstead of ba after the negative suffix :;11 and after adjectivesconfirms this derivation, as the future suffix is not foundalong with either of these forms. Later writers, however,following a false analogy, usc Im for Ita in these cases.

After adjectives 111 is sometimes inserted for the sake ofeuphony, as J'olmlllba for ),oku/Ja, "if it should be good."

In the ,lfml)'oslu"u forms like )'okaba are found. The com-mentators say that aba is here a contraction for araba. 1"0-!.-aha would therefore be for yokll-amba.

Sa has often an optative force, which is sometimes broughtout more forcibly by adding the interjection ya, as in thesentence ltito ni lIIiseba)'a, ••Oh ! that I might show it to someone."

Examples of ba ;-Tsuki ide ba. If the moon should come

forth.If he should not know this.He wished to make it his

own dominion.Were it not for the note of

the uguisu coming forthfrom the valley.

Samba (for sa-arabay. Should that be so.De is a negative particle. Its grammar is that of a verb in

the adverbial form, It is equivalent to, and is perhaps a con-traction for, cu-te. Another derivation makes it a contractionfor ni-t«, IIi being here the old adverbial form of the negativesuffix nu.

Example of de;-fottkaki kokoro too shimde alri-

Kore ';.)0 sliirn.~1t btl.Ri~golm IIi se/>a)'a to 1l0:;:01ll1t.

Uguliisll 110 rani l{(Ira idcurukolte naRu ba.

gataslti.It is impossible to meet him

without knowing the depthof his heart.

UNIl\FLECTEIJ TENIWOIlA 'UFFIXED TO KOTOIlA. '45

ji is also a negative particle. Its grammar is that of averb in the adverbial, conclusive, or attributive form. It ithe negative corresponding to the future particle 11 or mu. jiis the equivalent of lIlai of the spoken language, and of bcka-raau of the later written language.- Examples:-111akt!Ji' 1.:01.'01'0. A spirit that will not be

vanquished.It is improbable that any

disgraceful act of his wholelife will surpass this.

Thinking he would not goout to meet him.

Kon )'(1 !.:qji ,1'<1 ? \Vill he come or will he not?il'tlll with the negative base must be distinguished from

11(111 with the adverbial form. The latter is the future of11U17I. ,Vall with the negative base is probably contracted for11 of the future followed by nan described in the chapter onsuffixes added to nouns. The form thus obtained has anoptative signification. I t is chiefly confined to poetry.

Examples :-KilJli g<1 1.'01r'01'0 WfI1'IJ lli to-

kellan.

Isshtl 110 hlTji I.·ore ni sltgurlthfl arof].

1Iful.·ahl'-idt:/i to oooslutc.

\Vould that your heart weremelted unto mc!

May the favouring breeze of(i.e. granted by reason of)the fillets offered to the godblow without ceasing!

De,ji, and 1It11l do not occur after adjectives.

Kalil; lIi tamuk« SU171nusa 1/(1olii-ka::;e yamas« fuleanas,

V. UKI).'FLECTED TENI\YOilA ADDEO TO PERFECT,

Ba with the Perfect is the same separative particle 1m (withthe 11igori) already described at p. 120. Yukeba, for instance,will therefore mean "in the case that he has gone," "in respectto his having gone," and btl in these forms may usually be

146 UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA S FFIXED TO KOTOBA.

rendered by one of the conjunctions ••since," "when,".(1 whereas," (C because."

Ya after this ba has its ordinary dubitative force, and notan optative, as when it follows ba suffixed to the negativebase. Thus mirebaya means" since he has seen, if indeed hehas seen," while 1Jlibaya means ••Oh! that he might see."Jlf;reba 1m would mean "is it because he has seen," orc. perhaps because he has seen."

Examples of ba :-

Ham tateba, kiyuru ko/IOn'.

Hi wo tomoshite mireba, YO-

ku-Jilt bakari 110 IIIJslli 'Ian'.

Sareba or s/tik01'ebn: (for saareba or sltika areba).

Kono Ili kltreshikaba (slzika,perfect of past participlesIlt).

The ice that melts now thatthe spring has come.

When he kindled a light andlooked, it was a priest ofabout sixty years of age.

Since that is so, or that beingso.

When this sun had set.

Do is the same particle 10 (with the lligorz,) alreadydescribed under the head of particles suffixed to the con-clusive form. With the perfect it may be translated" though,""although," ••notwithstanding." To iltedo, literally" thoughit be said that," " though one say that," is often found wherethe meaning is simply" although."

Observe that the phrase yuku 10 mo, "though he shouldgo," forms a Future Concessive corresponding to the Futureconditional yukaba, "if he should go," while yltkeM is thePerfect Concessive corresponding to the Perfect Conditional

Yltkeba.Do is very commonly followed by 1110, •• even," a ),u!.:edolllo,

••even though he went."

urn 'FLEeTED TEr\IWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA. 147

Examples of do and domo :-J 'obedomo, snmecu, E V(;!11 though they called her,

she did not awake.Although the weather

good, I am unable tocome, having an engage-ment

Although I expected you tocome to-day.

Although the use of Chinesecharacters IS very Im-proper.

Tenia Ita yorosltiku snfura-Iredomo, sasltitsukalze kOl·eari, 1Jlairi-gtltaku safurafu,

K o1ZllZclti 1/0 Oil ide tuo maclasa./Itralledolllo.

Ka1!J"i wo l//()CltiyUril Ita IUII/a-hada jitlSlfgt$ naredomo.

Ya, the interrogative particle, is sometimes found afterme, the perfect form of the future particle mit, as in arame ya,u will there be," or " will there have been."

Btl and do may be added to the perfect forms of eitherverbs or adjectives.

•

CHAPTER VII.

DIFLECTED T£1'-I\\·OIlA.

Inflected teniwoha are suffixed to verbs and adjectivesonly. In the following list the same classification has beenadopted as in the case of the uninflected teniwoha, i.e., accord-ing to the part of the verb to which they are suffixed. Onlya few of these suffixes are added directly to adjectives, Asin the case of uninflected teniwoha, the verb aru usuallyintervenes.

1. IN}·LECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO ADVERBIAL FOR~1.

Tsuru (te, ISII, ISIIrll, te, ISIIre) has the same meaningas the Chinese ~ and the Japanese Ita/sum, i.e., ••tofinish"; thus mitsurn, kikilsllrll, mean ••to finish seeing,"••to finish hearing." Tsuru is much the same as the It'shimafu of the spoken language. I t is not really a sign ofthe past ten e, or it would hardly be found combined withthe past suffix sM, but it is often difficult to render it other-wise in English.

Te followed by the combination of particles sIll' ga or sltign 11nforms an optative, Ex.: Iknde kOlll) J(ng/~J,(!ltiJlleW/Jetesltigmtn, miteslrigmtn. ••Oh! that I might obtain thisKaguyahime! Oh ! that I might see her! "

Te, with 11, the future particle, and )Ia, the interrogative,expresses a request; as in the following examples :-Yo .fuke!e. osoroshikereoa, As the night has become

oknrue lama/Ii len yn. late, and I am afraid, willyou please escort me.

110 ko uio esaseteu Will you be after causing meto obtain the Chiunagon's

Clzillllngollya?

daughter?

INFLECTEn TENIWOIIA. 149

In the later form of the language, the root te is the onlyform in usc. Here it has lost the meaning te shimll/" whichit had in the old language, and merely indicates that theaction of the verb to which it is joined is regarded as prior orpreparatory to that of the principal verb of the sentence; inother words, it forms a past participle.

Examples of ISlIm :-U/{liltiSll 1/011tlkilSttl'tt 111I1Ia.

SlIke klll'nhilsllrebn, iltlllt toijil.

Hana sakite :;0 !lito TIlZ 1IZ

kuru.

Okiua 110 IIIn/llsall kolo kiki-tamalu tell yll.

1klisn mite, yn zoo IlIIgu.

Kaklisltite yo.Hartt sltgile, natsu kila1'1t.

The flowers where the uguisuhas just been singing.

When they had finisheddrinking the wine, theysaid they would go away.

I t is after the flowers haveopened, that people cometo see them.

You will kindly hear to theend what the old man isabout to sa)' to you.

To whet one's arrows afterone sees the battle.

Be after hiding it.Spring having passed, sum-

mer comes.Tnru (tari, tari, tnru, lam, tare) is te, the adverbial form

of tsuru, followed by the verb aru, ••to be." It has the samemeaning as the te am or te i1'll of the poken language, andshould be distinguished from the colloquial ta,which (thoughthe same word as Inm) is used simply as a past tense. The-force of taru will be understood from the following examples:Nururn, for instance, means "to get wet"; unretaru, "to behaving got wet," i.e., "to be wet"; 11111'11means" to lie down" j

uetaru, "to be having lain down." The nureta and ueta ofthe spoken language mean" got wet," " lay down."

I r.; I'LECTED TENIWOHA.

Examples :-JUge kami kOlogoloku sltiroklt His beard and hair have all

become white.Having taken off

clothes.tuo habuki-Iaylt The having diminished the

number of leaves wasnot because labour wasgrudged.

,VIlYII (ni, IlII, JlU1'It, Uti, 1lIlYC) is the verb inurn, "to goaway," the initial i having been lost after the i or e final of theadverbial form of the preceding verb. NUYII and tsnru differlittle in meaning, but they are not found combined with thesame verbs, uuru being usually found with intransitive, tSU1'U

with transitive verbs. This rule is, however, subject tonumerous exceptions. Nuru may often be convenientlyrendered by the ad\'erb" away," as yuki-IZUYII, ••to go away,"sltillobi-Iltlru, "to steal away," yake-lmru," to burn away."The German IIi1l is a still closer equivalent.

Nan after the adverbial form of verbs is the future of thissuffix.

Motowori is of opinion that ni in such phrases as uari 1Zt'

ken', l.-illl!ni seba, etc., is Iii the adverbial form of nnru and notlIi the preposition.

Like te, Iii with slti ga or slti ga lUI has the force of anoptative.

Examples of uurn :-,NOIZOSlti17tuelli IIi yo fulceuu,

nari-rari.A'ililOIlO 110

1111gile.A'ami-ka:::u

shimeri-taru wo

ha Itone-ori WO IIOShi1Jllt niarasu.

J{o/.'01li llsC1lisltikaba.FUJ/c Iii uoriuan 10SII.

his wet

Whilst we were gossiping, thenight grew late.

J nasmuch as she died here.We made to go away on

board.Kern (keyi, keri, ker«, kera, kere) is the perfect of /.:111'11, u tocome," as in the example tsukalli 110 keyeba, tanos/dmi to

INFLECTED TENIWOllA. 151

(OIll01ii1t") matsu, "I waited, thinking of the JOY when themessenger should have come." As a suffix, however, it isemployed in a looser and more general signification, and issometimes little more than a substitute for the perfect endingof the principal verb. Where its original force is moredistinct it may be rendered ••at length," "it came to passthat."

The form gem is sometimes met with in old writers.The spoken equivalent of kem is Ie kiln.

Examples of kem :-Hana lin saki Iter;. The flowers have at length

opened.Spring has at length arrived.They at length ran away.

examples is often written llgeri

Haru ha ki IIi keri.Nige-use IIi ken.

The 1Ii keri of the last twoin the llaka III1.tkaslli period.

Shi (-, ki, slti, ke, shika) is the sign of the past tense. Theroot of the verb with shz"added is like the Greek aorist, simply I

a past tense, and nothing more. This is really the only pasttense in the Japanese language, at least in its classical form.Pa t time may, however, be implied by the use of othersuffixes, and when tsuru, nuru, taru or kent is added to averb, a past tense will usually, though not invariably, be theproper translation.

The following example illustrates the distinction betweentsurn, 1111nl,and slti. FUJi· 1Wllli Ita saki te cltiri 11iki, ••thewesteria waves (poetical for flowers) ltavillg first (Ie) blos-somed, became (kl) dispersed away (m)."

Ignorant writers of the present day often use slti for theconclusive as well as for the attributive form.

The semi-Chinese style prefers to indicate past timeby separate words such as NalsllLe ••previously," sudeui" already," &c.

IlI/FLECTEO TENIWOIiA.

Examples of sILi:-K w ni te umarcsla tuomiua.K okoni usenishikaba.,llwJla wa kishi (or koslll)

lIIichi umsurenn WOIIO nart,

Korosan /0 shiki.Ta!"i is inflected regularly

A woman born in Kio.Inasmuch as she died here.The horse is an animal which

does not forget the roadwhich it has come.

They made to kill us.as an adjective of the first

conjugation.It is the same word with the adverb ito (before adjectives)

01' ilal", (before verbs)" very," ••exceedingly," and in the oldlanguage when added to verbs it produced adjectives resem-bling English adjectives in /y, fu], etc., as lIIedeta/'·i, ••lovely,"from medzuru, "to love" ; kohi-tal.i, "much longed (or," fromkoftt, "to love," "to long for." In the modern language takiforms desiderative adjectives, and may be added to all verbs,as yukilaki, "desirous to go," nritaei, ••desirous to selL" Ithas replaced the allOsltikiof the old language.

Examples of lak; :-Co mill/go nasareraei 1111111e.

Co s/~clli kore arztala« confi-saburafu.

The information that youdesire an interview,

I think it desirable that youshould understand.

n. IKFLE(;TED TENIWOIlA ADDED TO CONCLGSI\'E FOR)I.

\ Naru (IInri, uari, naru, nnra, 1/are), "to be," is sometimes, found annexed to the conclusive form of the verb, as in the

,. It has been thought convenient to follow the practice of the Japanesegrammarians and to place the suffixes IItlYU, meru, rail, held, and 1I1lljikl

under the head of Teniwoha suffixed to the Conclusive FOIm. At thesame time there can be no doubt that these particles are really suffixedto the attributive form, and that what in verbs of the second conjugationappears to be the conclusive form is only the attributive form denuded ofthe final syllabic ru, which has disappeared owing to phonetic causes.

INFLECTED TENIWUHA. 153

phrase Vama ni 1///(slu"110 kolle Sit nari, "There is a chirpingof insects on the hill."

Iller/{ (1I/eri, meri.rueru, mera, mere) expresses a slight shadeof uncertainty, such as is indicated in English by the use ofsuch adverbs as " seemingly," " probably," " apparently."

The Kotooa no CII1/mllliclli says that meru is contracted formike ani, mike being the root of 1IIiyllr1l, "to cern."

A YII, whether alone or in composition, loses the final ru

before meru,Examples of meru:-

Sltin"taJlleredo. Although they are doubtlessaware.

They are doubtless anythingbut stupid men.

Oroka naranu hito bito tit

koso autere (for ani mere].Ran (rail, rail, run, -, rmlle) is aran, the future of ani, " to

be," the initial a being dropped after the final vowel of theverb, in order to avoid a hiatus. Rail is therefore the same

No question arises on this point in the other conjugations where thesetwo forms are identical.

This will explain a number of apparent irregularities in the form as-sumed by the verb before these particles. For instance, we see that sezanari, where '1<11';is apparently attached to the negative base, is reallysezaru uari, and in confirmation of this we have the intermediate formsezan nari, in which the 11of sezau represents the r of I'll which has be-com" assimilated to the following consonant. I n the same way mira»,where ran seems added to the adverbial form, is a contraction for 111;,."rail, ameru for OfU meru, Sit nari for suru nnri.

The modem written language sometimes follows the Yedo colloquialidiom in having the attributive form of verbs of the second conjugationin eru or iru instead of in uru, and we therefore meet with such forms assulebtld, deki1llajiki, where "eN and mttjiki are not really added to theadverbial form, as might appear at first sight, but to the colloquial auribu-rive in en, or "'-llt the final ru having been lost.

For a similar reason mai (for majiki), the sign of the negative future inthe spoken language, is only apparently suffixed to the adverbial form inthe second conjugation.

M 2

154 IN fLEeTED TEN IWOHA.

as de tiro of the spoken language, or ni Ie nnw of the writtenlanguage. Rail expresses a slight shade of doubt.

Examples of rau :-Horn; 10 ifuran J'alJla.

H agi ga /"'a1laclaruran.

The mountain called. if Imistake not, Horai.

The hagi Rowers will doubt-less become scattered.

Beki (belm, bulzi, beld, be/.m, belw-e) is a regularly inflectedadjective of the first conjugation. It is used in many differentshades of meaning, such as to express probability, possibility,moral obligation, necessity, futurity, &c., and may be variouslyrendered according to circumstances by u probably," " may,"••ought," ••must," " should," "will," &c. The last meaning isvery common in the later official and epistolary style, wherebeki has almost superseded the ordinary future in 11. Beslu and/lekara:::u (bckll-arn:::u) are often used as nearly equivalent tothe ordinary imperative.

In the Monogatari beii is frequently found for bek1l.Examples of beki:-

rosk;1I e ranntu subesla to griiski-tmlltllu.

I dr::/t1'C youmkaran 10/,;01'0 IJ1lt-

kafn buIlt:Tel: i ha sadatuete taigun I1a17l

bes/It:Tatakaf« beki ka ; waboku

kolll beki kn ?Kono uta 11/0 kakll 110 gotoklt

naru beshi.S01l0 birei flam I.:oto ifllbeii

1110arasu.

He ordered him (saying)"lI'lake an incursion intoJOshiu."

He was to confront whateverplace might be weak.

Decidedly the enemy are sureto be in great force.

Shoutd we fight or beg forpeace?

The same is probably the casewith this poetry also.

It was impossible to describeits beauty.

Emu' and bern are poetical forms. They are abstract nouns

INFLECTED TENIWOIIA. 155

obtained by adding to the root be the terminations lIIi and ra.[See above pp. 42, 43.]

Example :-eM-tose-dochi to so omofubera

11aYIt.

There is a thinkability thatthey are thousand-yearcomrades, i.e., one mar wellsuppose that the)" havebeen comrades for a thou-sand years.

lV/ajiki (Illajiku, tuafi, 1I/ajiki, lIIajik1l,lIlflji'kere) is a regularlyinflected adjective of the second conjugation. Its meaning islthe opposite of that of beki. }IIlai, the negative future of thespoken language, is a contracted form of lJIaJi"ki.

Examples of lIIaJi"ki;-Kono yo ni ha mala minllJlaji.

Tsukafu beki tokoro to tsukajitmOJi"kitokoro to an'.

In this world, at an)" rate, weare ti1llikely to see himagain.

There are places where itought to be used, and alsoplaces where it ought not.

III. INFLECTED T£NIWOf.iA ADDI::D TO ATTIUHUTln: "'OR~I.

There are no inflected teniwoha added to the attributiveform of the verb or adjective.

IV. INFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO NEGATI\"E J1A E.•

NTt (::n or ni, SIl, nu, ::U, 1/e), "not," is the negative suffix]Ni is obsolete in all but the oldest form of Japanese.

Examples of 111t;-

lhallcdo.Shira:::/{.Shira:::" olJlo/liki.Y6 sccu-ha.

Though one do not say,I don't know.He felt ignorant.I f one did not take care.

INFLECTED TEN I \\'OIlA.

Zur« (:;ari, sari, earn, sara, care) is for sn-aru. In thelater language cam is preferred to the simple suffix n«,

I especially in the case of the attributive form.Zarn, for ;;0 tim, must be distinguished from the above.

Examples of caru ;-

Shirazari keri.Shiracan: lura.

He did not learn (or know).A stranger, or, a man who

does not know.

I N or 11m (/I or 1J1ll, 11 or mil, 11 or 11l11, -, me) is the futuresuffix. It may also give the verb the force of a SUbjunctiveor of an optative mood. At other times such adverb asIe probably," "doubtless," &c., are the most convenient warof rendering it.

Examples of 1/ ;-

Hototogis« ki-/lrlkil11 fSliI ••i 11i.

Imada lIIi1ll1hito IIi 1110ISlIgCIl.

Kwaki /lobill to suru ni.

fl.-allodo k(II/IIIIII1'Z' lI,.lIlli1slli-l:« rn1/ IIi 1/10.

Nikki kak'lll hito.

• , I.Korosau 10 shiJ.·i.Horni 10 ifll yama uaran.

In the month when the hoto-togisu will come and sing.

I would tell those also whohave not yet seen it

The fiery clement, in itsefforts to expand.

However elegant the head-dress may be,

Those persons who may writejournals .

They made to kill us.I t is probably the mountain

called H6rai.

Nzu1'!I. The future suffix 11 is sometimes combined withthe verb suru, " to do," thus forming a compound future tense.This combination has the meaning of a future tense proper,and not of a SUbjunctive or optative mod.

INFLECTED TENIWOllA.

Examples of nenru ;-

Kihe useuanzu,Saru lokoro he 1IIai,-a1l::;/l1"/I

koto.IVan /ur kore yon' kaheri

znanzu.

[57

I will vanish away.The being about to go to such

a place.Iwill return from this place.

This combination is not found either in the oldest or in themost modern form of the Japanese language.

The word makarasn occurs in the Tosa ll'ikki not as anegative, but as a future. Makara:J1l is here put for maearan-ZU, " I will come." This form is preserved in several of thelocal dialects.

folashi (-, masld, utaslu, tuase, lIlashika). Mas/Ii is a kin-dred particle to 11 and beki, but like the English phrases"would have," " ought to have," is only used where the actionof the verb might have taken place, but did not. It is mostcommonly found after conditional clauses, where it impliesthat the condition is unfulfilled.

lIfashi is chiefly confined to poetry.

Examples of mas/Ii;-

ChikakambtlKa/reri ,ti ddlti uta

Uclli-YllkiteImogn tontakura

Sashi.kahete

Netemo k01llashi WOo

A/Ii 1IIi&/I baKohishiki koto 1110

]" IIkaralll asla.

If thou wert near,Even it were only to return,I would go to thee,And having slept,Exchanging with thee arm

pillows,I would come.

If we had never met,Neither would there have

been love.

INFLECTEU TENI\vOHA .

Uguhim /10 tani yon; idzurnkohe IUlku ba, hart« kurukolo ha tare !.:asluramasl: I?

The cherry-flowers of themountain hamlets, wherethere are none to see them,ought to flower after theothers shall have becomescattered.

\Vere it not for the note ofthe uguisu from the valley,who would know of thearrival of spring?

.Alirll llito 1Il0.Na!.:iyama-zato 110

Sakllnl-banaIf 'olsano chiruran•Voehz"::0 sakfllllflshi.

v, INFLECTED TENIWOllA .\OOEO TO PERFECT.

Rlt (ri, ri, 171.,ra, re). The meaning and derivation of theperfect form in rtt have been already explained at page 88.This form is peculiar to verbs of the first conjugation and theirregular verb Slim, the perfect of which is sern.

Examples of perfect form in nt:-

Koua kolo Ita onore .Afiklt11i 110 This subject 1 have myselfKotodama Iii tsubara Iii fully discussed in the ./lIi-iheri. /.:lI1ti110Kotodanta.

Nodu 110yo 110hilo 110kakent In reading the writings ofmono miru ni. men of a later age.

TABLE OF TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TOIl'\FLECTED WORDS.

I. TENJWOHA ANNEXED TO ROOT.

I. UNINFLECTED.

Ni, Ira, 1110,to, lIagnrn, tSlIlslI,gntern,gnehi, --1IIi --lIIi,--lslt --tSIl, na --so, yo.

INFLECTED TENIWOIIA. 159

2. INFl.ECTED.

- -- - -Advc Form. Conclusive Form. Attributive Form, N ega ti ve Sa ""., Perfect.

--te tSII tsuru te tsure

-tari tari taru lara tare

tit 1111 nuru ua 1I111'e

keri keri Hem kern kere

- ki slri ke slu'ka

takll !nsM Inki tnkzt takere

-

11. TENIWOHA ANNEXED TO CONCl.U lYE FORM.

1. U INFl.ECn:D. Raslti, to.yo, kaslti, 1110,yO,11a.

2. INFl.ECTED.

- IAdv, FOl'111. Conclusive Form. Attributive Form. Negative Base. I Perfcct.

-nart uart naru uara uare

men 1IIen meru mera mere

rail I ran ran - ratue

belm buM beni be/m bekere

lIIaji"ku maji maJi'ki lIIflJi'ku 11IIajikere,

160 I 'FLECTED TEl\I\\'OHA.

III. TE:"IWOHA ADDED TO ATTRIIIUTIVE FORM.

I. UNINJ·LECTED. !\'a i.-a kana kam tuo akll" , J , •

2. INFLECTED. one.

IV. TE IWOllA ANNEXED TO 'EGATIVE BASE.

I. UNINFLECTED. Sa, de,ji, uan,

2. INFLECTIW.

- _. -Adv. Form., Conclusive Form, Auriborive Form. Negnlh'c Base, Perfect.

tie or "i zrc uu. ~It 111:

cart zart. carll cora care

11or 11llt 11or IIItt 11 01' mt« - me

lIlaslti lIlaslzi I lIlas!Ji!.:a- ruase

V. TENIWOHA ANNEXED TO PERFECT.

I. UNINFLECTED. Ba, do,ya.

2. INFLECTED .

•Adv. Form. Conclusive Form. An riburive Form. Negnth·c Base. Perfect.

-ri 17- "/4 ra re

CHAPTER III.

HUMBLE ,\ND HO 'ORIFIC VERBS, AUXILIAR\' "ERRS, YERR

USED AS AD\'ERHS AND CONJU 'CTIONS.

The absence in the Japanese verb of any grammaticaldistinction of per on ha been already remarked, This wantis partly supplied by the extensive use of humble andhonorific words and particles, the former being chiefly charac-teristic of the first per on, and the latter of the second. Acurious exception is the case of the Mikado, who in books ismade to use the honorifics in speaking of himself.

Humility and respect are indicated in Japanese in thefollowing ways ;-

I. By prefixing to nouns Oil,go, i.:i, sOIl,llei, &c.; or to verbsthe particles 0 or 011.

II. By sub tituting for the simple verbs the derivativecausative or pas ive verbs.

III. By the Liseof humble and honorific synonyms insteadof the ordinary nouns or verbs.

I . By means of auxiliary verbs.The humble and honorific prefixes, and the use of causa-

tive and passive verbs as honorifics, have been noticed above,[See pp. 46, 99, 100.] The following are examples of humbleand honorific synonyms ;-

NOUNS.

SEUTRAL,. HUMBtE. HONORlFIC.

go shiso!.:l1shitsn ]».Mkntl

Ko (child)Muslt1llc (daughter)Tegnmi (letter)

segares!t8josuncho

IIU)IIlL£ AND 1I0NORIFIC VERUS,

"Taburu (to eat)Okll1'lt (to send) Jlfairasll1'lt

As will be seen from the examples quoted below, the verbsused as humble and honorific substitutes for ordinary verbshave a tendency to lose their original specific meaning, andare in many cases used as mere indications of humility orrespect. In some instances a still further change takes place,the distinction between respect and humility is lost, and theauxiliary ceases to be anything more than a characteristic ofa polite style, A familiar example of this is the terminationmasu of the spoken language.

I. Auxiliary verbs used primarily with verbs in the firstperson to express humility,

Haberu or /1fl1llbenl originally meant" to be beside," " to bein attendance on," but it has acquired the same force as themodern colloquial masu or go:::arimaSlt, The old languageuses /Iflbcm chiefly with verbs in the first or third person as amore respectful word than aru, II to be," or wont, II to abide,"It is obsolete in the modern language,

Examples of haberu ;-1kade ka yo IIi habermz ?

~EUTRAL.

JIlin{ (to see)Suru (to do)Y"i,1t (to go)Kuru (to come)If1l (to say)AtaYItYlt (to give)

VERBS,HU:\IBLE.

Hnisen suruTsuknmatsnrnJlEnk(1I'1lJllniniJlfafltSllAgllrtlTatematsuru

HOXOR.f.C,

GOl'fll1/irlt or Gorau uasaruNasarnruI 'demas«Idemas«O//oSltruKudasaruTamafuK ikos hillleSIl

How shall I remain in thisworld?

Yo Ilfl OIllO/U' 110 llOkn naru It i. my humble opinion that11101/0to omolu haber«, this world is a thing which

is beyond our expectations,

HUMBLE AND 1l0NORIFIC VERBS.

1I1[e1110mine haberann 11;.

Sa Ila Imberalm ka?

My eyes, too, being unable tosee.

Is it not so?Saruumfn, saburafu, or safurafti is a verb of the first con-

jugation. Like IlMem, it originally meant" to be in atten-dance upon," and in this sense it often occurs in the olderliterature. The word samuro/si, ••a Daimio's retainer," ••aman of the two-sworded class," means, therefore, properly" anattendant." Safiwa/u (pronounced S01'0) has by degreesbecome the written equivalent of the colloquial masu orgocarimasu, and is now used as a polite auxiliary with allthree persons, and even where the subject of the verb is nota living being at all, In the modern epistolary style, almost I

every verb has safurafu (SOl"o) annexed to it.Examples of safnrnfn :-

Kusnslu A /sllshige go Ho-o1/0 omunh« IIi samumhite.

Sadamegatnlcu zonji safurafn.

.\·ll.Okall '410 mochite ma/ushi-ire-safurafu,

f)eki sliidai saslzi-shimm-bekusafuraft«.

-·-to yomeru koka 1110 safu-raheoa. .

Owni lit! ika uaru llilo 11£ tesn/um/It ?

The physician Atsushigebeing in waiting before theretired Emperor.

I think it is impossible todecide.

I address you by a letter .

I will end it to you as soonas it is fini hed,

As there is an old stanzacomposed saying that-

What manner of man areyou?

lIfnkaru means properly" to go down," "to retire from thepresence of a superior," or ••to go from an honourable placeto one which is less honourable." Later it became used moregenerally as a humble word instead of yuk'" ••to go." In theJapanese of the present day umkar« does not stand by itself,

II UMHLI:. AN D HONORIFIC VERDS.

but is prefixed in the adverbial form to verbs signifyingmotion, such as yuku, idzuru, koSIl, &c., as a mere auxiliary toexpress humility. I t is also found before aru, "to be," andwont, " to abide."

Jllakal'll occurs very frequently in the n tes of evidencetaken in courts of ju tice,

Examples of makarn :-Tama 110 eda tori ni nan

makaYli 10 ihasete (TsII-k/lslIi lie) kndari tautafu,

Saying that he was goingdown to fetch the jewelbranch, he went down (toTsukushi).

Going from the capital to the provinces is always spokenof in Japan as U going down." This example is from one ofthe old classics. The following examples show the modemuse of 1//akarll :-

K iftt lie nralmri koslti sa-furafu setsu.

Kokoni makart ari snfurafutoboro.

When he visited your honour-able city.

Whilst I was here.

JI/a/ustl (pron, 1//8sll) was originally used, chiefly in the firstperson, as a very humble word for ifu, "to sa)'." In the laterI language it is still a polite word for ifu when it stands aloneor precedes another verb, but it is also employed after verbsin the adverbial form as a mere auxiliary to indicate humility,and without any trace of its original meaning.

Examples of mafusu :-ANca:':'iT LA 'GUAGE...

Gelt/i ItO killii ni mafnsnbe-I"; 1.010.

Kono yoshi ma/lIslli tanmlre.

Something which ought tobe respectfully representedto Prince Genji.

Be so good as to repre .entthis (to some high per-sonage).

HUMIlLI:: AND HONORIFI VERBS.

MOJ)£RN LANGUAGE.

Hiki-b1l11e idete 1I1i11(tlo lieIliki-ire-1JIa/lIsln·-sa/lIrfl/u.

YaktishO to obosltikll mille-1IIafi(sl1i safurafu.

Yu wo Isukahi-lIIa/ltsu koto.

Tug-boats having come out,towed us into the harbour.

It looked like a public office.

The use of hot baths.Kikoyu1"ll. like urafnsu, is properly a humble word for" to

say," "to tell," but it is often used as a mere auxiliaryexpressing humility without any specific meaning. Thecompounds kolli-kikoyunt, olllohi-kikoyuru for instance, areonly polite expressions instead of the simple verbs /';o/u, •.tolove," outofu, "to think." This word is obsolete in themodern language.

Tatematsurn originally meant" to give as a present," as inthe sentence 1Ilasatsurfl sake yok; mono tateutatsureri, " Masa-tsura brought a present of sake of excellent quality." As anauxiliary it is a very humble word, and is much used inmemorials, addresses, and other writings composed in aformal style.

Examples of tatematsurn :-Ippitsu kei//) tatematsuri Sa/If-

rafu,NegaM age tateumtsnri sa/It-

rafu.

I beg to address you onestroke of the pen.

I most humbly request you.

Aguru, "to raise," "to offer up," is also joined to the rootsof verbs to mark humility.

Example:-Sudmi lIla/ushi-age sa/urn/lI As I have already had the

yom'. honour to inform you.1I1airasuni mean "to send as a present." It is used

generally as a humble auxiliary both in the old language andoccasionally in the modern epistolary style, e ipecially inletters written by women.

166 HUMBLE ANI) HONORIFIC n:RBS.

Examples of 1IIllirnSIII'/{ :-

Co /tellJi' tuo lIIa./us/zi-age suai-rasc-safurafu buhz'.

On yorokobi lIIa./lislti-age 1IIa;-rase-soft: rafu,

I shall reply to you.

I beg to offer you my humblecongratulations.

11. Auxiliary verbs used as honorifics with verbs in thesecond person, or with verbs in the third person when theactions of some exalted personage arc spoken of.

Tauiafn is a lengthened form of the old verb tabu, "togive," and was originally used as a honorific substitute forthat verb. Even at present it has often this force, but it ismore commonly a mere honorific in which the meaning "give"can no longer be traced.

Examples of tatuafu :-Please do not forget.At once granted his request.

1IIasu re-tanmfu na,Sassoku ni kiki-sll7lli talll11hi-

;':i.TSllki too mite i1lliji'/m lIaki-

tamafu,OS/Ii/Ie -maimse-sase-tamotsi-

keri.

jJ,faslI (rst conj.) is used as a honorific in the old language,where it is found exclusively in the second or third person.It is much more restricted in its use than tamafu being onlyused along with certain verbs. MaSte originally meant "tosit," "to dwell." The modern colloquial auxiliary 1IIaSll isthe same word, although its conjugation is different, and it isused indiscriminately with all three persons.

Examples of 1IZaSte:-

Hmlallluke s/zi ni idemaseri.

Seeing the moon, she weptexceedingly.

He caused him to teach.

He came to gh'e a partingpresent.

IlU~Il)LE ANn IIONORIFIe YERRS.

Kaklui-lIlllslti-ki. He became hidden, i.e., hedied.

1\-(1 ha r,Vatarahi IIi rnasu This is thc god who dwells/.:nllli uari. in \Vatarai./lSOlifTSII, asobasaru, and asobasarnrn, from asobu, ••to sport,"]

are used as honorifics in the same way as tamafn.Examples :-

all sorohi nsobashi, go/':igmJ'o/m Oil los/Ii /':nsnlle-

Co /.:Ollrei shillbi yo/m Oil toto-lIohi asobasnre 11Icdetaku

That you all together havebegun a new year in goodhcalth-beg to congratulate you onthe marriage which youhave celebrated so auspi-ciously in all respects.

In the older language, if a honorific particle is placed beforea verb the honorific terminations or auxiliaries are omitted,and vice ucrsd no honorific is prefixed if thc verb has ahonorific termination or auxiliary. This rule is not observedin the later language.

II 1. Other auxiliary verb.Aruc naru, Ant (-tj) means "to be," in the sense of "to

exist." It is not the mere copula of a proposition likeuartt (-IlL). Thus, although the two propositions

:::OIlJi' tatemntsuri safurafu,

K(II10 1I1I1IIIa Ita s/lil'okari,Kono 11/1(1I/n hn shiro/oz' uari,

are practically identical, the rcal mcaning of the former is" As to this horse, the quality of whiteness exists," while thelatter is " This horse is white," nan' being nothing more thana copula.

A rn is chiefly used, as in thc above example, as an auxiliaryjoined to adjectives. Its use with verbs to form a perfecttense, and its combinations with some of the commoner teni-woha have becn already noticed.

Naru; which is conjugated like aru, is contracted for 1It' aru,N

168 AUXILIARY VF.RJ~<;.

Here the ui is sometimes the locative particle "in," and some-times the root of an obsolete verb 1111, "to be." Jlrarll as anattributive is abbreviated in the spoken language into 1111,aform which is occasionally used by modern writers.

I Nar! is often used after the attributive forms of verbs andadjectives to form a substitute for the conclusive form. Itshould be distinguished from uaru," to become," which followsthe adverbial form of adjectives, and which is conjugated asa regular verb of the first conjugation.

Example of nru and naru :-Chi aru 1110,oroka narn 1110. Both those who have under-

standing and those whoare foolish.

This is the mountain Horai.You must know that this is so.It makes the meaning ex-

plained of itself.Why is it so ?--it is be-

cause it is so and so.

Kore Ila HQrni 110ymua uari.Kakll nari 10 slt£rubeklt nan.1Ilid:::ukam gi wo tokasltimuru

narz,Nase Ilflreba-lltllli 1Ifwito

nareba nari.S1I1'lI, " to do." The simple verb may be replaced by the

adverbial form followed by stint. Sometimes, however, thereis a difference of meaning. Thus yorokooi-te means" rejoic-ing "; yorokobi ski/e, " making gala."

Uru, " to get," "to be able," is prefixed in the adverbialform e to negative verbs, as in the examples-E illfZ:::U. He is unable to say.E nomaca. He is unable to drink.E 01ll0hi IlallfZ1'e;i: He will be unable to cease to

think of her.A noun may intervene, as in the example :-

E taimen tammuaranu. I cannot accept an interviewKanuru, " to be unable," is annexed to verbs in the ad-

verbial form.

AUXILIARY vlmns. 169

Example ;-Yuki-kane snfurafn. I am unable to go.

A/tI, "to meet." In many cases, this verb when prefixedin the adverbial form to other verbs has more or less of itsoriginal meaning, as alu-noru, "to ride together"; ahi-miru,I'to see one another ": ahi-oorttru," to love one another"; butin the later language it is often used without much meaning,as natsu ni ahi-uari safurnfu toki, " \Vhen it became summer:'

VERBS A ADVERBS OR CONlUN 'TIONS.

Many words which must be translated in Engli. h by ad-verbs or conjunctions are, in Japanese, verbs or adjective.(koloba). Indeed, as shown in Chap. IV., every verb andadjective has a form in which it is an adverb.

Examples of verbs as adverbs ;-Hatashi-te. II Ultimately," II eventually:'Seme-te. II At least."Kaheri-te. II On the contrary."J.lashi-te. II Much more so."Amari "Too much."Ka/sesu-gnhesn. II Again and again:'Nokora-zu: II \ Vithout exception:'

Examples of verbs as conjunctions:-S~-shite (lit. " having done so ") "and."Shikm'eba (lit. " since it is so") " therefore."Oyob; (adv. form of oyobn, "to reach to") "and."Narnbi 11£ (lit. " in a line with OJ) " and."Tadashi (adv. form of tadasu, " to correct ") II but."A rulliha (properly aru Ila) "in some cases," " or."

CHAPTER IX.

SYNTAX.

lllWI:.R OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

l. Qualifying words or phrases precede the words whichthey qualify. Thus:-

(a) The adjective (verb or adjective in attributive form)precedes the noun which it qualifies, as J10ki Ililo, "a goodman "; kuru hito, "the man who comes."

(b) The adverb precedes the word which it qualifies, as itoIwyaJ.:1t, " very fast "; Ilflyaku kuru, " to come quickly."

(c) The noun followed by the genitive participle no or gaprecedes the noun to which it is joined, as hito 110 chikara, ••aman's strength."

2. The nominative case stands at the beginning of aIsentence. Tsuki Ita kagil·i 1m!.:/( lIIedela!.:i mOIlO nari. " Themoon is an immeasurably beautiful object." To this ruleithere are numerous exceptions. I n comparisons, the objectwith which the subject of the sentence is compared usually,though not always, precedes it, as in the sentence /(0110 yaurayori are Ita takashi, "That mountain is higher than this."

3. The verb (verb or adjective in conclusive form) isI placed at the end of the sentence, as in the last example.

The regular order of a sentence is frequently inverted inpoetry, the verb appearing in the middle, and the sentencebeing closed by a noun, a particle, or a verb or adjective inthe adverbial or attributive form.

SYNTAX.

Examples:Na de jit (for 1tmli 10 ifll

and pronounced IUYO) ;'0-kochi sureoa, kaklt monoomohi tarn sama 1Ii te tSlIki

tao 1IIi taumfi: eo - taua-shikiyo 11£?

Kokoro arnn

Because of what feelings doyou in this plea ·ant worldgaze upon the moon withthe appearance of being soimmersed in thought?

I would that I could showIfito 11i lIIise/Jayn to some one who had a

Tsunoosa gn heart the smoke from theShiwoynki kebllri. salt-furnaces of Tsunooka.The later semi-Chinese prose style affords examples of a

similar construction.Negnllnkll lin sltiM Il0 kUllshi I

kOkiu aran koto woopray that gentlemen fromall quarters will purchaseit.

Osorae« //(/ jitgnku 110 sosluri I fear I may incur the re-arau kOlO woo preach of ignorance.

Osoraku Ita yo 110 hito 110 I fear it may become auiamhi-gusa to uaran laughing-stock to thekoto woo public.4. The case signs are placed after the nouns to which

they relate, as koko made, " to this place "i ware 110," mine."s. The direct object of the verb precedes it, as knlill

uuuarn, "to cross a river." In poetry the object is sometimesplaced after the verb.

6. A noun governed by a preposition precedes the directobject of the verb, as fune ni kahn zuataru, "to cross a riverin a boat."

7. Expressions denoting time precede expressionsdenoting place, and a general expression precedes onethat is more precise. Examples: Itsn lilt/de /.:ot:olli Sll/II"

ka? "Until when do you reside here?" Rokll C'.;.!ntsu

nanuka made. "Until the seventh day of the sixth month."

8. Conjunctions and interrogative particles are placed afterthe word or clause to which they belong, as in the examples,[ka uaru !tito 1.:(/to tofu, u He inquires what manner of manhe is ": [!.'aga slfbcl.:i to omofu, " \ Vhat is to be done? thoughthe,"

9, Dependent clauses precede principal clauses,Example :-

Uglf flt'SIt 110Toujyor! idsnrt«

[(olle 11ilkft btl,Haru kft1'lt koto haTare /.:a slnramashi ?In poetry this rule is often disregarded.Examples :-

Yo WO sntsnruKokoro !til 11mI/O $0

N(/ktlrl-kcrlf-Uki zoo us!ti to IznOmolzi slziredolflo.

A ki Iwgi •.10

Irodoru Im~c IltlFul.:i1i1t 101110

Kosoro ha kartgzKustlba uaraueba.Inversions like the following

modern semi-Chinese style;-J!isokmu' kiku-sltilllbltlt j6rci

issogetu-mitsu wo klfllainrll1(0gi ari to.

A'ore wo kiklt-kogi !ta ses-sei1Ii sllika::/t to,

SYNTAX.

Were it not for the note ofthe lIguislf from the valley,who would know of thearrival of spring?

To abandon this worldHeart as yetThere is not-That misery is miserableThough I recognize,

\Vhat though the wind blowthat paints thc autumn!ta.g'i- my heart will notwither, for it is not a herb-leaf.

are not unfrequent ill the

\Ve have privately heard thatit is under considerationto add a degree of strin-gency to the Press Laws,

We are told that a cleverfalsehood is inferior to aclumsy truth.

S\"!\TAX. 173

In the style imitated from the Chinese, 3S for instancein official letters, a number of words of frequent occurrenceare usually written in the Chinese order, although in reading,the j apancsc construction is followed. Thus the verbs motsuJa.. irasu ik. scs/umurn %, uru. ~, yoru i1( (or mil in thephrase ni yorue, okzt 1ft in the phrase ni oite, oyoo« ffi. arewritten before the nouns which they govern, the passivetermination arum fill is written before the verb to which itbelongs, ari ;ff is put before kore when kore is nominative toit, the negative particle 1m ;;y:: comes before its verb, and theadjectives kalaki ., gotoki :1m, and beki PI precede the verbswith which they are compounded. Examples will be foundin specimens VI!., VIII., and IX. at the end of the volume.

PARTICl.ES AFFECTING THE FORM OF THE VERB OR ADjEC-

TI\'E AT THE END OF A ENTENCE (kakfwi Il!lIi'Wolln).It has been already pointed out (p. 88) that the principal

verb of a entence, i.e., the verb in the indicative mood, or theadjective when it includes the verb" is," is placed at the endof the sentence, and in the conclusive form. To this ruleclassical" Japanese recognizes certain well defined exceptions,which are stated below. It is difficult to over-estimate theimportance of this part of Japanese grammar. Motoworihas devoted a work in seven volumes, the Tama no O,t to theelucidation and illustration of this rule and its exceptions,

* The modem language shows a strong tendency to disregard theseexceptions and to revert to the simplicity of the general rule. In thepresent spoken language both rule and exceptions are altogether unknown,and in the modern written language there is so much confusion betweenthe old practice and the new forms to which the language seems tending,that no rule can be laid down. The semi-Chinese style rarely employsconstructions where the exceptions required by classical Japanese wouldbe exemplified.

t Tam" no O. lit. "the string of jewels" (i.e., the connecting principleof words), a high-flown expression for" syntax."

SYl\T.\X.

and other grammarian~ have followed his example. Thesubstance of Motowori's treatise is contained in the followingrules, among which I. and I I. are much th most important ;-

RULE I. When one of the particles ::0, IWII (not theparticle nan suffixed to verbs), or an interrogative (ka, yfl,nani, nado, naco, tare, i/..,(lJIi,il.-nga, ikade, idsure, itsu, iku)occurs in a sentence, the verb or adjective which closes it isput in th attributive instead of in the conclusive form.

Examples;Kore ya waga motoumrn

yaura uaru,This is (if I mistake not) the

mountain of which we arein search.

It is this which must be thejewel.

This mist of spring whichhides the mountains IS

hateful.How many ages have passed

since the age of the gods?When was it that the autumn

wind blowing scatteredthose lea ves of speech (i.e.,words) in which he told methat his mind wa-. deeplytinged with IO"e?

Katach: yori lur kokoro 1I1l1/ Her heart was more excellentmasaritaru. than her beauty.:\lost Japanese grammarians include 110 in the list of

particles which govern the attributive form. The mereoccurrence of 110 in a sentence, however, does not affect thefinal verb or adjective, unless it is actually joined to it. Insuch cases the verb or adjective is properly a noun, but asshown at p. 107, this construction is frequently substituted forthe conclusive form.

Kore &0 tama narnbelci,

Yam(/ kalmsJIHam 1}0 kasltllli &0

Uramcshila.KaJJ/i yo yon

1kit yo ka hellishi?FTlkakll omo/u

Sometsu. to ild shiKoto 1/0 lin fia

{1m ka aki-kn:::eFllkile chi1'-iJlJlrJt.?

SV'TAX. 175

Examples :-

Sasagnui 110Koromo 1l1'/mkariWare wo ImIOIllU,./(.

The i spider, clinging to mygarment, has turned to mefor help.

No is here joined not to koromo, but to tanomuru, so thatthere is properly no verb in the sentence, sasagani 110 tano-muru meaning properly" the spider's turning for help," not" the spider turned for help."

Ware wo OIllOj'UHito WO01/l011fl1Ut

Jl/u/m/li 11i ya?-~Vaga otuofu !lilo 110IVare wo otnohanu.

Is it as a punishmentloving him whome?-

He whom I 10\'e loves me

for 110tloved

not.

RULE II. \Vhen the particle koso occurs in a sentence, thelverb or adjective which-closes it is put in the perfect forminstead of the conclusive form.

Examples :-

YOlle koso yokere.

It is this, and this only whichis the jewel.

It is rice, and nothing butrice, which is good.

I feel touched above all bythe fragrance more eventhan by the colour.

Above all things (koso) theherb of forgetfulness ofone's woes grows upon thebank-well have the fisher-men given it the nameof Sltllliyoshi (pleasant toreside in).

Kore koso lama narc.

11'0 yori 1/10

Kn /,oso ahare /0Omohoyure.Jl/i nouki wo

~VflSure-gusa kosoKislli III ofure-s-

Ube SUlIliyoslti /0A nta 1110 illi-keri.

!;HITAX.

YakezlI ba /.·oso, 1/lakolo 1/(1/'(lJ/to omolu tc, Mlo 110 iflt kofo1Ii 11101IIakt'llle.

In case it does not burn, andin that case only, I willconsider it genuine, andwill comply with the man'sproposal.

A verb has often to be supplied after koso.Examples :-

A hi-1IIin kofo uro 1101lli koso(01110110)'11re).

Chikara aru Iuto ni te koso(are).The older poems in the lJ{an),6slliu have occasionally a

perfect without koso or with a koso after the perfect. Evenat present a pure Japanese style admits the perfect form inthe case of the future particle, notwithstanding that koso maynot have preceded it.

Examples:-11lisltilte 1110sltika nare koso.

II.'asf!1IIf! 1IiOllloiloslti1llcse I;(I?

Kaha IIi "kosll" to ifl( kotoa rame ya Ita ?

I think of nothing but of ourmeeting.

He is indeed a powerful man.

Even in ancient times thusand thus only was it,

How has he thought? i.e.,what has been his reason?

Is it likely that there shouldbe such an expression as••kosu" in speaking ofrivers>

The modern popular style has often an attributive formafter /.·oso.

RULE III. If koso occurs in the same sentence with :;0,nan, or an interrogative, the verb or adjective follows thego\'ernment of koso,

Examples:-Ohollam)la !

Oslat» no yama 1Il0Oh! Ohara!Even thy mountain of Oshio,

Sn'TAX. '77

Oll/o"i idsurame.

On this day of all others,The events of the age of the

godsWill have called to mind.

A'ifll koso "llKanu )'0 no koto 11/0

RULE IV. When one of the particles enumerated in Rules1. and I I. occurs in a dependent clause, it does not affecteither the verb of the dependent or of the principal clause,

Sllga/a koso Even though I see not thyNezan:« 110Yllka ni form when I lie awake infilfilte::tt to 1110. my bed.

KOJlo;'; bai:ari ya (kon) to It was the appearance of onctuadu-lcer« soma uari. who waited (thinking) will

he (come) to-night.Exception. When the dependent clause is a quotation

it is treated as a principal clause, and the verb or adjectivewhich closes it follows the usual government. The reasonfor this is that the Japanese language has 110 distinguishingforms to mark indirect narration, and sentences must berepeated exactly as they were originally spoken, preservingof course their original grammar as independent sentences.

Examples :-Tomo Tli I,oso

ffana zoo 11/0mime tofi1aim lato.Iku yo ka lushi toTolUllI/aslli 1Il01l0woo

He whom I awaited, in orderthat we might see theflowers together.

They would ask. "How manynights have passed?"

This exception is not invariably observed. In good authorsa conclusive form is occasionally found before to even whenone of the particles enumerated in Rules 1. and II. precedesthe verb. This construction appears somewhat abnormal,and is no doubt traceable to a notion that "/0" governs theverb before it in the conclusive form,

~\,NTAX.

Example :-Kane 110010 ni

,Vt/gt/lllllrebil.Vm:.vok1lll1O JII!':t/slu'-.lIllie 110 shirt/yuki.

At the sound of the bell,••Hath day now broken?"

(thought I).When I looked out, the cloud

of night was still deep overthe white snow of themountain-peaks.

\ here 10 is not the mark of quotation, as in 10 11/0, the verbpreceding it is unaffected by the particles in the clause withwhich it terminates.

Example:-AS(lstI koso

1111(/ J'll akclllt 10 (oJllollile).

Hilo 1M 11/iru 10 mo.Even though men should see

its shallownes .RULE V. Ya at the end of a clause does not affect the

form of the verb or adjective which precedes, but at the endof a dependent clause, it governs the verb or adjective of theprincipal clause in the attributive form.

Examples:-Hototogisu

Kouoha gal"" re 110

Kolle lin kiko)1IIyn ?Kurenai 1Ii

Shi~i/ol'eshi sode 1110

Kuchi hatenn-s-A rabayn hilo tit'11'0 1110 misubeki.

Can I hear the err of thel/otologis:J. hidden amongthe leaves of the trees?

My sleeves that once hungdown scarlet are nowutterly decayed-if onlytheir former colour re-mained, there i one towhom J would show it.

Rut.i: VI. Kn, kmltl, and ::;0,at the end of a sentence,gO\'ern the verb or adjective which precedes in the attributiveform."

• In these cases the verb or adjective is re-Illy n nO\lI1, /"( and 'k,m<lare equivalent to «ru la, aru 1:"1/((, and the verb aru is understood after ;0.

SYNTAX. 179

Is there (or) is there not?In the muddy water my face

cannot be seen.I n poetry, sentences are often met with which do not end

in a verb or adjective in the conclusive form, notwithstandingthat they contain none of the particles enumerated in Rules I.and II. These cases will generally fall under one of thefollowing heads.

(a) An inversion of the ordinary construction has takenplace, a in the examples quoted above, p. 171.

(b) A verb or adjective is understood which may besupplied from the context.

Am 1.,/: I/(I/';i /.:(1?II'igori IIi I,'{I/Io lIIihef//i :;0.

The mountain which knowsnot time IS the peak ofFuji.

Here uari is to be supplied after 11e.

A rataura 110 The thing which is moreTosld /(lclti·kaltel'u excellent than the mom of

As/uta yon the new year when it comes1Ilas(lrltru mono ha round again is the note ofUguhis» 1/0 kohe. the uguisu.Nari is again to be supplied at the end of this sentence.

Aki lzagi IIi If I might only take hold 01Nillolzeru waga 1110 the towing. rope of thy

Nureun /0 1110 boat, (I care not) evenl(illli g(l mifun« 110 though I wet my garmentsTsuna slzi tori leba steeped in the odour of

the autumn hagi.In this sentence there is an inversion of the ordinary

construction, and some such word as ktllll(llulZU, " I care not,"has to be supplied.

Examples :-Told shimnn

J 'anra 11(1 Ftlji 110 lie.

180

A kalsllki 110

Kaile 110 !.'ol,ekosoKiko)f/t lIare-

K ore tuo iri-nlri toourolramasl: iA'aba.

. YNTAX.

It is none other than thesound of the bell of day-dawn that we hear-if wecould only fancy that itwas that of night-fall (itwould bc pica ant).

(c) The whole sentence has the force of an exclamation.Examples :-

TollOlm arebaWabi te 1110aru wo-

Sato dlikakuA ri to Idld tsutsu.il/hlll ga subenasa !

F1t17l yuki 110

.illfi 110 shiro-goromoUclti-ki tsutsti

Hartl ki ni ken" toOdorokarennru !

Idaure ka has/Ii toTohedo kOla//C1111 !

If thou were far from me,I might wait in patience,but Cwo) Oh! the helplessmisery of not seeing theewhile hearing that thouart near my dwelling-place!

Whilst putting on my clotheswhite as the falling snow.(imagine) my surpriseto find that spring hadcome!

I inquire, Where is the bridge?But alas! no answer!

These sentences are not statements of fact; they merelypicture to the mind a state of things without making anyassertion respecting it.

OTIIER RULES OF SYNTAX.

1. \Vhen a suffix is commonplaced after the last only.

Examplcs:-Oya kitJdai mohO wo sutete

1I;gIlYU.

•

to a number of nouns it i~

To run away abandoningone's parents, brother andsister and wife,

S\'NTAX, 18r

I r. When an inflection is common to two or more in-flected words, it is put with the last of the series only, allwhich precede being put in the adverbial form,

Examples:-I t is a wonderful, graceful,

and beautiful object.Take the provisions, and

make them into a parcelquickly,

The earth gapes, mountainscollapse, and rivers flowbackwards.

Here sake and odu-iri are adverbial forms put insteadof the conclusive forms snktt and odu-ir«, the last verb onlyof the series, viz., 1lngal'II, retaining the inflection of theconclusive form.

Ayaslliku urtauaslr iku mede-Inki mono uari.

Kate wo 101';, Ilnynku tsu-tsnute.

Chi sake, )Inllln odu-iri, kahnsnknsh;lIIn ni 1Zngnru.

Dorognlul ni s/~$urlt lin nt/litnknku, abura ohoslzi.

Keltnsltiku laknki lokoro.

As to those which are pro-duced in muddy streams,their flesh is red and theirfat plentiful.

A steep and high place.

In this phrase, both kelwslzilm and tnknki are epithetsof tokoro, but, by the rule above stated, only the last-viz.,tnknki - takes the appropriate inflection, i:e., that of theattributive form.

Exception. If two adjectives qualify different parts ofthe same noun, both are put in the attributive form, as inthe example Yltkiki 1/0 mono tnkaki iyasltiki zoo ilwzu,yobi-atsnum, ••He called together the passers-by without respectof highness or lowness of rank."

III. Adjectives used as interjections are placed in the rootform.

182 SYNTAX.

Examplcs r=-A 11(1It .' How miserable IA na k(1l1(1slii .' How lamentable!;"-mif1slti ua t How lamentable!Ajikillfl )1(1 ! How tiresome!

I .There are no grammatical forms to distinguish indirectfrom direct narration. A speech is reported without anychange further than the addition of the particle to, " that."Thus the speech ware Ita s/drac», ••Ido not know," if repeatedby another person is repeated without change, as, for instance,umre Ill! slurasn to mafusu, " He said he did not know."

V. An interrogative at the beginning of a sentence isaccompanied by lsa, not ya, at the end. This rule is oftendisregarded by modern writers.

VI. The nominative case is often placed absolutely, t.c.,without a verb. Ex.: Okilla 1IIiko ni urafusu. )''', "The mannerof the speech of the old man to the Prince."

VI I. The genitive case sometimes dispenses with the par-ticles no or ga, as hototogis« /':OIIC, " The cry of the hototogisu."

VII I. The particle til, " and," is often omittccl, as asn ynf«," morning and evening."

KEN-YO-GEN.The ken-)'o-gm is a species of pun. An example in Eng-

lish is found in Thackeray's novel The Netucomes where hespeaks of the teapot presented to Mr. Honeyman by thedevotees attending his chapel as the "devoteapot." Herethe syllable" tea" stands at the same time for the last syllableof "devotec " and the first syllable of "teapot." This is avery common ornament of style, not only in poetry, but inthe more adorned passages of prose compositions, Theseverer taste of the old classical authors rejects the klll-yu-gen.It is seldom found in the 1I[m'Y{7shiu.

Ex.: fl.-itaki kokoclli 1/{llm balmri, "Ha\"ing no desire to

SYNTAX.

live, and dolnz nothing but weep." Here nakn must betaken twice. The first time it is the negative adverb" not,"the second it is the verb" to weep."

Namida 110 kawakll ma 1110lIaki-ktl1'as1f, •• She spent hertime in weeping, there being no interval in which her tearsmight dry." In this sentence uale«, ••not," must be suppliedfrom tmki, the root of uakn, ••to weep."Vo no naka wo 0 village of Ohohara ! Stilt

S01lluki 11i to te Ita there are many sorrows for!\os!tikadcmo me, though I have come

Naito uki kola Ita hither to avoid the world.Oho-hara 110sato.In the last example oltoslli, •• many," has to be supplied

from Ohotrara, the name of a village.

o•

CHAP fER X.PROSODY.

Metre. Japanese poetry has neither rhyme, assonance,nor quantity. It is not marked by a regular succession ofaccented syllables, as in English, and is only distinguishedfrom prose by metre. Broadly speaking, all Japanese metreconsists in the alternation or mixture of feet, or rather lines(1iJ) of five and seven syllables. Lines of three, four, six,and eight syllables may be found in the oldest poetry, and inmodern popular verse the metre is far from regular, but thesevariations are not intentional, and in singing or chanting, theproper length of the lines is preserved. There is no Japanesemetre into which lines of other than five and seven syllablesare regularly admitted.

Each kana counts as a syllable, including 1: final, whichwas originally 11m, and is not unfrequently written so inpoetry. Chinese words are not admissible in classical poetry,but in the modern popular poetry, where Chinese words dooccur, the same rule holds good. R£5·koku (, ~ '9 ;>: 1')for instance counts as five syllables, bOIZ·1l0 (¥ :.-'T '9) asfour.

The end of a line must also be the end of a word.Tanka or lIli/ika-uta, i.e., "short poetry," so called to dis-

tinguish it from nagn-nta, or "long poetry," is by far thecommonest Japanese metre, and when the general term utais used, it is this metre which is commonly meant. It consistsof five lines of live, seven, five, seven and seven syllables, orthirty-one syllables in all. There is a pause between thethird and fourth lines, the former part being called the kam£110[:It, the latter the s/iisno no ku. This division usually coin-cides with a break in the sense.

PROSODY.

Each verse of thirty-one syllables is an entire poem.

Examples of lallka ;-

Nttba/a1lla uoYo umtaru Isltki wo

Omoslaromi-«~Vaga wont sode niTsuy« so on ni Eeru.

Wag' i1ll0/ ••0 gaA /':a-1IIo110SltSO1/0

Hidzuc/li nanKefu 1/0 kosallle niWare sahe nure na.

Idele it/abaNtiS/Ii tla!.:iyaM to

Narinu to mo,Nokiba 110 1111t1JU yoHant wo tuasuruna.

THH ~(OON.

Whilst enjoying the sight ofthe moon eros ing the darknight - On the sleevesof me waiting, there hasdescended the dew.

LOVE IN A SUowF.R.

Let me too be drenched withthe fine rain of to-day,which is doubtless wettingthe skirts of my love'scrimson raiment.

LEAVING HO'IR..

"'hen I am gone,Though my dwelling' become

tenantless,Do not thou, 0 plum-tree

by the eaves! forget thespring.

Renea is where one person composes part (commonly thesecond part) of a tanka, the remainder being added by someone else.

Kio/.:a, or" mad poetry," is a modem and vulgar kind ofpoetry, composed in the old classical metres, especially tanka.It differs from classical poetry by admitting words of Chinesederivation, and in being much less choice in its diction andsubject-matter. It will be seen from the following examplesthat it deals largely in punning and plays upon words :-

o 2

186 PROSODY.

1.0\'.; t~ A SMITH\'.

The pair of sledge-hammershaving tempered each otherto eternal constancy, be-come at last the bellows'

{puff-puff,husband and wife.

There is here a pun on fii-fu, which is an onomatopoeticword for the puffing sound of bellows, and may also mean••husband and wife."

Kalutriyi' 10Tag-aid 1Ii kilalle

A ki-d::;uclzi 110S 11he ha flligo 110F,' -fit to so na YlI.

I~MY LOVE THE THUNDER·con.

Misolll€lsllYU Is the man whom 10\'eHito 1mjiu kl~ ka nineteen or twenty?

Hatata kallli Or the Thunder-God?Nariiura santa kaHiean« Genji ka ?

Or is he Narihira, or Hikaru(bright) Genji ?

From luuata kami, "the Thunder-God," there is understoodItatachi Na, " Is he twenty? " Narihira and Ge1!Ji'are namesof beautiful youths, as we might say Apollo or Adonis.

Kami-nari (end of third line and beginning of fourth) alsomeans" thunder," and Hikaru, one of the names of GeIlJi', isinserted, because the root of the verb ltik, ••to be bright,"is the second part of the word illabiknri, "lightning."

Alfollo omoheoa,Kaha 110 kanabi 1110

lYag-a mi yon'Pon 10 idetaruTall/a ya to so mini.

ARDENT LOVE.

Thinking of my 10\'e, the\"ery fire-works over theriver seem as if they werebans issuing with a bangfrom my own body.

Nag-a-uta or cllo-ka, i.e., •• long poetry." Next to tanka, thecommonest classical metre is Ilag-a-uta. Some of the bestpoetry which Japan has produced is in this metre. It con-

PROSODY.

sists of a series of couplets of lines of five and seven syllables,the end of the poem being marked by an additional line ofseven syllables, thus :-

• * • • • • • •-----1-------

Two additional lines of seven syllables are sometimes foundinstead of one.

The following specimen of 1lf1ga-uta is from the M(m)/us/lilt(vol. vi. fol. 55, of Riakuge edition).

1:-; PRAISE OF THE PALACE 01; FU1'A(;I.

~Vaga o/tOkillli 1 kallli no 1IIikoi0 no,Takashirasu 1 Ftttagi 110miya ha,

{lJIl01ll0ki nasu 1 ya1lla 1m kodakaslzi,Ocld-tagitse: 1 se IlO'10 1ItOkiyosM:

{

Ug1tllim 110I ki-ttakll Itambe ha,

1Iha/tO ni Ita Iyallla-shita lzikaru,Nishiki nasu 1 hana saki zootoori ;

{

Sa woslzika ItO I tsuma yobtt aki ha,A 1Jzagirafit 1 stiigur« ~IJOitami,SmJidzttrafiz I 1I101Illj"ichiri-tsutStl,Yacki lose IIi I are-tsngashi-tsutsu,A ute no slti/a I shirasltilllesan 10-11-101110yo Iii 1110I kaltaYttbekaYa1m

Ollomiya-dokoro.

By the palace of Futagi,Where our great KingAnd divine lordHolds high rule,

188 "ROSQO\".

Gentle is the rise of the hills,Hearing hundreds of trees,Pleasant is the murmur of the rapids,As downward they rush:

So long as in the spring-time,(When the nightingale comes and sings)On the rocksBrocade-like Rowers blossom,Brightening the mountain-foot;

So long as in the autumn(When the stag calls to his mate)The red leaves fall hither and thitherWounded by the showers-The heaven beclouding,

For many thousand yearsMay his life be prolongedTo rule over all under heavenIn the great palaceDestined to remain unchangedFor hundreds of ages.

Hanka or kallCshi-lIta. The uaga-uta is usually followedby one or more ta1/ka of the ordinary length of thirty-onesyllables. These are called haul:«. They sometimes containthe principal idea of the poem which precedes in a short,pithy form, and are at others employed as a sort of poeticalsave-all to utilize any scrap of imagery which it has beeninconvenient to include in the llaga-uta itself. The fraga-utaquoted above is followed by five IZallka, the first of which willserve as a specimen :-

PRO ODY,

Id::;ulIlig(lita \Vhen the flowing waters of} 'uk" se 110mids« no the rapids of the river

Ta/teba koso- Idzumi fail-then, and notOhollliy(l.dokoro till then, may our greatUtsuro/u-yneorne ! palace uffer change!The !tanka is occasionally not a tanea, but a sedok(l.SetMka con sists of six lines, of five, seven, seven, five, seven,

and seven syllables (5, 7,7, 5, 7, 7), i.e., it is a tmzka with anadditional line of seven syllables inserted between the secondand third lines. The pause in setMk(l is after the third line.It is a characteristic of this metre that the last line usuallycontains a repetition of some word or phra e in the earlie:lines,

Examples of sedoka:-

I k/!1lobe110

1Vo-deuki 110 mota 110

S/li1U1 na kari so ne

Sore wo daniKiwi ga katallli 1IiMi tsutsu shiwlball.

LOVE If\; ABSENCE.

Oh! cut not the bamboograss at the foot of thelittle elm tree by the pondside. If naught else is leftto me, [ would bear (myloneliness) looking upon itas a memento of thee.

1'lTV FOR 1'HF. I.AUOVREJil.

1 pity thee that thou be-comest weary in the rice-field even on this springday; (I pity thee) that,having no youthful spouse,thou becomest weary inthe rice-field,

I-Iokku, as its name indicates, is the first part of a verse oftfllzk(l. It consists of three lines of five, seven, and fivesyllables, or seventeen syllables in all. The modern varieties

H(11'11hi suraTa l1i tflChi·tsukamKimi Iza kall(lslti 1110-

1Vaka kusa 110Tsuma nai:i kimiTa ,Ii /ac/ti·tsukam.

190 PROSODY.

of poetry known as haikwai uta and seuriu are chiefly com-posed in this metre, although the number of syllables isoccasionally exceeded. As in the case of tanka, each Ilokkuis an entire poem.

Examples of hokku :-

Kin' 1/0~t1lliIdt:uko lie Fuji ha

Shid::lIlIli 11111'11f

.·UJI CO:<CEAI.ED 1:< A MIST.

Into a sea of mist whitherhath Mt, Fuji sunk?

Hito 1Ii kosoToshi ha yon unre

H ant 110kusa !

01.0 "''';.

It is only man who becomesaged, Oh thou grass ofspring!

THE ~U~lMF.RSHOWER.

YII/lldlldli r«Ta suo mi-megnri no

Knmi narnba.

Oh l if the summer showerwere only a god who shouldmake his round of visits tothe rice-fields.

The last verse is an acrostic on the word )ill/aka, ••wealth"or" prosperity."

IRREGULAR VERSE.

The four kinds of metre described above are the onlyregular metres known in ] apanese poetry. To the first threeof these, viz., tanka, 1laga-uta, and sedoka, belongs all poetryrecognized as classical. The admirers of haikwai uta claimfor it a quasi-classical character; but it is objected, with muchreason, that nothing which deserves the name of poetry canwert be contained in the narrow compass of a verse of seven-teen syllables.

There remains a large quantity of popular poetry whichcannot be reduced to any regular metre. It is, however,distinguishable from prose by a more or less regular alterna-tion of lines of five and seven syllables. The character of the

PROSODY.

versification of some of the principal varieties will be eenfrom the following specimens.

Saioara is a kind of popular lyrical poetry of considerableantiquity. The following drinking-song may be gIVen as aspecimen :-7 Sake wo taubete5 Tabe-yerae7 lil1lto korin ::;0(ya /)5 .A[alltickllnt7 Na YOl'obohi SOS lI-fmldekllnt

Tanna tauna

Drinking sake,Drinking till we're drunken,Then let 115 be right sober!As we come alongSteady! no staggering!As we come alongWith our tanna tanna

TIWZya rauna Tariya rannaTan" chin' ra, Tari chiri ra,

Ya, in the third line, is an interjection, which in this kindof poetry does not count in the metre.. Ka/J'IIm i also of considerable antiquity. As it nameindicates, it was sung at the Shinto festivals. \Vhat is nowknown as ka/Jum is dancing only, unaccompanied withsinging.

OOAT·SOl<C.I.

S Sliiuagntori Manage well the helm of the7 It/a 110 minato tti (ili;;o /) boat in the grebe-haunted5 It'll fun« 110 harbour of Ina.7 KlIji yoku lIIakase; Let her not heel over,7 F'l1Ie katabukll1ul- Let her not heel over,7 Fune katabllk1l1ltl,

57

Wakakusa no (ya /)Imo 1110uoritari (ya /)(~izo /)IVal'e 1110noritari (YlIl);Fnne katabllk1l1la !Fuue katabukulIa,

777

II,

~Iy young wifeIs on board,

And I too am on board;Let her not heel over,Let her not heel over,

PROSO()Y.

It will be cen that, if stripped of interjections and repeti-tions, the first of these stanzas is aver e of taulca, and thesecond a verse of tallkn wanting the third line. A largeproportion of ktlgll ra are tani:« more or less disguised in thisway.

Utah]. Japanese dramatic works are composed partir inprose and partly in verse. The speeches of the dramatispersoll«!, which are declaimed by the actors on the stage, arein prose, but these are always connected by a thread of narra-rive (as was, to some extent, the case in the older Englishdrama) which is in verse and is chanted by a chorus. It isthis latter part which is termed ntahi. The Japanese havetwo kinds of drama, the more ancient of which is called 1115.The 110 are short dramatic sketches, mostly of a religiouscharacter, and occupy a position in Japanese dramatic litera-ture corresponding to that held by the" mysteries" in Europe.The following- pccimen of this kind of poetry is taken froma 110 called ffakllrn!.:ufclI. The principal personage havingannounced that he has been commissioned by the Emperorof China to spy out the intelligence of the inhabitants ofJapan, the chorus strikes in and thus describes his voyage:-

7 Fune kogi-iddeS Hi no tuoto 110S Hi 110 111010 110

4 Sonata no7 Kiwi WO tadznne».S Tdkai 110

7 Naill iji 1mrtf ka 1ll'

5 Yuku fuue 1105 Yukt«fune 110

7 A to ni trn Iti 110

5 Kage uokor«7 Krona 110Iltl"'lc no

Oaring forth his ship,He would visit the landOf the quarterOf the rising of the sun,Of the rising of the sun.

As she sails,As site sails

Far over the wave-pathOf the Eastern sea,

Behind her sets the sun,O'er her is the void of heaven\Vhere the cloud-banners

PROSO~Y. 193

Are still bright with hisradiance-

And now the moon comesforth;

S SOl/ilia yori On the same quarter7 Yall/a nuhesouretc Mountains are first descried;S Hodo 1/10lIaku Ere long8 Nippoll I/O chi IIi 1Jl0 Even at the land of Japan,S Tsuki IIi keri, He hath arrived,5 TSllki J/i kel'l·. He hath arrived.

The following specimen of utahi is from a modern playcalled C Ishikawa Goyemon.' It is a description of the pre-parations for boiling alive the celebrated robber of thatname.7 Shio/':i 'N) btlsho Ita7 Sldclzi j6 gnhara ;7 Ni eM )10 M ni7 Kaki Ylllzi-mtlhashi,7 {fehi I/i tntctar«

s A 1IIa tsu SOl'(/.-

7 Tsulsi uuua idxur«

Oko-gniua Ita7 jigoklt 110 scme woS Kono yo kam7 1Ilfi IIi atsnmarislri7 Cwgi'l/ 1tO 1/aka7 Saki 'WO harafute7 Hayano YatU/i7 lwaki T6111fl 1110

5 A hi-yaku ni7 lhi-tsukeraretcS7S

Zeni "ak" 11/0

The place of execution is thebed of the river (Kamo) inthe seventh division (ofKioto}: for 240 yardson aII sides a fence hasbeen tied around: within.the upright spears withnaked points, and thegreat caldron mounted onan iron tripod! Clearinghis way before him throughthe multitude which hasassembled to see from thisworld the tortures of hell,comes Hayano Yatoji.Along with him IwakiToma, appointed to be hiscolleague, reluctantly takeshis seat on a camp stool.From behind them Hiobu,

6 1\'1/ kimi 110 yari-i-l\mznlte I/i sli/lCs/zi7

S

SMgi ni knlmneA to yori 11/0

the (culprit's) father withheart empty of hope, fruit-less though he feels it,standing forth opposite.(Here follows Hiobu'sspeech in prose.]

The following is a specimen of the popular lyrical poetryof the present day:-

194

7 Oya no Hi6bu hn6 Koleoro IJIOsora85

Kanahanu nagnra 1110

Tachi lIIukahi.

5 Afu 10 lJIislli7 YUille ha IIIll1ltlslliku;

Samete mala57 Tsuraki Ii/SllISIl 110

575

Vami 110 IlClli.Omolt;!e 111;1£1110

Fusatsidemo

7 H on 11ikokoro noJ Ynrueata uto nnyn !

J DOll de aharenu5 Uki-yo nara

PROSODY.

I.Vain has been the dreamIn which I thought that we

met;Awake, I find myself againIn the darknessOf the wretched reality.Whether I try to hopeOr give way to gloomy

thoughtTruly for my heartThere is no relief!

II.If this is such a miserable

world that I may not meetthee,

7 Miyama I/O oku no Oh! let me take up my abode5 S0110 oku 110 Deep in the far mountains7 Zntsuto 110oku ui And deeper still5 Sumahi sidle, In their furthest depths,7 Hito-me olllohade Where, careless of men's gaze,7 Mono olllohilaya. J may think of m)' love,

It will be observed that the metre of the above differs onlyslightly from nagn-uta.

ELISION.In Japanese poetry, elision may consist either in dropping

PROSO!)Y. 195

the final vowel of a word before the initial vowel of the next,or in taking away the first vowel of a word after the finalvowel of the one preceding. Thus we have wag'i1ll0ko forwa.ga-illlol.:o, but kikanll Itt' /II(lIIelm for kika1l11 Iii amaueisu,

Elision is optional, except when two vowels come togetherin different parts of a compound, in which case it is com-pulsory. For instance, nudsu-taui, " a lake," can never countas four syllables in poetry. It must be read mid:! urni.

Elisions arc sometimes expressed in writing, but oftenerthey are left to the discrimination of the reader.

The vowel e cannot be elided.Tsuik«, i.c., opposite or corresponding lines. This is a

frequent ornament of Japanese naga-uta. It consists of aparallelism of meaning or construction in two consecutive orsometimes alternate lines or stanzas. Hebrew and Chinesepoetry afford numerous examples of it, and even in Englishpoetry it is not unfrequcntly met with. The following linesfrom Longfellow's' Hiawatha' are ISI/ilm :-

" Ye who love the haunt of nature,( Love the sunshine of the meadow,L Love the shadow of the forest "-

and again;-

{" Filled the marshes full of wildfowl,

Filled the river full of fishes."A more elaborate kind of parallelism is exemplified In the

poem entitled 'Seaweed,' by the same author.The following example is from the 1wgfl-ula in the 1I1fl1l-

yoshilt :-.

•

CONSTANT 1..0\'.1£.

lIIiyoshi1llt 110I lIfikf1111!110Iflke lli

{{

Hima ltaku :::0I ant« Itaftlm tofit (for to ifit)Tokijiku :::0i )luki Ita furu tofit

{Sona ame 110I himfl 1Iak; ga goto50110J,uki 110I tokijikll ga goloHima 1Il0 ochia« I zuare ha :::0 kofuru

Imoga ladaka 11i.

PROSODY.

On the peak of Mikane in l\Iiyoshinu,

{{It is said that the rain falls unceasingly,It is said that the snow is ever falling:

{Like that rain which never ceases,Like that snow that is ever falling,Without intermission do J long

For thy charms.

MAKURA-KOTOBA.

il/n/mrn-kotob'l, called also knlllllri-A'otoba or oHoshi-kotob",are a peculiar feature of Japanese poetry. The)' are om a-mental epithets or phrases resembling in some degree theHomeric epithets of persons and places, but of a still moreconventional character. Each lIIakura-!':otoba is prefixed to afew words or phrases only, and, on the other hand, the numberof lI/a/l'1Irn-kotobn which can be applied to the same wordsseldom exceeds three or four. What marks even more plainlytheir conventional character is the circumstance that when aword to which a lIIn/..·um-kotoba belongs has several meaningsor applications the malcura-kotoba may be applied to it in all,however meaningless or inappropriate it may be. Isanadori,••whale-catching," for instance, is an epithet of 1IIIIi," the sea";but it is also freely applied to inland lakes, such as the lakeof Omi (Lake Biwa), where, of course, no whales are to befound. In very many cases the word to which the makura-kotoba belongs must be taken in one sense with it, and inanother with the rest of the sentence. This is the figurealready described under the name KC1Iyogm. [See p. 182.]Thus, in a poem about the town of Akashi it has the epithettomoslabi 110,••of the light," because akash; also means ••tothrow light upon." lI-Inkllm-kotoba are not invariably of thenature of adjectives. Some are the direct or indirect com-plements of verbs prefixed to them as a sort of ornamentalintroduction. In Into ga me zoo lJlisollle 110saki, the makura-

PRO ODY. 197

kotobll, imo ga me 1110, •• thine eyes," is the accusative casegoverned by the verb misome, " to see for the first time," whichis to be supplied from l~isol/le no snki," ape Misome."

Makura-koloba almost invariably consist of five syllables,and even when they are of three, four, or six, as is sometimesthe case, they always constitute the first line in tanka, or thefirst line of a couplet in uagn-uta.

The 1Ilakum-kotoba are one of the principal difficulties ofthe old poetry. They are in many cases remnants of theform of the language which existed prior to any writtenliterature, and their derivation, meaning, and grammaticalconstruction are often obscure."

Examples of I/lakllra-kotoba :-Nubalama 110)'0. Black night. [KlIbatallltl is

the name of a black berry.]lite ISII dori kake. The bird of the house, the

cock.Aslti ga dtirtt Nmlilta. Naniwa, where the reeds are

scattered.The pond of f~~:::..my love's

hand.~Vilg'iIllOko 111 Altaji no The island of {~:::":•••"'ee , my

shium. love.In the last two examples Toroski and A/mji are kcn-yo-gm.

From Toroski is understood toru, ••to take," and Altaji, besidesbeing the name of a place, also means" I shall not meet,"

Ahajirna no aharedo. Untranslatable.Here the first two syllables of a/laredo, "though I meet,"

suggest A/lllJi'lIIa, the name of an island, which is accordinglyinstalled as a 1IIaku1'(l-koloba without the slighte t regard to

11110ga te wo Toroshi 110 ike.

meaning.

• The student of japanese poetry is recommended to provide himselfwith the dictionary of 1J,n.k,wa-koloba called Kafljik6, and its supplement,K anjisokudlO.

PI,OSOD\'.

ArarcfuriKasluuta 110saki.

}'a1lltlbllki 110 My love, whose charms areNiholleru imo bright as the kel·na.

KaA'ilsllbtlltl My love, whose charms arcNiholu1"U ;1110. bright as the iris.No, as in the first of these examples, often means U like" in

1Ilnkum-koloba, and i_ often omitted, as in the second example.IVada 110sot» The depths of the open sea

Oki ISItjltkami. - of the bottom of theocean.

The hail is falling - CapeKashima.

A rare furi is brought in here as a makura-kotooa, not inthe least because Cape Kashima is noted for hail-storms, butbecause Kashima suggests kashilllaslliki, ••noisy," which is agood epithet for a hail-storm. Ordinary syntax would haverequired arare furu,

JOkll, or U introductory verse," is a more extended kind of11ItlkuYIl-kotoba.

Example:-A dsusa YUllli ! It! IIi tori 1Il0chileill[asurntuo 110I satsuya tabasruuiTaclli1llukafi' I Takn-mato-yama IIiHartt Il11yala«, &c.

The spring-moors are burning on the hill of High-target,opposite which one stands with adzusa bow in hand and thewarrior's trusty arrows.

Here the poem really begins at Talsa-mato-yarua; all thatprecedes being only an epithet of malo, ••target," taken fromthe name of the mountain.

APPENDIX .•

SPECIIVIE S OF JAPANESE.

I. PROSE PASSAGE FROM' KO]IKI.'

II. POETRY FROM KO]IKI.'

Ill. POEM FROM' MA Y()SH IU.'

IV. PASSAGE FROM 'TAKETORI MO lOGATARI.'

V. PA SAGE FROM 'TAMA TO ARARE.'

VI. PASSAGE FROM' HAKKE DEN.'

VII. MEMORIAL.

VIII. OFFICIAL LETTER.

IX. PRIVATE LETTER.

p

!'>I'ECI ME 'S vI' JAI'o\l\ESE.

r.VERSION IN ROMA ' l.ETTER ..

Koi:« 1It S01l0 i1ll0' /znllnmi2 110111ikoi07110ahi-lJli1JUlkU;101Jlo/loshile, Y01llO tsn kU/ti" 11i ohi-ide1llas/111d.' Sll1Inltndlitouoda .1'01'1'ide - 1Il11knht:- 111nSIItoki 111: / ::nll(7gi 110 1IIikoio/.:alarn/li-Iflllla/Iflkll. "Utsu/.:tts/tiki6 agn 1 '/ani1ll0S 1101IIi/';0(0:are 9 mil/wshi!ll to Isukllre1'ishi II kll1li imada tsukll1'i-walte:::uareoa, 1."lllieri-lIInsane" to 110ri-talllnhiki.12 Koi» 11i [cananri110 1IIikol(1 lIlawoshi-Ia1l1ahakll. "](uya-sltiki kn 1110. Toenki1llasa:::lllc, a ha Yomi tsu /,egtt/ti ,:I sldlsu." S/Iikaredolllo1l1Sllklls/Iiki a ga uase ,., 1101IIik% iri-ld-111aSel'71k% /.:ashiko-/.:creba, />4/,c1'i1lallWO,'" 1IInd::1IIsubara/.:a 11i Y01ll0 tS1t /.:allli 10age/sura/wlIlII. A 17 wo na 1IIi rama/nso." /(nku 1IInwoslltleSOIlO /0110 11ltchilb 11i kahr1'i-iri-1IIaserli hodo i/o hisashilmtc, 1I1nchi-Imlle-tall1ahiki. Kare In'dari no mi-midzura 19 1Iisnsaseru J'lItsu20 tsuma-gusla" no zuo-baslurn Z2 hito/stt 1017.'-A;aRile, hito/slt-bi tomoshite, iri-mimasu toki 1Ii, tt.fi taknre1(l1'orogile,XImi-kashira 1Ii Ita ollO-ikadcttclti zuori, 111i-1II1111C1IiIlfl II01I1)-ikad:::/lc/liwon', uri-h ara 1Ii 1m ku1'o-iknd:;udli zoori,uri-hodo ni IUl saktt-ikndzlIchi toori, hidari 110 mi-te l1i /Iawrlki-ilmdzudli won, migi1'i 110 mi-te 1Ii ha Isuclli-ikad:::ucltisoon, ILZ'dari110 ini-ashi ni /UI naru-ileadzuc/ri won; migiri 2.

110 mi-asla 11i Iia /llslli-ikadzuchi wort, ahasete ya-eusa 1lOi/.:adzllcki-gallli uari 'Woriki.

TRANSLATION.

Hereupon (the god Izanagi) wishing to see face to facehis wife the goddess Izanami, went after her to the countryof Yomi. So when she came out to meet him from thepalace-door, the god Izanagi thus addressed her and said:" My dear wife! the country which thou and I have made isnot yet finished; therefore come back." Hereupon the god-dess Izanarni said: H How lamentable! By thy not having

VI SPE DIENS OF }APANES1::.

come sooner, I have eaten of the cooking-pots of Yomi,Nevertheless, as I reverence the having entered here of thee,my beloved husband, I will return. But I will in the firstplace discuss it fully with the god of Yorni. Do not thoulook upon me:' Having thus spoken, she returned withinher palace, but her stay being very long, he was unable twait. He broke off one of the end-teeth of the many andclose-toothed comb which was stuck in the left bunch of hishair and making a light, he entered and looked. Maggotshad bred and she was putrefying. On her head there sat thegreat-thunder; on her breast, the fire-thunder; on her belly,the' black-thunder; on her groin, the cleaving-thunder; onher left hand, the young-thunder; 011 her right hand, theearth-thunder; on her left foot, the rumbling-thunder; onher right foot, the lying-thunder. In all, eight kinds ofthunder-gods had been produced and were there.

NO,."".This is an extract from the Kojiki, one of the oldest monuments of

Japanese literature. Its value to the student of the language is, however,much lessened by the fact that it has been written in Chinese character.in such a way as to render the original Japanese words extremely difficultto ascertain. Motowori's attempt to restore the Japanese as it was readis shown in the "",,,ko1la to the right of the Chinese characters, but therearc many places where his version cannot possibly be correct, and it isimpossible to accept it unreservedly as genuine Japanese of the periodwhen the Kojiki was written. It will be observed that the Chinese orderof the sentences is followed in the original text.

Nearly all the Chinese characters in this work are m0110, i.c., they havean ideographic value, the principal exceptions being proper names, linesof poetry, and words for which the writer apparently could find no con-venient Chinese equivalent.

I 111/0 means in the old literature either younger sister or \\ ife. Itcontains the root 1110, "woman."· ~Ieanant], The chara rers for this wordare kon<l.-3 ,ifill/Mil, "the seeing." /I[I"",/m is a noun governed in theaccusative case by Olllfl/WS/titc.-' Yomo tsu kllll;. TSII is the old genitiveparticle. YOI/IO or youri, "HlIdcs," probably connected with voru,

SPI:: nlENS OF JAI·ANE~E . vii

•night.'-· Ide-1IIaslllcki. There is only one Chinese character. viz. tt. (orthis. tt. however. represents only ide, and the remainder is a conjectureof Motowori's, The honorific words such as III"SII, lallla/II, 1IIi, &c.,and the suffixes are for the most part not in the original, and havebeen introduced b)' Motowori on his own authorit)'.-· UI.fII~'IIsltiH,in theold language, "belo"ed "; in the later language, "Jovely," "pretty."-7 Ag«, archaic (or 'b./tEgtl.-' NOJ1i1l1o for 1111110 imo, U thou, 111)' wife," nabeing an old word for u thol1.n_ti Are, archaic for 1t'II,rl'._1t) J/llllllShi, anold word for" thou."-" Tsnkurcristn, perfect of IS'II~'lIru,"to make,"with sIlt; the attributive form of the past particie.-1" To lIon',lamalii H.All this is Motowori's, and is not found in the original. Nol'II is an oldword meaning "to sa)'."-·" He-gIlM. Motowori says that l,e means"n cooking place." GuM is the root of kll/II, "to eat," with the 1Iigori."SltilslI. TS/l is the conclusive form of the particle tsuru. There isnothing for it in the original.-I> Nose is the masculine of 1III1Ii1ll0men-tioned above. Sc is "elder brothel'," or "husb.~nc1." The charactersfor 11t1Se are kana.-I< tVo after kllnerillan is not in the original. Itsforce is given in the translation by "but.'J_17A, archaic for 'It'/lIre, U 1."ISNm'/d IIi is (or 110 1fchi IIi _lit .lfi·lllitl::uYIl. Alirf::llrfl is in Fana.:-:'lI) Yutsu. is for i-ho-tsn, i.c., "five hundred," put here for "a large number."~1 Tsuma is connected with ISIIIIIY, "to pack c1ose."-~21-Vo-bashir",lit.••male-post," the large tooth at the end of the comb.-"U;; fI,i'Q1'~rororogitc. Apparently the writer wa at a loss how to express thi inChinese, and consequently had recourse to kana.-'4,1'figiri, archaicfor migi.

.----- •••••• E:

r: SI'ECIM EKS 01' JAI'ANESE. ix

II.This line of poetry is taken from the Kojiki. It is said

to be the earliest example of tanka, and dates probably fromthe sixth or seventh century A.D. It shows how Japanesewas written before the invention of /(alllklllJa and Hiragnna.The Chinese characters used here have all a phonetic value.The Kala/mila are an addition by a later editor.

VERSIOl' I ' ROMAl' LETTERS.Ya-kulIIO) ratsn :

Id~ltlJlo2ya-he-gaki;TsulIIa-gollli3 IIiYa-!te-gaki ISlIk1lYu,-

SOIlOya-/l/!-gaki wo !

TRANSLATIOK.

Many clouds arise:On all sides they form a manifold fence:For the husband and wife to retire withinThey han! formed a manifold fence:Oh! that manifold fence!

Nores,It was the custom in ancient Japan to prepare a special hut (01' the

consummation of a marriage, When Susanowo (the Rainstorm (;00)wedded Inada Hime (the Rice-field Goddess) the clouds gathered roundon all sides to form such a hut for them.

1 Va is the same root which is also found in yatsn, "eight." It is hereput Kenerally for a large number.s-" IdouIIlo. Motowori derives thisword as the name of a province from ide-Lnmo, i.e., "the clouds whichcome forth." Idsumo is really equivalent 10 idzuremo or doremo ;U each," i.e., U On each hand. ,t There is no doubt an allusion to the nameof tile province Idzumo.-' Tsuma-gomi. Another reading is LSWlld-f(Ollle,i.e.; the transitive form instead o( tile intransitive. This would mean" toshut up my wife Or the husband and wife in," ISII1JIa being applicable toboth sexes in the old language, and not confined to either number.

III.

1-

xv

1v">

•

IL _

xvi SI'ECDIE:-iS OF J.\l'ANESE.

III.

VERS(()l\ IN RO'IAN LETTERS.

TH~; L~NENDO~·UkASHIM/\,

Haru 110hi 110I k(lsl/lllcrlt /o!.·i 1115Wllillolle 110I kishi IIi ide-ill'Tsnri-bnne IlO I tn)'IIlnjitl lIIirebal11isltilte 110I k% ::0 omohoyuru.lJlid::lt1l0e 110I Urashima 11() ko gnKnIS1lU'O' tsuri I Im's tsuri-hokoriNanni:« made I ihe ni 1110 ko:;uleUnasaka" uro I s1lgile kogi-J11Ikll lIi"~Valndzllllli' 11() I kami 110u/otome niTamasnka 1/Z' I i-kogi-lIlllkahitcA hi-kagnrahi I kolo narislukabaKaki-lIIl1sllbi I toko-),o ni itariWatadsutui 11() II.'nllli 110lIIiyn 110Veld IIl1lie 11() I tnhe narn tono 1/t'Tadsnsaimri I jiltari iri-iteOi 1110seeu I Sh,11;1110secu slliteTokoshillc ni I arikern mono woYo 11() uaka 110I shiretaru Ililo 110lVng'illloko Iii 1'lOrite kntnralm-

••Shilllaral.'u' lin I ihe lIi kaheriteChiclii haha Iii I kOl08 wo 1110110ra/I/'PA Sit I/O goto I ware lin kil1nl1" to/III'-kerebn I ima gn il((wakll-U Tokoyobe Iii I »tata kalteri-kitc11I/a I/OgOlo I alran to naraoaK 01/0 ku.s/lige I /zira/a/Jla )'1I1Ile"10 to50komkll IIi I katalJlcslii kolo uio511111i,10;'1'Iii I kahcri-kitarile1hf' miredo I ilic 11/0mi-kaneteSato miredo I sato 1Il0mi-kanete

5PECIME '5 OF JAPANESE.

A Jln.slli 10 I soko 11iomohnlsnIlle )1/1'" detel2 I mitose no hod" IIiKaki 1Il(} lIflk" I ilte IIsellle'3ya 10K01I(}IUlko WO I Ilimkile uutebaMoto 110goto": I ille Ita aran 10Tmlla-kllshige I sltkoslti /tirakll niShim-kumo 11016 I /In.koyori ideteTokoyobe Iii I Inlln.bikilllm!bn.Tadu-hnshiri, I sn.kebi, sode ./lIri,Kola-umrobi, I ashi-euri shi-tsntsuTada-mada It; I kokoro-ke usenuIVakak' arislll'l hada 1/10sltiwn1l1i1lll,Kttrok' nrishi I kn.mi IIlOslaralseunYWIn.-J'It1Zn.whn. I iki sn/leIT taeteNoclri tsulri ni I i11Oc/tisltil1ikentJJlid:;ul1o!reno I Urasluusa 110ko gil

IltedokorolS lIliytt.

IIAI'KA.

Tokoyobe m'SUI/Iltbek; mono WO

TmYlIgidac/IZ'PShiga kokoro kam.Osoya r-o kono kimi.

TRANSLATION.

When the days of spring were hazy,I went forth upon the beach of Suminoe,And, as I watched the fishing-boats rock to and fro,I bethought me of the tale of old:(How) Urashima of Midzunoe,Proud of his skill in catching the katsuwo and tai,For seven days not even coming home,Rowed 011 beyond the bounds of the ocean,

xvii

Q

XVIII SPECIMENS OF JAPANJ::S~;.

Where with a daughter of the god of the seaHe chanced to meet as he rowed onwards.When with mutual endearments their love had been crowned,They plighted their troths, and went to the immortal land,Where hand-in-hand both enteredInto a stately mansion within the precinctOf the palace of the god of the sea,There to remain for everlasting,Never growing old, nor ever dying.But this was the speech which was addressed to his spouse,By the foolish man of this world-., For a little while I would return home,And speak to my father and my mother:To-morrow I will come back."When he had said so, this was the speech of his spouse-" If thou art to return again to the immortal landAnd live with me as now,Open not this casket at aIL"Much did she impress this on him,But he, having returned to Surninoe,Though he looked for his house,No house could he see:Though he looked for his native village,No village could he see."This is strange," said he ; thereupon this was his thought-••In the space of three years since I came forth from my

home,Can the house have vanished, without even the fence (being

left) ?If I opened this casket, and saw (the result)Should my house exist as before?"Opening a little the jewel-casket,A white cloud came forth from itAnd spread away towards the immortal land.

SI'ECDIl~NS OF J AI'.\N ESE. xix

He ran, he shouted, he waved his sleeves,He rolled upon the earth, and ground his feet together.Meanwhile, of a sudden, his vigour decayed and departed:His body that had been young grew wrinkled;His hair, too, that had been black grew white;Also his breath became feebler bye and bye.Afterwards, at last his life departed,And of Urashima of Midzunoe,The dwelling-place I can see.

HAI'KA.

In the immortal landHe might have continued to dwell,But of his own natural disposition,How foolish was he, this wight!

'OTES.The .Ifllllyoshiu, as may be seen from this specimen, is written in

mana, with kana intermixed. The Eana are however, much morenumerous than in the Kojil";, and there is the additional guide of themetre, SO that there is here some certainty that we have befoi e us thegenuine Japanese language of the period. In fact, it is by means of theknowledge of the old language acquired from the Mallyoshiu that ;\1010-wori has endeavoured to restore the Japanese version of the Kojiki.

Metre.-For the metre of this poem see under Naga.ula, p. 186.I Tayulltju. Another readinz is l()Woraju,a lengthened form of I{)'WOnt,

"to pass."-·Kalsltwo. The bonito.-· Tai, the serranus mflrginalis, afish greatly prized in Japan as a delicacy.s-" Unasaea, the same as umi-salsa, ••the bounds of ocean," ••the horizon."-" Sugile kogi:)'uku ni.This line has a syllable tOOmany.-' Watadzumi, for uxua-tsu-umi, tuatabeing an old word for" sea," and ISIl the genitive particle.-' Shi11larrrlm,old form (or" shibaraku."_8 Koto nearly always means something saidin the old languagc.c-> Nora/,,~ a lengthened form instead o( 110ri._10 YUille, U a dream," J./;'-a/.:UlIa J'U1i1~,"open not even a dream," i.e.not at all. Tsuyu;" dew," is used in the same way.- 11 !he )'Ii. Yll isold Japanese for yori.-I! Dele. The initial i is removed by elision (orthe sake of the mctre.-"llstlllc. lifeis the perfect form of the future suffix1IIfI. It is not unfrequently found before yn.-"lIfolo noS,rofo. Later

Q 2

xx SI'J:;CB1£NS OF JAPANESE.

j apanese would ha,·egolo.(oIl._1S lu"ra.(o,m,o1(0. The complement to"ois to be supplied from Idluwikitlltreoa, "as there was an extending awayof a white cloud," &c._1G J 'una-yuna an adverb, "nightly," connectedwith )'tJ or J'orll, H night."-IT Salle, "too." This is the original meaningof snltc.-'8Iltc.dokoyo is interpreted by Motowori to mean the ruins ofthe house. It may perhaps mean his tomb, by a figure not uncommonin Japanese POOIl·)'.-" TSlIYllgi.dnd'; is a 1IInkllYd·k%ba consisting oftwo words meaning" sword." I howe not been able to find any saris-factory explanation of its being prefixed to slti, the reflexive pronoun.-~ Oso ya. OSP is the root of osobt, c: slow," " dull," " foolish."

::r--------

'sr-------~~~71~<

I ~~?~ VA_ ~ 1 ~ ~ ~

" ]. 1 '(- ~ !}

. t ~

V?-~~. ¢~!?

:.~ t ~ ~,t 1

J.q IfJ tk ~ 1

~ ~ Jq 1'{ }( \P tV~t~

19 tI) J!)k ~

~r-----

:>-

I tl.rr~1 ~ ~~l{,tJh~~» l y"\

j

. . ~ ~

~ ~~.C!) ~ I

xxvi SPE IMENS OF JAPANESE,

IV,

VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS,

OI.-i"(11IIikol m'2 lIla/IISU3)'0,' 11m 1Ifl17t"tokoro IIi kaij ROItO'ki lurSs(if/{mhiken 7' A),ashilmlo lIrt1hashiku medelak,'1 1Il01lQni 1Il012tol3 snafusu. J.I 1I1iko kotahctc Itotamalltlk1t"~ " Saota-d(lsltil6 110kisaYtlgil7 110tozuoka goro ni, Naniha yon fune 1Iinorite, umi-,ltllm ni idetel8 yukalllP kala suo sllirtlZl/}i) oboheslli-kado,'Z1omofu k% 11arade,'J2yo IIC uaka ni iki'l3 naniea 11112"se,P" 10 olllollishikaba,2tl tada tllllllasl,iki kaee 11; makasetea17I<II,Z/ Itlochi sltinl1ba,28ikaga ha sen •. ikite artllt21'kagil-i,i1fJkakl/ill arilrite Hortli IQ'J:Ji/lI1'1I1jJ-1)'(1111/1IIi a/u!WY" ItT'"IIl11im-kogi tadayohi-an'/ale, waga kll1li3iJ 110liciti'll wo hanarete ar;ki-lIIaRm'i sIll'&>IIi, aru toki Ita nami tlretslltslt,~ um; no soko 11;1110z,7'lmbekll ;'0 aru loki IIi Iia, kn.::;eIIi tsueete" shirmzu42 krmiId /lIi:i-yo.rertwete,~ om' 110yo naru" 1II0noide-kite's korosall'\d toshiki, Ani loki IIi !ta koslzi-kalaH Yllku sillte 1//0shiradf1'8 1ftllini 1JIagirell4P 10slti,50ani toki 11; ha, kate IS1fkite, kusa 110III' WQku/ti-lIlono to slzt', aru loki ;lzan"1 kata Ilaku lIlUktttSllgC uaru11/01101/Q'2kite kulti-kakarall to siliki, A ru toki Ita umi 110kaiwo torite inochi wo tsugrt. Tabi 110sora 1Ii tasuke-tallta/ubekiltito 1/10Ilaki tolioro Iii iro-ird" no yalllaizi wo sltite Yllku katasora 1110oboheau, fuue 110Yllk/{ III 11IakaselcS'!tllli ni latlayohileillOl,:ti':'to i/If. Tatsu 110koku bakar; ni umi 110naea I,; wad-zilka IIi yallia mi),1t.56 Fune 110Tlchi WOS7nats sentete miru.U1ll; no Idle 11i tatlayohertr'08 yama ito ohokiio9 nite an', Sono

)'mlla no santa lakakuOj[)lWlfhaslll: Kore ya waga 1Il0tOIllIl1'UU1

yama uaramu to omohite sasugn Iii osorosluku oooheteyallltl 110'lIIe/Jlfri wo sas/li-Illegurflshite /ltfmka 1IIikfl'62bakari mi-ankuni; ama-ouo no yostlholti sltitat'Utl.1zoomina yama 110nalsa yon"ide-kile shiro-gaul' 110kmla-/Jiarfl wo lIlochite midc« wo kumi"arisn. Kore wo mite, fuue yori 017'fe,' Kouo yaJlla 110Ita wonani to ka mafus« ' to 10/11, HIomiua l.'olalLele ifu-' Kore lutHorni 110yama nari ' to kOla/lt. Kore wo kiku 11i,ureshiki

SPECIMENS OF JAI'A '1-:51':. XXVII

kotfIH ka,t;in' naslu. 'K01lo uiomina kaka 1l0laJJla.fu~fUT taso 'to tof)«. • IVaga na !lIZHt1ka1lruri' to ihi te, futo yam" 11bnllka 11£iYillll:'~"

TRAN LATION.

Thus spoke the old man to the prince: ••In what mannerof place can this tree have been? What a marvellous, graceful,and lovely thing it is!" Thus he spoke, and the princeanswered and said: ••Three years ago, on the tenth day ofthe second month, we embarked from Naniwa (Osaka).\Vhen we put forth into the mid-ocean, we knew not even thedirection in which to go, but as I felt that unless my heart'sdesire were fulfilled what should r do living in this world, wesailed on, merely trusting our course to the empty winds. Ifour lives perish, what help is there for it-so long as liferemains, sailing on thus, we shall reach, it may be, thismountain called, if we are rightly informed, Horai. Withsuch thoughts we rowed on over the ocean; and tossed aboutuntil we left the bounds of our own country far behind us.In the wanderings which we then made, we were at one timelike to go down even to the bottom of the sea whilst thewaves were raging; at another time, driven by the wind, wewere borne to an unknown land, where creatures like devilscame forth and endeavourecl to slay us. At one time, know-ing neither the way we had come nor the course we ought tofollow, we were almost lost upon the sea; at another timeour provisions became spent and we used the roots of herbsfor food. Once, beings hideous beyond expression came andattempted to devour us, and once we sustainecl life by gather-ing the shells of the sea. Under a strange sky where therewas none to render us aid. we tossed about over the sea aprey to diseases of all kinds, and leaving the ship to her ownspontaneous motion, for we knew not at all what course weshould follow. At last when five hundred days had passed,about the hour of the dragon (8 A.M.) a mountain became

XXVIII SI'J::CDIEl\S OF JAPAN '·:!:>E.

faintly visible in the midst of the sea. All in the ship lookedsteadily at it and saw that it was a very great mountainwhich floated about on the surface of the sea. The appearanceof this mountain was lofty and picturesque. Thinking that thiswas doubtless the mountain of our search, no wonder we werefilled with awe. After we had sailed round it for two or threedays there came forth from amongst the hills a woman clothedlike an inhabitant of heaven, and drew water in a silver vessel,Upon seeing her we landed from the ship, and asked whatmight be the name of this mountain. The woman repliedand said: •This is the mountain H6rai.' Our joy at hearingthis was unbounded. Vole inquired' Who is the woman whotells us so?' • My name is Hokan-uri,' she 'aid, and of asudden went away in amongst the hills."

NOTES.This passage is taken from the Tasetori .lfonoglliari, a \\ork of the

-classical age of Japanese literature., ,Vi"o, ••a prince," is compounded of the honorific prefix 1fti anel .'0,

••a child."-2 Ni is the dative suffix.--' .lfa/usu is the attributive 01' adjec-tival form of the verb IIIl1/USIt(pron. lIlasu), •• to speak."-< I'D, ••manner,"is a noun in the nominative case, placed absolutely. It is, however,possible to supply some such words as Eore nari after yo. This will beliterally" The manner of speech of the old man to the prince was this."Miko ni mafusu is in this sentence an attributive clause qualifyingyo.The Japanese language employs attributive clauses exclusively where aEuropean language often prefers n construction involving the use of arelative pronoun. Thus lIIiko ni lIIa/lisu yo might be rendered ill English"The manner i/lTtJhid, he addressed the prince,"-' Nnr«, H to be," ishere in the attributive form because it qualifies the noun tokoro. I.'"naru toeoro IIi is literally" in a how being place."-6 Ka is the interroga-rive particle. It is in this sentence redundant, a question being alreadyimplied by the usc of the word il,tl.-' KOllo is the adjectival form ofA-ore,••th;s."-" HlI is the distinctive or separative particle. It has herethe force of concentrating the attention on the word ki.-o Sa!um.hi-ke-lI.Stljitmhi is the adverbial form of the verb tel/11m/II, Co tu be." [Seep. 163.] The adverbial form is required before the particle kc. ,,-.is the negative base of the past suffixs;'i. The negative base is required

SPECIMENS 010' JAPANESE. xxix

before 1/, which is the conclusive form of the future suffix n Or11111. SlIj"rlllti-A'C+1I is literally U will have been." 1(1 Ayltshikll nruha-»,'hikfl IIIrdct"ki 11101/0. 'ote that of the three adjectives qualifyinlrmono, the last only is put in the attributive form, the two which precedebeil\g placed in the adverbial form.-" .1fede./akl is derived from me-

deuru, 'to love,' The letter 1: (Ie) is here read de, although there is nomark 10 show thai this is the ase. The lIigori is omitted all throughthis passage, which is a facsimile of the Japanese printed edition.-12 lIf()has here scarcely any meaning. After 1110 must be understood ari, whichwith the preceding ni make up nari, the conclusive form of naru, "to be."_13 To i~a conjunction which may often be translated " that," but whichcannot be conveniently rendered in this passage by any English word. Itmay be considered to be represented by the marks of quotation ' '.-u lIfa/IISII, "he said," is redundant, as the same idea has beenalready expressed in the words mafust« yo above,_15 No/allla/uu",is a poetical substitute for notamafu, a honorific word for mafusu,It is here a noun in the nominative case, placed absolutely __ 1·Sa·olo-tfoshi, O/(>-doslti means "the year before last." Theaddition of sa (for saki, "before") makes it mean anotheryear further back. -" Kisoragi, "the second month." The modernlanguage always uses mi,"IIJa/m, a wore! of Chinese origin. Note in thissentence an example of the rule that clauses indicative of time precedeclauses indicative of place.-18 Ide-to. Ide is the adverbial form of idcur«,Uto go out."·_19 Yuka-7l is yuka., the negative base of yuku, " to go," withthe attributive form of the future suffix 11 or 11111.-"" Shirtlf:u is sltira, thenegative base of slliru, "to know," with ZII, the adverbial form of thenegative suffix 1111. SlIirazu is here an adverb qualifying the verb obohewhich follows.-'I Ouone-sltikn-do is ooohc, adverbial form of the verboboyurn, " to think," "to feel;" $hil•.a is the perfect of the past suffix shi;and do is the concessive particle meaning U although." SI,il-ar1l obo!tc-sh;Rado is "although we felt ignorant." Note how each particle governsthe form which precedes, sltika requiring an adverbial form before it, dt>a perfect, and Zli a negative base.-22 NanrOe is nara; negative base ornaru, "to be," with the indeclinable negative suffix de._'llJ IJ:i is theadverbial form of ikiru, "to live."-"' Nanikn hn, Ha after the interro-gative suggests a negative answer.~" Se-n is se, the n gative base of thejrregular verb suru, "to do," with the conclusive form 01 the futureparticle 11,-$ Omohi-shika-ba is OlllOhi, adverbial form of the verb 01llo/u

"to think;" sltika, perfect of shi, the past suffix, and ba, a suffix whichafter perfect forms means cc as". "since,fl or "because."-'27 Ani:" is theconclusive form of the verb ariku or arusu, "to walk," "to go."-

xxx SI'ITDII::-';S OF ).\I'AI' I:SF.

2II,Shilur·/Ja is stun«, negative base of the irregular verb shillUllI, H to die"\\ ith btl, a suffix which with this base means "H,"__~ AIlI'11 is lzra, ncga ..rive base of aru, "10 be," with the auributive form of the future particlen._30 ""gin:, "Iimi!," is the root of the verb kagiru, "10 come 10 anend." II is here a noun. 'H-I,. ara-n kagiri. Lit." the limit of ourbeing alive, i.r. U so long as we remain ali\'e."_'l KtlJ:lI, vulg. /;6, U thus,"-"' Horai 10 ifu, called "Hi1rai." To has the force of the invertedcommas before and after "Horai."-'" .(/,,-ra-lI. .(/u is the verb "tosay," I' to call;" rt.r is for ar", negntivc base of aru, H to be." and II is thefuture particle which has here a force which is attempted to be renderedin the translation ••if we are rightly informed!'-'" Afu ya. Afu is theconclusive form. Ya is an interrogative particle, but the question whichit pUISis addressed to the speaker himself, not to another. See thetranslation.-3$ To. After It> must be understood omolli·/e.-"" I-Va-c-«ktmi, i.t'. Japan.-'" Velli is literally " the in,;ide.'-- Makan: is probablyan error of the text. The true reading is no doubt mmoari, "to goabout," "to wander." Shi is the attributive form uf the past suffix. It ishere a noun, as is seen by its having the particle IIi suffixed. Ariki-ll1awan'shi lIi is U in the wanderings we then made!'-3t Tsutsu. Theparticle tsuts« shows that the actions signified by the verbs are andin·""lNk,, are regarded as simultaneous.-"'ri.lIu.oeku is iri, adverbialform of '-1'/1, U to enter"; 1111, conclusive form of the suffix IIIIYU, andbel'lI, adverbial form of the suffixbdd. Nil is equal to Ie sltimali of thespoken language, INku has the meaning" probable," and the ki at theend of the sentence must be taken with iri·mt·b~kuas well as with sit,; sothat the full translation will be "Were (ki) like 10 (lNkll) enter (iri)utterly (mt)."-" Tsuket«. TSllki·le (or Intile) is the modern form.-'" Sltira-"It is shira, negative base of sltiru, "to know," followed by theattributive form of the negative particle 1111.-'" FlIl.:i-yourar,I,.. Fllki,adverbial form of fuku, "to blow," is an adverb qualifying J'flse.-nre.Yosemre is the adverbial form of the passive of the transitive of the verb

yoru, "to approach.-'"' Y.1 nan, is the colloquialy611a.-"'tle-ki-I., is ideadverbial form of ideuru, "to come out n ; !:i, adverbial form of J:UYII, II tocome," lind It, adverbial form of the suffix lsurll.-" Korosa-n 10 sltj-J.-iisliterally" they made that they would kill us."-" Koslti·kala. One of theirregularities of ~·w·u>"to come," is that it attaches, as here, the pastsuffixsM to the negative base ~.()instead of to the adverbial form kj._ ••Sldra·dc is shiro, negative base of slt;rll,"to know," with the negativesuffixde.-'" lIfagire-" is mapi·c, negative base of the verb of the secondconjugation magiruru, "to mingle," It to become indistinct," with 11

the future suffix in the conclusive form.-lIO Slti is the adverbial form of

SPJ::CIME 'S OF JAPANESE . xxxi

.suru, "to do," "to make." The past suffixki at the end of the sentencemust be taken with this sId as well as with the word along with which itis found.-" 11"'-11. Illn is the negative base of ifu, "to say.' Ilur-nkaLa naku, "unspeakably."-'" ,If 0110 110. See p. '07.-'" Iro-iro. Irameans" colour," iro-iro, "every colour," hence cc all kinds o£.Jl_$.I. YIII..urli makasl!/~. YltklJ, H to go," is here treated as a noun in the sense of"movcment."-45/-ho·I ..a, "five hundred days," is derived from i, root ofi/sutslt, " five," ho, an old word meaning "hundred," and i.'a, the termina-tion of the numerals for days.-" ,'fiy" is the conclusive form of miyuru,"to appear," "to be visible," the intransitive verb corresponding to thetransitive miru, "to see."-"" FlI1u 110 tlchi 1VO. There is probably some-thing wrong in the text here; wo can hardly be right, but the meaningis no doubt that given in the translation.-"' Tudltyoher" is the attribu-tive form of the perfect of l<ldilY0.!II, •• to toss about."-'" O",,/:i is thepredicate, the construction being yam" olloki nari (tli+ari), .(the moun-tain is a great one."-" Takaklt is the adverbial form, while IInfnaslti(second conjugation of adjc rives) which follows is pUI in the conclusiveform. The meaning is the same as if both were in the conclusive form,viz., h was lofty and picturesque.v-s-" ~V"gamotomuru yama. Note theforce of the attributive form motomurt« as equal to the relative clause"which (we) are in search of."-fflllfik". In the modern languagemilsuka, pronounced mikkn.-&3 SnifflYlI. Note the force of the terrnina-tion taru, indicating a continuous state.-" Uresltiki koto is put, by anidiom very common in the spoken language, for the abstract nounureshisa.-" K0110 wOlllilla and kalm "010111<1.!1I are both nouns in thenominative case, placed in apposition. A more regular constructionwould have been klt~'11 "olalllll.!u 11)01ll;nll.-" IYi-IIII. The 1I/t is repre-sented by the word" away" in the translation.

><x~:

SPECIMENS OF JAPANESK XXXII

V.VERSION I . ROMAN LETTERS,

Kaha wo kosu.Yall/a hal koyu ti? ihi, kalla Ila u/ataru to ific' zo sadamari-

naru.' Sltikaru wei' ima 110 Mlo tabi-fi 110 lIt'kki nado 11i"1Iald-gaha zuo kosltile" nado kakuu Ita i1llishiki1 lligakotonari. IlIIa 110hito ha kachi-watm-; 11aradeluil "suataru" to haihatll'do,9 wukashi ha'O nuri kaha Ira, hashi 111' ware,1l fime 11imare, uani 11imare, s1lbete'2 "umtaru" to koso ilti-tsllre.l~ /ltnlayama hn "kOYll" to ilzedomo,14 sore 1110"kosu" to ha iha;;u.I~"Koyn" tol6 "kosu" to ha jilal1 110kejillle ari. lIfashitel8 knlzam .•kosu" to ifit koto arante yaW Itn'20?

TRANSI_ATION.

Kallfl wo koStt (to cross a river).In the case of a mountain, it is the rule to say" koyu" (to

cross); in the case of a river, to say" zuatarn " (to cross).The use which, notwithstanding this rule, is made by men ofthe present day in their journals of travel, &c., of suchexpressions as" nani-gnl:« wo kosllite" (having crossed suchand such a river) and the like, is a great error. Except inthe case of crossing by fording, writers of the present day donot say "ruiataru;" whereas in ancient times the word"suataru" and no other, was used generally for crossing thesea or river, whether on a bridgc or in a boat, or in anyman ncr whatsoever. Again, although in the case of amountain "koyu" was said, yet even in this case no onesaid "kostl." Between "koyu" and "kos1l" there is thedistinction of intransitive and transitive. Still more is itunlikely that there should be such an expression as "koStt .,in speaking of rivers.

NOTES.

This extract is from the Tama no A rare, a work of the well-knowngrammarian Motowori 'orinaga.

R

•

XXXIV Sl'l::CIMENS OF JArA. ESE.

'Ha (pron.• ua). It is no. which is translated" in the case of."-iTtJis equivalent to the marks of quotation U /'-'Ifu is a noun, nomina-rive to ",,,·u.-'M,yu. The attributive in lead of the conclusive form,because $0 occurs previously in the sentence. [See p. [67.}-'/Vo"notwithstanding." [See p. i rS]-"A·o/.'u, a noun, nominative to nari.7/",ishiki, an adjective of the second conjugation in [he atrributive form,qualifying Rigakolo. -8Naradeluz, lit. "if it be not," is nara, neg. base ofnaru, " to be," de, the indeclinable negative particle, and ha, the dis-tinctive or separative particle.-'lIw,"e.do is ina, negative base of ifll,"to say"; tie, perfect of the negative particle 1/U, and do, the concessiveparticle.-,oHa. ote the force of no in marking the opposition betweenima 110 Ililo and 1IIukashi.·-"llfare is for JIl0 are, are being the imperativemood of "I'U, "to be."-12Sub.·lc may be translated U generally." It isthe adverbial form of the verb suberu, "to include," with tc, the adverbialform of the particle tsuru.-,slni-Isure. The perfect is used instead ofthe conclusive form, because koso occurs previously in the sentence.[See p. [70.}-"III<.do.1/lo is literally" though One has said," but meanshere nothing more than "although." /II<is the perfect form (before do)of the verb iftt "to saY."-"/lm.::u. Zit is the conclusive form of thenegative particle tlu.-,oTo repeated after koy" and J:OSli means simply"and,"_l1Ji-ta. Ji means "oneself," ta, U another ": ji-Ia means here"inmll1sitive and transitive."-18l1faslti is the adverbial form of INdS",

tt to increase"; with te it has an adverbial force, viz., ., increasingly,""much more."-19ArtN/,. is put here for the perfect future ara-me-ri,[See p. [S3.}-~Ha after an interrogative clause shows that a negativeanswer is expected. [See p, [22.]

•

xxxvi SI'ECl~lt::NS OF JAPANESE.

VI.

\'El(SION IN ROMAN LETTERS.

Kono /Li 11tOklfresllikaba,t Afoto/u/i ha madsu kityi'u ra niillilSul.:ete, okulllaritant' kocasltiki wo kaki-fmraJUlsfll",3 tobariwo tarete, sflokudai tSlIklle k~,'O naudo' 110J'~i Ilflyakll 1110toto-110fzikel'cba,"Happiaku bikll1li wo yobisnmashite, y,t/iI-zeI1 woSUSlI1l1eJ'o"10 Ie;' koshim% ra ISlIkalrasesllt'l; Iii, "klldm: 110hikul1i ha 1I11lalti shite, yobedolltO yobedomo, samezu" to i/1I.Toeakn sura hodo ni k~ lakele, haya lie no lIakaba 111' 1UZriSIu"-kaba, .lI%filjl iradadii kalslt lItagahile, lIlidzukara soeo Iiiomomukite, yobi-samasau to sesiu' hodo ni, JlIiyoc/tin y~-yakltnemuri samete, mid:m wo kolli, kuchi sosogite, llikarele idetekilli/.ocreba, lJfotofilJ'iJla! JIfl fS 10yohi-rlrikadzlIl'l'tl', " Niobosatsn,sudeni kano go ni uarinu"

TRANSLATION.

\. hen this sun too had set, Motofuji, in the first place~iving orders to the attendants, caused to be swept out asmall reception room at the rear of the house, and hung acurtain before the door; and as the preparation of candle-sticks, table and censer, &c., was already complete, sent themaid-servants, saying, "Awake the nun Happiaku, and offerher slipper." But they said that the nun was in a deep sleep,and that however much they called her, she did not awake.Whilst doing this and that it grew late, and it had becomealready the middle of the hour of the rat (midnight), so thatMotofuji, partly enraged, and partly suspicious, went therein person and attempted to awake her. \Vhen he did so,Miyochin awoke from sleep with difficulty. She asked forwater, and having rinsed her mouth came forth led by thehand. Motofuji called her to him, exclaiming, ••Come, come,your Holiness! the hour appointed has already arrived."

SPECl\IE'S OF JAPANESE. XXXVll

'OTh.

This passage is taken from the H"kk"lIdl'1l, a romance by the popularwriter Bakin, published in .834.

1Ktl1'tsltikabil. KtI,'e is the adverbial form of i't117lne "to set," shik',>perfect form of past particle shi, and {m, a particle having here the forceof "when," "as."-20kIl1llQrU is a hybrid word, the root oJ.·({ beingChinese, and the termination ]apanese.-·Ha1'ak,lSll (pron. h"rawasu) isnot the causa live proper of Il(Ira/1Iwhich would be /mra/msuru or I"wa,hisnsII1'1I. H(Wn/ulslI means "to make swept out," /ulrahis(lMlrlf "tocause some one to sweep oUt."-'N01,do. The" being written in k"ta-kana shows that the writer looks upon it as properly not belonging tothis word, which is usually written nado. It is possible that f/(lJIi 10 fromwhich "'UlIIQ is derived may have first been contracted into nado and then inserted afterwards for euphony, but it seems more likely thatllalldois really a transition form between l1a"i 10 and IItldo.-· To tc is for 10ihile.-" Tsulr"ha5cshi. The verb is 15I1k"h,,411, and shi, the past parti-ciple, is added to the adverbial form. \Vc ought therefore to have hadtsukahashishi, but the modern popular language prefers the form endingin seshi. 7 Scshi. It is one of the irregularities of suru that it alwaysadds shi and shika to the negative base instead of to the adverbial form._8 Yal fa I is an interjection. Interjections are usually printed inkataka"a as here.

ti!~~I~ M~l 1!-:l:-±- ~~~ ~

a ,1' ~ i;"--... '~-'-~

;tIl. i: ;f,. ~~ n 1;t ~it. :K 1ijt ~

)()(••E:

<-r-

SP~:CUH;NS OF JAI'A:--'ESI::, xlv

VII.VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS,

Soycgashi ra1 bessh£ kengen tatematsurit snfurafu (pro-nounced s6,'0, SOYO,or even soro) shidni luizei 110Jiron ui shite,soregashi m saikuran-chit: slliba-sltiba kengm m'a 0)'obi4 safu-rafi' 1110110JJlOlsore ari safurafu tokoYo,s YobeiG domei kakkoktehe taisis! 011HasHlItSIi no ?the, Ji'tclti no keikio u/o 11101011 molen-geki ni alti-1Zari,8SOIlOIIlleJigi sllillslzaku slnsersu alu-narubelsu'to 110go Idogi 1Il0 koyi? an', ShikamlO 17i 1Il0haya taislli gokic/w irai sudeni sugets« tuo kemis/Ii safurahedomo" naui ra 110go shisetsu 1110lIalsllo tsukamatSltrazu, sakleon lIlillsllin ki6ki6,sMka Ilhi-utagafti, yaya 1110sureba, tollo gwakai 110eM k01'ellaslti 10 1/10 lIIrifllslli-gatakil2 ikillohi ni tadii-itnri safuraf»gz'18 Iti~'kid tenka yoron kogi 110yosokll suru )/ltlte to jits1lmochite zannen no itaril4 ni zonji tatematsuri safurafu. Konodan yoyoshiku go lzidgi wo togerantbeku1S safuraftt nari.

M et}i sMelti nen. dai felti gwatsll jiu-slzichi tlichi,Kochi kC1l kwal1zoku Sllizokll Furusaha ljyd,ld

" " " "Okamoto Kenzabuyo,

lJ/i6d6" " "

K01ll1lYONobllwo,Tsuruga ken " " Yuri K 'immasn.Sago " " "

EM Sltilllpei,Ko-elii

" " » Itagaki Taisuke.Tokid Fu

" "GoM SlWjiyo,

Saga Ken " "So/ujima Taneomi.

Smttl1 On cu«Shiflyal8 fusltitel9 hokon seiken 110kiSlIYll tokoro wo sassuru

ni, ka1l/; teis/litsll tli araeu, shitno ji1ll1llill 11iaraeu, shikaushiteltitori yltslli ni klSu, Sorif8Jyfishi ka1lli teistutsi« wo tatsutobs:to ihazam Ili Ita arasu , sltikallshite teisldtSlt )'oyaklt SOIlOS01l£too uslunnfn: sllillto jimmi1l wo tatnotsu to illaearu 11i ILaaraen ; shik(lllsftite seirei Iliaktt tall cftosftutsu bokai matsu-rigoto jOji'tsu 1Ziuari, slz6batsll aieo 1Ii idzu, genro yohei konkll

xlvi SI'I:\'nn:NS OF JAI'A:-II·;SI·:.

tSlIgU1'll nashi. Sore kaklillogotoklt ni slate, teulea 110dtimlnaran kolo wo liOSS1t.P Sansek! 110dQji 11/.0naho S01l0fill.."naru wo shiru. Itljo a/'ataJlle::1t,~1osoraku ha kokJ..·n loho 110ikiholti wo itasau. Skin ra nikoku 110jo onodzulcara yaumatahacu, sunahach] ;"0/'1'wo sln'1/ki1l S1Ini 110 lIIidli wo kBkil/suru IIi tada lel1kn 110kogi wo Ital'1I Iii aru 1I0Illi.22 Tenka I/OkBgi wo Itan/Z3 ha uzinsen giill wo tatsurn IIi aru nomi, stout-ht/clLi ylislLi 110kett kagiru tokoro arite slLikaushite slloka S01l0aneen kofitku wo ulaeru mono aran. KifIi" tsulu IIi kort 'wodunsen.

SOI'l' jillllllill seifu Iii lai-shitt sozei wo Ilarnfif /10gillllf ar«1110110ha slmaltndli SOIlOseifu I/O kolo wo yochi !.-nhi snru 110kelln' wo J'lt-Sit. Kore lellkfiE' 110Is/Iroll 1/i slat« urata e/IOe/u)shi« ra I/O kore wo ::eigell surn uio lIIntnzaYU26 1110110nari.YuIll' ni sllill ra Itisoka27 tli tlega/It Yl1slti mala Isono tairi ni

Mlei sezaran kolo wo.Z<l Iura uunsen giiu wo ratsuru 110gi zuokohallllt mono iknkll. "IYnga. tallli fitgaku 1/wdli,2P imadakaillloi 110eki ni susnmas«, yullt IIi kOlYIIS1l miusen g-ii'IIwolatstlrtlJ> naho masani hayak'm71 buh;" 10. SI,;1l ra omohe-raleu 1 moshi Iurtaslute makoto Iii SOI/Oifu 10koyo32no gOloki ka,sunahachi kore wo shire gaku kats« chi sltika/(s/u'le kilt IIi kai-mei 110 eki 1Ii sustanaslumurti I/O1Iliclli slmahadti uttnsen gii'llwo tatsuru ui ari. Nani 10 IUlI'eba,33suuahac/u. klJl!jilSlI wng(1

jilltlJlill wo shite'U gaku katsu c/ti IIi kaiJllei 1/0 eki IIi SIISUJlla-slamen 10Sll,ar.madsu SOltOISl1gi kellyi wo I/(Jgo seshillll!,36koyewo sllile,juml jie/IB, le1/kn 10JIl1ra/;:uwo tomo 111' sum 110kisluiwo oeosasiumen to suru ha, koye wo okosasltimen to SUYll 11Il,kore wo sltite~7 tellkn no koto ni adsnkarashhuuru ni ari. KakllIto gotoklt~ slute, jimmill sono koro tli yasm~ji, filga/;:u mite/Iimidsukara amansuru 1110110imada kore arazaru tlnyi':'"SltiktlltSilile una SOIIOmidcnkara g-aklt katslt cia' /II' slate",id::ltkm'a SOIlOkailllei 110eki tit' ;1'11wo matsu. Kore hotondoIlinku 1/C1tkasei wo matsu 1101'11.;nari. Htltla-Iladashiki ha<"S1Ill1lllllcJliima Iliwaka ni giill zoo tatsnru ha kore teul:« no gu

SPECDIENS OF JAPANESE. xlvii

WOatsuuturuni sugicaru nomi /0 ifit ni itaru. A! nanzo uud-zlIkara ogont 1U)hmmhadaslliku;l shikr11lsltite souo ji1lllllin womint 110betsufo tam ya !'2 Y!islzi cltiu dURO mota yon' Ilito Iiisl/gunl mono aran, slllRaredolllo idsllkmlzo gakll1llolt yushild I/Ollito yo'~ Illata sh(Jjill lIi sugur« /110110arazaru wo slaran ya ?I.IKedaslu /mka 1/0kito knkzt1log%ku besslti subebarasaru uari.Moshi luua besshz' subek; mono to seba,Yllshi mala SOIlO1Ic11inoitsu/ill narneu ya? Shikaraba sunahachi Ili/osltiku korefugakll musltiki nari. Kinkin Yl(Slli no sensai to jimmilz noyoron !.:,sgi wo ham to SOIl()kmgll fiuM hataslut« ikan zo Y" ?Sltill ra ifu. YlJslu' 110chi mala kore wo isltill iaen. 1/l' mirn,kmlara:;u SOIlOsllsumislti mono nnran. Nnni 10 IInreo,z;;slmallachi ningen ni chisltiki naru 1Il0llOha kallara:;li S0110korewo mochiyuru. 1Ii sltitagahite sustauu 1110110nareba nari. YlIlteni ilzaim. " Millsen gii11 wo tatsu kore sunakach: /i11l1Jlin zooshite gMU katslt C/zi IIi sltika1lshite kilt ni kailllei 110e!.:i ltisusumasiamuru 110 miclti nari "'8 to. Katsu sore seifn 110sll()ku SOlIOyoroslzil.m ItO-sllite mochite 1Jlokuteki /0 Izasllbdtimono jilllllli11 wo shite, sltimpo SIlI'II wo esesltilllllru" 1Ii'8nri,Yulle Iii sOlllai 110yo yaba1t 11080k1l SOIIOtami ytlllliJ btJk01I

sltlRauskite shitagafu. tokoro'" wo shira;lI. K01l0 toki IIiatarite seifu 110shoku utoto yori kore 'WOslli/e shi/agafit tokorowo sldraslzimurt/>l ui ari. I7Ila waga kutti sudcn] s~lIIai niarasu. Idkol/sltite waga ji1Jllllilz 110 jiujim naru II/olIO~lsudeni kwajill 10 SIt.52 Sldkarnba Sllllallfle/li kOl!jitsu wagaseijil 1/0 yorosltikll mochitc SOllO 1JI0kuleki to Ilasubeki 1110110sll1lnhaclti minsen giill WO tate, waga ji'lIImi,1 WO shite/>3 SOIlOkatli 110 ki wo okoslli, tellka u/o bumlitz suru 110gil1l1t U'Obelle/Ii slu, tenea no kolo ui sanyo slu, eseshimuru ni an,SUI/allaclli k,skoku no Ilito mina dOslti11nari.

Sore seift« 110tSllyoki mono nani wo utochite kore zuo itasuya ? Tenlsaji'mlllill mina dJsltilt nard/a lion. SIIiIl ra ktlt/a-rasu tou/okt« ki1t.F wo llikite kore wo slt,s-se=u, katsit salm

jittgwatslt seijil 110IU'IIkaku IIi tsulate, kore wo ken-su. Kilt

xlviii SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE,

kill ko sore (I)la.fulti kana ! rVaga seifn 110 koritSit surtt ha11(111&0ya ? Sak« )iugwatm seifu no henkaklt tenlea ji'1I/1//ill110 kare waga lame Iii kiseki suM 1110110ikubakuM katint? Tada kore ga tame 1/Z'kise!.:i seearu 1I0mi uarazu, tenkaji1ll11li1l 110bo 10 shite kore wo sidrasarn mono jilt 1Ii sId"!,,,Itakk//. tli oru, Toda Iteitai 110kaisatl 1Ii odoroku 1Iollli,66 1111(1minsen giiil tuo tatsuru ha sunahadu seifu. jill/min 110allida ni

jojilsu ),l1lsl2 sltikaltsltite alu-tomo Iii ahasete illai to nnri, klmihajilllele 11l0cltite"1 Im)'okarubeslli; seifu haji'mete modutetsu),okantbe!.:i nari.

Shill ra sudeni tenka no tairi IIi tsukite lsore wo kiltaJlle,waga klmi kOtljilSlt 110ikillolli IIi tsukite kore wo ji'tsll ni sin',seifi« 110sltokll IIi tsukile kore wo roufi, o)lobi snku jillgwatslIseifu Iiolumkaku Itt' tsukite kore wo ktll-sll, Sllikaushite shillra /10 midznkara sllin ra no setsu wo sldncur« koto iyo-iyoatsul:«, setsu 1Ii ifu-" Konfits« tenlsa wo iji' shillki suru ItOmichi tada minsen gii'n wo tale, sllikauslzite tenka 110kogi wohnru ni ant 110111;"10,M! SOllO IlOilo1669110gi 110gotokiOOshillra kallara::u kore wo kokom' ilul£U, Kedasiu jill-sll-/JIai-slti~1110)101,'11kore wo tsukusll 1/10110Iii arasareba 1Ia1'i, Tada shinra Ilisoka6' ni kiku " kOlljilsu ),l?shi jiend 110setsu Ili yori kOloolloklt illjlm u/o tStttollle,),o no kaikaku wo ijil 11/0110wo moku-shite keikei sltimpo to shi, sltikaushite kore wo !.:oballlu 1Ii 'llahoIlaya!.-i' no tzij'~'wo moclut« su " /0, Shin ra ko/lt>' tuata korewo bellzen.

Sore keikei shimpo to i.fll mOlltl" 111010yori Sltill ra no kai-se•.nru tokoro, moshi hataskite !.-OIOsssotsn 1'Ii idsuru 1110110womochite keikei shimpo to sun, ka, miusen giitl naru mono Itamochite koto wo leicho ni sum tokoro 110mOtltIMnari : kaktlslz8fuiua ni slute sltikausltile IlmM 110sai koto homumts« kwmlkiuIto jo wo slll/sslti Itisslti 110 slusetsu aui-miaarn 1110110wolIlocltitf!6 keikei slzimpo to sura ka, kore klllii Iii teiritsu llaNtI),lIs!ti jini !tok~ sureba nari. Kono futatsn 1101110110arabasztlltllziclli masa IIi SOIIOminseu giin no tatesunba arubeeara-

SPECIMENS OV JAPANESE. x lix

zant"' 110yuen wo sh~-sllrn suo mini 1/OIIIi, Sore sltilllpo narumono Ita teulea no sltibi uari, jiji blllsllbulsll shilllpo sccuuoaarubekaraxaru. ShiA'araba sltnallllChi ylishi kmzarazu sllimpo110ni;i' wo tsumi snru atahazu. Sono tsumi SU'rU10koro63kmla"ms« keikei IW 11i;'ini todomaran , keikei 110ni;'1.suiusen. gii'li tokalsute alii kmtsllo secant nari..

u Nalzo luzyaki" 'W ni;'i ItO minseu griill wo tatsuru lIiokern,ep Sl,ill ra tado m' kore wo kai-sesaru nomi naracu, .rltinra no ke1l masa ni lore 10ahi-Ean-su. Ikml10 10 nareb«, kon-

jitslt miusen giin wo tatsurul! 1110naho osoraeu Iza snigets« noIzisaslliki wo mac/Ii slzikattslzite Ilochi luzji'lIlete S01l012jiubullgrfZlnbiwo kisltYU Iii itaran. Yrtlze Iii Slli" ra icltfjits/t lIW tadaSOJlOtats« kolo no osokarau 1':010wo osoru. Yulte,1i ilullm" sltin ra tada SOIWItaltla; wo miru 1II01lli" 10.

YI1shi 110setsn utata ifit 'Yl1bei kakkoku ItOl~jilJ'1(no giillnaru mono Ita ilch~ isseki IIi setsuritsu sesllZ'IWgrii'11IIi arazu,sono slzilllpo 1W zen zuo ntodute kore wo itasestu mOIlO nomi,yuhe ni wagra konjitStI Iliwaka Iii kore wo IIlO-SftrUwo ezu'73 to.Sore s/u'IIlPO no zen wo mochite kore wo itasesld 1II01l0mli14/titOl'i giill 1I0mi uarau ya ? Olzoyoso hiakll '10gakulIloll gzfitsukikai milia s/zikrrru nari. Shikant w' kare sullialm nen ItOIzisashiki zoo /s1l1ltite7& kore wo itaseshi76 mouo Ita /.:edasltimayelli seiki nak«, milia lIlidzukara kore wo keikell hatsnmeisesla nareba nari. Ima ware S0110sciki wo eramite kore wotoraba IUZIZ:;O/mwadate-oyobllbekaYflzaYfl11 ya,77 Mos/Ii wagamidsuleara joki no rt wo hatsumei suru wo machi, slzikallsltitenodu, ware luzji'mete ;iSlli kikai zuo 1Il0chiyuru wo ubeku,18 del/ki1tOri wo luusunsei suru wo madu sllikaslzile19 nodu ware haji'-mete dens/till 110sell wo ga-suru wo ttbeki to suru ka? SeifitItn utasa lIi te wo kudLlS1l ItOkolo llLlkrryubes/li,

SlU"1l ra sudeui sudeui kOlljitsu waga klmi minse« griill wotateeunba aruoekarasaru yuell oyobi80 kOllJi'tsu waga kfmi ji'm-min shimpo 110do yoku kOlt()gt'ilt wo tatsurtc ni taJlltl'U kolo wobeuron. suru 11t01l0/~I Stlllahaclti yflshi ItO kore wo kobmmt

8

SI't:CDIEI'S /)F JAP:\:\ESE.

1/10,,0wo shitc Rue/Ii IIi se!"" suru tokoro Ita!.·arasililllell to uiaraeu, kOllo gii'll wo tatsuru teuka 110k6roll 2/)0 shine/tO slli;i'lIlllli,t 110 ts/}gi kwn' wo tate, tel/loa 110ge"ki wo !'?obllsid,1Il0cllit~ sluJka slu'llkill slti kmlsltill ahi-ai sit i waga teikoRuzuo iji s/dllRi shi MIl/kit ancen 'WOIwgo SC1tRoto wo ltOssltite11111'1.Kofn saltiwa/d "i Rore wo erabi-taruahan Roto woo

TMNSLATION.The opiruons contained in the Memorial hereto annexed

which we have the honour to address to you having con-stantly been held by us, and some of us during our periodof office having repeatedly memorialized you on the samesubject, an understanding was come to that after the embassydespatched to the allied powers in Europe and Americashould have observed the actual condition (of affairs) also,steps should be taken after due consideration of the circum-stances. But although several months have elapsed sincethe return of the embassy to this country, we do not learnthat any measures have been adopted. Of late the popularmind has been agitated, and mutual distrust has sprung upbetween the governors and the governed (lit. the upper andthe lower), and a state of things has arrived in which it cannotbe denied that there are signs of destruction and ruin beingrcady to break forth at any moment. The cause of this weprofoundly regret to say is, in effect, the suppression of thegeneral opinion of the Empire as ascertained by publicdiscussion.

'vVe trust that you will give this matter due consideration.17th January, 1874·

SOE}IMA TANEOMI, Samurai of the Saga ken.GOT6 SHOJIk6, Samurai of the Tok,O,Fu.ITAGAKI TAISK~:' Samurai of the Kechi ken.ETo SHIM PEl, Samurai of the Saga ken.M IT$VOKA HACHIkO, Samurai of the Tsuruga ken.YUki KIMMASA, Samurai of the Ts uruga ken.

Ii

KOMURO Nouuo, Samurai of the Mi6c16 ken.OKAMOTO KF.:N7.ABURO, Samurai of the Kochi ken.FURUSAWA URo, Samurai of the Kochi ken.

To the Hon'ble Members of the SA.IN.

When we humbly reAect upon the quarter in which thegoverning power at present lies, we find that it lies not withthe Crown (the imperial house) above, nor with the peoplebelow but with the officials alone. \Ve do not deny thatabove the officials respect the Crown, and yet the Crown isgradually losing its prestige (lit. honour and splendour), nordo we deny that below they protect the people, and ret themanifold decrees of government appear in the morning andare changed in the evening, the administration is conductedin an arbitrary manner, rewards and punishments are promptedby partiality, the channel by which the people should com-municate with the government is blocked up and the}' cannotstate their grievances. Is it hoped that the Empire can bepeacefully ruled in this manner? Even a child three feethigh knows that it cannot be done. We fear, therefore, thatif this continues, and a reform i not effected, the state willbe ruined. Unable to resist the promptings of our patrioticfeelings, we have sought a means of rescuing it (rom thisdanger, and we find it to consist solely in developing publicdiscussion by the Empire. The only means of developingpublic discussion is the establishment of a council-chamberchosen by the people. Then a limit will be placed to thepower of the officials, and both governors and governed willobtain peace and prosperity. \Ve ask leave, then, to makcsome remarks on this subject.

The people, whose duty it is to pay taxes to the govern-ment, possess the right of sharing in the direction of theirgovernment's affairs, and of approving or condemning. Thisbeing a principle universally acknowledged, it is not necessaryfor us to waste words in discussing it. \Ve therefore humbly

8 2

Iii

pray that the officials will not resist this great t7ment stand-who now oppose the establishment of a coun~l!'~.~~.~!r.chosen by the people say: "Our people are wanting in cultureand intelligence, and have not yet advanced into the regionof enlightenment. Therefore it must necessarily be too earlyyet to establish a council-chamber elected by the people." Itis our opinion that if it really be as they say, then the way togive to the people culture and intelligence, and to cause themto advance swiftly into the region of enlightenment is toestablish a council-chamber chosen by the people. For inorder to give our people culture and intelligence and to causethem to advance into the region of enlightenment, they mustin the first place be induced to fulfil their duties and protecttheir rights, to respect and value themselves, and must beinspired with a spirit of sympathy with the griefs and joys ofthe Empire, which can only be done by giving them a voiceill the concerns of the Empire. It has never happened thatunder such circumstances the people have been content toremain in a backward condition 0'· have been satisfied withwant of culture and intelligence. To expect now that theywill acquire culture and intelligence by themselves andadvance by themselves into the region of enlightenment, isvery much like" waiting a hundred years for the water toclear."· The worst argument they put forward is that toestablish a council-chamber at once would be simply toassemble all the blockheads in the Empire. What shockingself-conceit and arrogant contempt for the people this indi-cates! No doubt amongst the officials there are men whosurpass others in intelligence and ingenuity, but how do theyknow that the world does not also contain men who surpassthe multitude in learning and knowledge? Wherefore the

* A quotation from the Tsoduean: The Yellow river is said to be amuddy stream, but to become clear at intervals of a thousand years.The text says" a hundred," which is no doubt a slip of the pen.

•

sr':.~IMEN OF JAI'AlXE<;E. liii

chosen by ~:::Empire should not be treated with such con-t!::~:•..•:- "zrumitting that they deserve to be treated withcontempt, are the officials themselves not a part of the nati n,in which case they also are wanting in culture and intelli-gence? Between the arbitrary decisions of a few officials andthe general opinion of the people as ascertained by publicdiscussion, where is the balance of wisdom and stupidity?We believe that the intelligence of the officials must havemade progress as compared with what it was previous to theReformation," for the intelligence and knowledge of humanbeing increase in proportion as they are exercised. There-fore we have said that to establish a council-chamber chosenby the people would promote the culture and intelligence ofthe people and cause them to advance rapidly into the regionof enlightenment. It is further the duty of a governmentand the object which it ought to promote in the fulfilment ofthat duty to enable the people to make progress. Conse-quently in uncivilized ages, when manners were barbarous,and the people fierce, turbulent, and unaccustomed to obey,it was of course the duty of a government to teach them toobey; but our country is now no longer uncivilized, and thetractableness of our people is already excessive. The objectwhich our government ought therefore now to promote is bythe establishment of a council-chamber chosen by the peopleto arouse in our people a spirit of enterprise, and to enablethem to comprehend the duty of participating in the burdensof the Empire and sharing in the direction of its affairs, andthen the people of the whole country will be of one mind.

What is it that makes a government strong? It is by thepeople of the Empire being of one mind. "Ve need not provethis by quoting ancient historical facts. We will show it bythe change in our government of October last. How great

• Le, The restorarion or the Mikado's go'·crnmenl.

~I'E(.;[)II'::-;~OF JAP,\!\I'.~[':,

was its peril! \Vhat is the reason of our goverrwnent stand-ing isolated? How many of the people of the Empirerejoiced at or grieved over the change in the government ofOctober last? Not onI)' was there neither grief nor joy onaccount of it, but eight or nine out of every ten of the peopleof the Empire were utterly ignorant that it had taken place,and they were only surprised at the disbandi ng of the troops.The establishment at present of a council chamber chosenby the people will create community of feeling betweenthe government and the people, and they will mutuallyunite into one body, Then and only then will the countrybe strong. Then and only then will the government bestrong,

\Ve have now investigated the question in the light of uni-versal principles; we have shown the truth in regard to it byreference to the tendencie of the day in this country; wehave discussed it in reference to the duties of a government.and have tested it by the case of the change which occurredin our government in October last. OUf belief in the justiceof our views is strengthened, and we earnestly contend thatthe only way to maintain and develope the destinies of (lit, tomove up) the Empire is to establish a council-chamber chosenby the people and to develope public discussion by the Em-pire. "Ve will not here enlarge upon the means by which theidea is to be wrought out, as that would occupy too muchspace,

\Ve are informed that the present officials, under the pre-tence of being conservative, are generally averse fromprogress, They call those who advocate reforms "the rashprogre gists," and oppose them with the two words ••tooearly." \llie ask leave to make an explanation here.

I n the first place we do not comprehend the phrase" rashprogression." If by "rash progression" is meant measureswhich are heedlessly initiated, then it is a council-chamber

SPE<.:IMEl'S 01'- JAPANESE.

chosen by the people which will render them prudent. Dothey mean by "rash progression" the want of harmonybetween the different departments of the government and itsconsequences, viz., the disturbance, during a period of change,of the sequence of beginning and end, of not urgent andurgent, and the incongruity of this measure with that? Thecause of this is the want of a fixed law in the country, andthe fact that the officials abandon themselves to the prompt-ings of their own inclinations. These two facts we look uponas precisely a confirmation of the reasons which render itnecessary to establish a council-chamber chosen by thepeople. Progress is the most beautiful thing in the world,and is the law of all things moral and physical. Officialscannot condemn this word "progress": their condemnationmust be confined to the word" rash," which has no connexionwith a council-chamber chosen by the people.

We are not only simply unable to comprehend what thewords" too early" have to do with a council-chamber electedby the people, but our opinion is directly the opposite of this.For if a council-chamber chosen by the people were estab-lished to-day, we may fairly suppose that it could not beexpected to be in complete working order until months andyears had elapsed. We are only afraid therefore of a singleday's delay in establishing it, and therefore we say that wehold the opposite of this opinion.

\Ve shall mention another argument of the officials. Theysay that the council-chambers now existing in European andAmerican States were not formed in .one morning or oneevening, but were only constituted by gradual progress, andtherefore we cannot to-day copy them suddenly. But gradualprogress has not been the ease of council-chambers only; thesame is the case with all branches of learning and scienceand mechanical art. The reason why foreigners have perfectedthis only after the lapse of centuries is that no rules existed

lvi ~1'1':C1~II':'S OF JAPANESE.

previously, and these were all discovered by them for them-selves by actual experience. If we now select these rules andadopt them, why should we not be successful in ourendeavours? If we are to delay using steam machinery untilwe have discovered the principles of steam for ourselves, or towait until we have discovered the principles of electricitybefore we construct an electric telegraph, our government willbe unable to set to work.

Our object in sceking to prove that a council-chamberelected by the people ought to-day to be established in ourcountry, and that the degree of progress amongst the peopleof this country is sufficient for the establishment of such acouncil-chamber, is not to prevent the officials from makinguse of various pretexts for opposing it, but we are animatedby the desire that by establishing such a council-chamberpublic discussion by the Empire may be developed, the dutiesand rights of the people be established, the spirit of the Em-pire be r used to activity, the affection between governorsand governed be made closer, sovereign and subject bebrought to love each other, our imperial country be main-tained and its destinies developed, and prosperity and peacebe assured to all. 'liVeshall esteem ourselves fortunate if youwill adopt our suggestions.

NOTES.1S()"~g(l.sh':rd, I( certain persons," "we." 2 Tatcmatsuri is written in

the Chinese order before the noun which it governs.v-" Ni is not written,but mu.t he supplied in reading.-' O)'ooi is also written before its noun..:» Tokoro is something like" wherea '." It is represented in the trans-lation by the ill.f{ of" ha\·ing."-6 I'd·bei. V<I,the first syllable of Ydrop«,Europe: bei is for IIIr, the second syllable of America.-' .110. ot onlythe arguments of the rnemorialists, but actual observation on the spot"aI50."-8 Alii has little meaning here.-9 KM'e is inserted before ari inimitation of hinese construction. It is superflunus.c='" Shikr.,." IIi, lit.U in ib being so," i.e, U although this was 50."_" Safurahcdooro, pro-nounced sorarrfomo.-'· .Ira/u.rh;-Ka'a/'·i. This compound is written in

SPECI~IENS OF JAI'ANESE. lvii

the Chinese order.-J3 Gi, "malter." This word is qualified by thewhole passage from sakkotl on.-"1tnd, ••matter," lit .•• go."-" Togera-ru6eku. TOjferanl is the conclusive of the passive (used as a honorific)of the verb ••loge'!'u," "10 complete." _ •• Furusaha Ura, &c. Thesignatures are in the opposite order to what we should expect, the mosthonourable position being in Japanese that next the name of the personaddressed. Furusaha, although his name occupies the least honourableplace, is believed to be the actual writer of this Memorial.c-P The Sa-inis no longer in existence. It was a board associated with the Council ofState. One of its duties was to examine all memorials presented to theGovernrnent.s-J'' Shin ra, "your servants," "we," only used in addressingthe Government.c-J" Ftlshile, lit. " with the face to the ground."-'» Soreis superfluous. It is inserted in imitation of a Chinese construction._21 Aratamesu is condrtional. The omission of "a is characteristic ofthe semi-Chinese style.-'" Nomi at the end of a sentence is an imitationof Chinese.-'" Haru, lit .•• to stretch."-"'Ktijll. In ordinary Japanesethis verb would be at the end of the sentence instead of at the beginning._:Il> Tenka sometimes means" Japan" only; sometimes, as here, "theuniverse."-2'G Marasaru, for matazu ant, "does not wait for," i.e., "doesnOI require."-2'iHisoka ni;" privately," hence "humbly." This applica-tion of Idsoka "i is in imitation of Chinese, where the character corre-sponding to this word has also this secondary meaning.-28 Kolo 1(10.

Kolo is governed by the verb negajtt which precedes it. This is aChinese construction.e-P Fugal:u //Iu{ld. Supply III Ie after these words._30 Tatsuru is a noun (" the establishment") nominative to Ilaya~'a"71-6eshi. In proper Japanese tatsuru would have some particle, as no or ha,added to il to show that it is a noun. The semi-Chinese style, however,rejects particles as far as possible.-:JI Omohernl.'U is olJloheru, perfectof Oll/Ojtl and nim, a termination which gives the verb the force of a noun.Shirl YO olllohera!.:u, "our opinion (is that)."-"" ijit 101'01'0," that whichthey say." Tokoro is here the relative.-"' Nail; 10 narcba. "Because itis what?" i.e, "for what reason ?"-'" Waga jilll1Jlln 1(10 shiM. Shite isaltogether superf!uous.-"Stt. Bya Chinese construction for the hypo-thetical seba.--1f6 ~s!tiIlJC. ausarive of suru, "to do," /,(to make."-'" Kore TUO slute. Shile is again superfluous. It adds nothing to thesense, is unnecessary for the grammar, and is only inserted in blindimitation of Chinese.-l18 Ka1'u 110 golol.·lt. The Chinese characters forthese two words are written in the reverse order to that in which they arcread.-'" Araearu nan. A circumlocution for arazu.-'" HlInllhadtlSltiki"a. "The worst is to if1l11l' itaru, that they proceed to suy."-" Hit

h-iii SPEC1M~: 'S OF J.\PANESE.

17I""I((iI,lti/;u. Adverbial form, the sentence not ending till bel:;ujo taru-J'fI._<f'l Rrl.\lIjo /(''''"/1yn. J tl is an interjection merely. Taru is in theattributive form, owing to the senten e containing the intenogative nanzo,_ •., Vo, for )'0 IIi or yo no 1UU:1Ini.-" SMrIVl )'<1. Va is here theinterrogative partic1e.-4I Nalli 10 nareba narcba nnri. U Because orwhat is it? 1t is because "_ .••,l!;rM nuri 10. To is joined with ;It"/;,,two lines back.-" Esdnmuru. E is the root of uru, "to get," and sesM.1111/r1lthe causative of SUYU, "to do."-.Ift JVi ari. Ni is often, as here, thesign of thc predi ate of a proposition.-'" Sldlilg"/" lo!.-t>ro."Where to beobedient.~-oo ....j/tirtlshilllllrlf. causative of shiru, "to know."-$l MOllo inthe semi-Chinese style is often equivalent to the particle Ita of properJapanesc.-&l .<111,conclusive form of suru, "to make," "to account."-"'j;lI1l11ill ,.'0 sltilr, equivalent to jillllllill IIi of proper j apancsc.-"'/k"o"J."II ktl ant. Aru, the attributive, instead of ari, the conclusive,owing to the interrogative which precedes.--'" jiu l1Us/dte. Sltite wouldbe omitted in proper Japancse.-n(J NOIII;, a Japanese word, is writtenwith the two Chinese characters i!Ii e,.-" Mt>c!rit., • by this means.'-~Kti.t:i<;,'0 Iltlrll IIi aru 110m; 10. To refers back to sets« 11; ijll.-:1IHo!to10. T(i marks the plural.- Goloki properly means" such matters as,"but in the semi-Chinese style it has often very little meaning. It hasbecn entirely omitted in thc translation.-U1 /ill-sll-mai-slti. "More thanten sheets of paper."_t~ Hiso/", ni, " secretly," must not be understoodtoo literally. 1 t merely means that they have heard from some one whomit is unnecessary to name.·-"' SlIillm !.-O/II. The japanese constructionwould be slunra IIIlIln kure 7<'0bm::ell !.-olo -"'0 k(l/II.-'" 1I{(l1I0would beIt" in proper Japanese_-'" TeicIL6 1/; surtt toboro 1101Il01I0,"a thing whichrenders prudent." Toeoro is here a relati\"e.-" Moelt"" is here super-Auou!). t;;711j(:ttll/J(e "rllbtJ:(lru~lI. ](,le~lIl1btl. IV is inserted (oreuphony. It is pronounced III. This phrase is equivalent to the collo-quial IlllcllcOa naranu, tc must CreCI Or establish."-foB Sono /SIIIII; suru101'01o. "That which they blame'-'"' Tntsurn l1i okrru. 01''''11 wouldbe IIi oirc or"i IS1Ii/r in ordinary Japanese.-'" J!.-a" (for i~''''")10narco«.See above,1II1II;10""reoa.-71 Tatsuru mo would be in ordinary J apanesetarsu It> ;I/edolllo, Or in the spoken language, Itl/c/(JJIO._72 SOIlO qualifiesIdsUYII. U Its. attaining pede tion."-"IJMo-sllrll '1.l~D I'::U. "\\'c do notget the imit~ting," i e., U We are unable to imilate.n.-7~Al1i is placed atthe beginning of an interrogative clause and shows that a negativeanswer is expected.c-> .\'II"i"I.'II ne» 110/dsas/til ..i WiJ lSI/illite. "Accumu ..lating the l~ngth of several hundred years."-" il(l.SfSlti 1110110It" na-r.roil 'Mri. "Their having done this is because " Afo110is super-

SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. lix

Ruous.-" Km<1flda!e-oyobu·bd!-",.,,-I! -"""-".},<I. Endea vour-reach -should-be·not-be-fut.-interrog.-'"Ub<>klt, conclusive form of 111"11, "to get,""obtain," ••be able," and b<>l:u, adverbial form of bcl.-i, "should."-'" SidRasidle and shiMallshitc(pron. shil:6 shite) are the same, the" being insertedfor euphony.-800yobi, "and."-"'Bmroll suru ""111" hfl. "The reasonwhy we maintain!' Mono is nominative to nari at the end of thesentence.-"'J/o<:hite. ••By means of all these."

lxii ~PECnlt:NS OF JAPANESE.

VIII.VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS.

ShOlul1lwo 1Il0cllite' keijo itastu safurafu. Silikarehfil Taiwanbtl1le/1l3110kioto btm::ai 110gi ni tSllki, ~,)(lgaseifu to Sci!':ok1t' sci/It110ikefl sogo wo SIIOjj,bdalllpml ukketsll6 ISliId 1Ii kO/,;WlZhosonshigala!.:i halilli lIi 'tadli-ilari safurafu 10/';01'0,f/{I/':/':ilz8chillliJkikoku9 senken koslzi ka/.-ka waga baln'dofjill to /.-tlllOshodaiji,1'"no ahida 1Ii go slausen korc ari,1l bcsshi no totuori kiOgi ahi-totonohi lagani ni jokwatl wo kokwmz safurafe« tunne migibcnri dayi'n yorf kW(lIzill kicllO'2 scslt.iJlle,'3 sakufitsu. tochaku,/';01ljilsflg'lljo IIi oyobi safiwajil nllida, go nairau 1Ii ire sofurafu,lIIigi lin wnga scift« 110skiui /';wanletsll shi, riogoku" 110kifuktlIii itari safurafn gi lIIigi15 ki::e1lke1l-/.·oshi ka/.:ka 110go ;i'1I-rioen sukulln/,;'arazartlI6 gi to ::01lji safilrafit. Kore fli yoritctori-nkezn icJzioshinsha ni oyobi safurafu jo kisciftt 1IIImbi fa:sai Hokkiu kikoshz'7 kakka e sllika1'llbclm go dCllchi kltdasa1'L'-tae«, migi shaJi' lIInjilslli-slzifl:jitaku, "'aku 110gotoku sofurafu,Keigu.

Mei;i' sltidli11en,jillie/I1' gwatslt ;;'ll1Ii nie/li.Gwai1Jl1lkio TernsM1I/{I 1I1lI1te1U1ri,Dni Buritauia koklt Tokumei Zotl"C1I J(oslli

Harm'; cs« P(~kllsU1(akka,

TRANSLATION.

I have the honour to address you a letter, A differencehaving arisen between the views of our Government and that-ofChina in respect to the matter of the chastisement of thesavages of the barbarous part of Formosa, there was a hitchin the negotiations, and they at last reached a position inwhich the preservation of friendly relations was impossible,H is Excellency the honourable country's Minister Plcnipoten-tiary resident at Pekin then used his good officesbetween ourHigh Commissioner and their high officials, An agreement

SPECIMENS OF JAPANESE. Ixiii

was thus brought about and articles mutually exchanged asin the enclosure.

Our High Commissioner sent an officer back to Japan withthis intelligence. This officer arrived yesterday and has madehis report to me to-day. I therefore place it (the agreement)in your hands for your private perusal.I am sensible that no small exertion has been made by His

Excellency your honourable Minister before-mentioned illarriving at a result in which the views of this Governmenthave gained acceptance, and which is fortunate for botcountries. I accordingly hasten to offer to you this expres-sion of thanks, which I beg you will be good enough to conveyin a suitable manner to the honourable Government and tothe honourable Minister at Pekin.

I wish to offer the above thanks. Thus it is.With respect.

November 12th, 1874TERASHJ\IA MUNEt\ORI,

Minister for Foreign Affairs.To His Excellency Sir HARRY

Envoy Extraordinary andGreat Britain.

. PARKES,Minister Plenipotentiary of

NOTES.

This is a specimen of the style of official letters.'Silo/um wo modnt«. Wo is not written, but is always supplied in

reading. Afodtile is pronounced mol/e. In writing this phrase, theChinese order of the characters is followed, that for mocllite coming first.-' Sldkareba, lit. ••this being so." To slli/mreba inclusive may be freelyrendered •• I have the honour 10 inform you Ih:\I-."-3 Tatum» ballchi isfor Taiumn no banchi.-< SeiNoku. Sei, in Chinese Ts;'lg, is properlythe name of the Manchu dynasty of Emperors of China. Sdkoku is theordinary word for China in official correspondence.c-s ShOji, adverbialform of slld:urtl, from sIlO, ••producing," and suru, "to do."-GljH:cl.ru.After "Nkelslt must be understood sllile. The constant omission ofunim-portant words and particles is characteristic of the semi-Chinese style.

lxiv SPECliIIE '5 OF JAPANESE.

-' Tm·hi has little meaning here.-"/lokNIl. Ni must be understoodafter HoNd/l.-1IKikokll. "The honourable country," i.c., your country._I. Sho dIllj;'.. Sho marks the plural.-" KOI'e ari. Kore is superfluousin Japanese: it is introduced in imitation of the Chinese construction.-" Kirh&, "return to court," i.e., to Japan.-" Scshilllc. Adverbial formof sesiumurn, the causative of suru u to do." The character for this wordis placed Chinese-fashion before the noun which it govems.-.J'RiOgoku.Golm is for kok", "country."-" Illigi, "the right," corresponds to "theabove mentioned," Japanese being written from right to left.-.J' SlIklllla.kara::tlYu, i.e., sukunaku ara-zu nyu is represented by the two characters:::t'~~.the first of which represents 1:11, and the other the remainder.

-" Kikoshi, "the honourable minister," i.e., your country's minister.

lxvii

IX.

"ERSIO!\ I!\ ROMA!\ LETTERS.

lPP;ISII' kei/tJ. Sltikanhll J'nkll/iISlI 1m sIll/kart' go leillei gokio,l, kolo 11;gltsoku made uteslu-yoserare, jill-.;i"1I go kOllstikataJi'ke/lllll'll ::;ollji safurafu. Knrsu c/"Jseki ruru go seidaukalls/ltl 110 itari 11i zOIl/i safuraft«. SOIlO setsu 011hanastn-1Jln/ushi-nge sa/ura/u sOlllokll bniyoslto gmsho 011 ma/las/Ii-lIIajilsiti-age safurafn jo," go ichirrm klldasarelakll-sajitra/u;salm.;i"lsll 110bUll Ita lIIacltiglllti 110sharui nire hanatrada lIIoC/lile011I.·il/odo}"" Iii ::ol/ji sn/llra/II. Sos(j lIIip kii etakll,4 ka/m 110golo/m' lIi sajilra/u. Keigll.

1-1ncltig-;."nlsll tmuol:«,Matsllda Kei::o.

Tnkcuai:« RioslIl.·e samaKika.

TRANSLATION.

I address you a stroke of the pen.I am grateful for your extreme kindness in entertaining me

so courteously when I visited your residence yesterday, andespecially for having invited my son also. Further, I feelthat your conversation at our long interview is matter forthankfulness. I beg now to send you the originals of thepapers on the rearing of plants and trees which I then spoketo you of, and hope you will peruse them. I am extremelysorry that those I brought yesterday were the wrong papers.

In haste. Please take note of the above. Thus it is.With respect.

August ith.MATSUDA KElZo.

To T.\KE:-\AKA Rresuxz, Esq.

SI'I:CDIE;>(S (IF J.\I'.\:\Jo:SF.

:-.:0'1 J-.S.

This is a specimen or the ordinary style of a private letter. The versionin the current hand is a facsimile of the original, the \ ersion in squarecharacter being added for the sake of comparison.

1 ijJjJilS/I, for ichi hitsu, ••one pen," Almost all Japanese leiters beginby this or one of the numerous phrases of similar meaning, and go onwith s"i~'arelkl,••this being so," &c.-· <llIk,I11. The construction here isvery elliptical. The full construction would be sankon no tol"; go Idl1dI/O 1:i66 1('0 "ke.-· /.,. See p, 78.-' A'if tlaloll, Ioal", 1/(>gololm. Inwriting these phrases, the Chinese order of the characters is followed.

INDEX.

A (pronoun)AblaliveAhstmCl nouns

•• nouns•..verbs ...

PAGE

5011743

Introd. v36

Ba ...BakariBarsBayalkki

Accents, Chinese" Japanese ...

Accusative ...Adjective, oonjug ....

derivativeroot of ..•

113 Bemi93 Bem

.03g2.8.

'69

Beii ...IIokuBuruCase suffixes

••••

syntax of••AdverbsAdverbial formAffinities of Japan.seMu ...

2 Causative verbsChinChinese character ...

Introd. i'69

Irurod. i•6577

143

'42

58

ChokaClassical IMgU:\g •...Classification of wordsCompound adjectives

•• pronunciation of ...study of ...

AgglutinalionAguruAhidaAhoshikiAku ...Anara

"

Ani ... .23Ano... 59,6.Aphaeresis ... 24Are, personal pron. 51

It demonstrative pron.... 6'2Aru ... 89, 92, 98, 99, '53, 167Aru hito 66Asobasu .67Aspirates, loss of ... 22, 30Assimilation 21 t 28Attmction ... .6Altributh'e form &5

••Conclusive formConjugalions, adjectives

., verbsConjunctionsConsonants, assimilation of

" changes ofdouble••Crasis

OachiDaniDareDateraDative

AuxiliAry numeralsAuxiliary verbsB, interchange with M

72.6231

IlAGt-:

135, 144, '46132

119146154'54'54'545494

.069854

lntrod. iii.Introd, II.

.86lntrnd. viii

39'0445

.0383

8',938',90,94

7621,28

2628,30

24119lJO

63'33110

D~...Demonstrative pronouns .• 0

DenkaDerivation ...Derivative verbsDerivative adjectivesDerived nounsDistributive pronounsDivi ion of words .'.Do ...Domo, plural particle .

\\ itlt verbs ...,.DOTe, dono ...Dramatic poeu yDzutsuE, changes ofEli~ionEtp'H1lngy ...F, changes ofn pronunciation ofFu, term. of verbsG, pronunciation ofGn _,_GachiGariGnntGataGateraGe ...GenderGenji )lonogatilri .Genitive panicles .Go ...G••chiGuhcnG<Hl1lGOlo niG(11.C1l

Grammar, divine origin orGu ..Gu, term. of deriv, verbs ...II, ch.nge .s of" pronunciation of

Jr\DEX.

I'A(~I~

144 Ita, after nouns/io .. aner verbs59 l Iaberu32 Haikwai93 H.nk.

103 lI:1n·nigori42 ttataraki kotoba66 I'" ...

I'(.\(a~

120135162190188

16, 2879

11219 Heika

q6 IIi ...I 18 111 i"'b",na146 •• table of64 llito

192 llokku

5948

36

66t8946

16116148462564646464S6

102 Imperative ... 89119 Indefinite pronouns 65

'33, 136 Inflected Teniwoba 14843 Inflection .. , Introd, it note, "iii481 •• table of 7928 Instrumental ease 81

107, 182 Interjections 7847 Interrogatives 63, 125, 140, 174, 178

132, 136 Intransitive verbs ... 9559 Inurn 92

'30 Ilononfic prefixes ...24 " verbs

23, 194 Humble verbs32 Humble prefixes27 Hybrid compounds

20,22 I, changes of94 Ill""21 Idzure

107 Ika ...112, 136 Iku ...

136 Imashi

Introd. iii, v Inversion ...'30 I Iroba59 Irregular verbs

J ntrod. vi Italics, marks of48, 54 Its" ...

93 J i, pronunciation of•. 30 I .. neg. Cut. particle

20, 22 J ihun ..• ••.

[70, 172, 1736

92,86419

14567

Ji·shin)6 ...[okaK. loss ofKA., interrog.Kn, pronoun" termin. of nouns

KaguraKahnKaheshi utaKakari TcniwohaK.kl"Kamuri kotobaKanaKAn.." interjection ...KnnoKart-onKanuruKamKareKn.l.hiKatakanaKatsuteKe ...KckiKckuKen·yu·~cnKeruKi, honorific prefix

" past particle ..." term. of adjectives

KidenKijo ...KikaKikoyuruKikunf\.imiKiokaKisamaKizengenKiyatsuKo ...Kono

rx I>E~.

6777

'9830

65. 125. '4 •• '7!;59.60,6,

44

Kurt!Korean"-OM>KotobaKoyntsuKuKudasaru

'9' Kuru

••• Letter changes.SS Locative

'73 Looch~n ..

58 M. chang., of

'93 Made2 ~(a(usu

'711 ~tain'\8uru ..6. ~fajiki

Introd. iv Makaru.68 i\'TAkul'n kOluhn

J 17, 141 Mnna

59.62 Manyoshiu ...141 Maw

3, 5.'5 Mas hi. pronoun151 " particle431 M.!Jtik. ...

'04 1 Masu'4. ~!allto ....821 Me. fern. prefixJ SO " future ~uffix47 Mei'mei

151 Meru8 r, 85 Mdrc

59 M i, termin. of noons59. ., pronoun

58, 59 •• prefix ...165 Midomo59 Midsukara ...56 ~[imAShi

IS51-mi-mi58 Mina87 to ...58 Mochite601 ~logamo60 Mot:::mn

1'",,1.;60

Introd, ii128. '75

3979!;.

.629'23

'10Introd. u

3'Ir3.64.65'55.63'96

I

3•• 8••• S75256

'57'57

97•• 665S48

88. '5666

'53'8442

53.674653

53.7456

'376665, .23. '35. '46

116'24'24

Mono wo ..•Mono kara ...M(lSu

)(otowori .0'

M u, termin. of deriv. verbsu (tHurt.' ••uffix .

N. changes of .H pronunciation 01" future ~uffix '0'

Na, pari of speech" personal pronounIt interjection ...u neg. imperative

NadoNafuNagaraNaga-ulaNamoNan, after nouns

" with neg. baseu with adverbial (orm

NandoNaniNanigashiNanikaNanimoNanjiNareNaruNasaruruNa-soNgeriNi (locative particle)" (neg. particle)

NigoriNi kef;Nile ...No ,..No ".NomiNominative absoluteNoritot writing of •.•Noon

l:'\I)EX.

"" •• F. I115 lu, neg. suffix117 Number164 NUlnerl\)

auxiliary"93. 102 Xuru•56 I Nu,hi

31 INzunL22.24 0

156 Ohomi... 39 Okoshi kotoba

55 OkOlO14J Omahe142 On ...119 Onmahe94 On-mi

132• 136 Onodeukara186 Onomaropoetic adverbs127 Ono-ono

127. '74 Onore'45 Order of wordsJ SO ()rc.linl\h,119 Otemahe ._.63 P66 Parallelism ...65 Passive verbs65 Perfect

55. S9 Person55 Plural suffixes

152, 167 Posses ...ive particles162 Prefixes, honorific '0'

'37 Prefixes, humble ...- '5' IPrinling. 1·p"nes< .110, 135 Pronnun.s... . ..

155 ProsodyJ 6 Pronuneiarion

151 PunctuationII 0 IQuulatl0n ...174 R. changes of192 H pronunciation of'321 Ra, tennin. of nouns182 " plural suffix .. ,

311{an ... ,.. .••41 Raruru •.• .••

'0'/.

l'AC:~

155486972

15°57

1;6~6~6

'965~5746565~677666

52,67'70725727

'959988~9

II~

'0746~8'9~9

18419

18, !l.!178, .82

292043

118

'5399

INDEX.

I'.-\GE

138 Soko moto ... 57476.59S9615757

57,6.53. 66

.6JIntrod. viiiInt.rod. \ iiIntrod. i

119115

r 5''31

92, 94, 99, .611

'7'2063

119I j2.66173.846J6565

137'30149.65'48148

R•.,J.iki ,0J Son ...Reduplicated plurals 48 SonataReflexive pronouns 66 Sonk6Relative pronouns ... 67 SonkunRenyogell ... 83 SonoRenka .85 Sono hl>Root of verb and adjective 42, 43, 82 Sono mota ...Ru, disappearance of 88 Sore ..." terrain. of deriv. verbs 93. un Soregashi ..." termin. of perfect 158 saro

Ruru .00 Spoken language, pronunciation 19 Stages of Japanese ...

Sa ... 43 Structure of Japan eseSahe 131 Sii ...Saib•.•.a 191 Substantive formS.idangen 83 SudeniSamurafu 163 ura .••Sasuru 99 SuruScdoka '89 SyntaxSemi-Chinese style Introd, vii, 171, 173 T, pronunciationSen ... 48 Ta ...

eueiuSesshaSersu

h, pronunciation ,.,Shit reflexive pronoun

" suffix to nounshi, I~St particle ...u terrain. of adjective

Shiga or ShiganaShikaShikiShimuru'"hinShindaijiShill. ..Sho ..Sho ...Sh6zengenSo ...SokkaSoko

'90 Tachi54 Taki48 Tamafu19 Tamil no 0...66 Tanka

'31 TareIS' Taroka93 Taremo

[48, J 50 -tari-Lari. ..J 5 t TRfU, afier nouns .104 " verbal suffix .98 Tatematsuru54 To .

J Ten .1'9 Teniwoha .. 39, 401'9 Teshigana '48

48.55 To 112, 129, 130, 134. '39, 178, 18287 To ... 1196. TO-in Imrod. v59 Tokoro 68

57,6. Transitive verb. 95

Ttan ..IirerationTsu, kana ...

" genitive particleIt termination of numerals,. \ erbal suffix .,.

T.uikuT~unlT::,ut::,u-bu- ISu,

U, change of,. pronunciation

Uninflected principal wordsUninflected teniwohaUru '"Ul.hi\'erL,

u humble or honorific .. ,.II :\~ ad\ erbs .. ," a, conjunctions

Vocative case\'0\\ cl chungc5."', pronunciation ,..\\'a, pronoun

,t particle\raga\ragimi\\'"",h.

I 'IJ~X,

l'A(:h I'AC,I'~

22 \Vare 5021,29 \\'.ro 50

t07 Watakushi .•. 5'70 \\'0, masc, prefix 4:>

'48 .. '!'ign of accusative 113, 141

'95 Wo ba .. , ••6'48 V'hiting I

'36 •• marks used in '7'37 \' a, il'uerrog, 125, (40, '46•'47

23.25 •• vocative ca..\C .•. 117

19, 21 Yaran 12739 \'Rht, 7'

,06. 134 """uCarc 5499. 168 \'a)'o 117

192 Yo, pers, pronoun ... 5479 •• imperative 138

161 •• vocative case ... 117169 •• nfier conclusive (ornl,., '41169 Yori ... 117117 Y uye 7723 Zan, 15620 Zeueigen 8350 Zo ... 128, '74. 178

See h. Zokutaigeu .. , 8551,67 ZokuyV£cn ,.. 83

56 Zu, neg, particle 15552 •• future ... '56

I'R." II;;U U\'

JOUI\ (tOWARD FIlANClSJ 13, IlRHA\I'S ItUII.UING~, CHANCERY LAN~, h.(".