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Poster presentation (Paper No. 904) at the 18th Conference of the European Association of Work and Organisational Psychology (EAWOP 2017), University College Dublin, Rep. of Ireland. 17-20 th May, 2017.

A quantitative investigation to explore the psychosocial traits that mediate reemployment in an Irish sample.

Jerry DixonSchool of Psychology Department of Life Long LearningUniversity College Dublin Institute of Technology Carlow

This Irish study collected biographical data and self reported ratings of traits from 430 job seekers nationwide to explore what psychosocial constructs mediate the reemployment process. Using a quantitative (within participants) design; this study performed a regression analysis on 85 traits deemed in the literature to impact upon job seeking. The dependant variables consisted of measures of i) period of unemployment, ii) a job seeking self efficacy score, and, iii) a job seeking intensity score. Using stepwise regression analysis, the 8th model for prolonged unemployment (R = .362, R2 .131, adj. R2 = .112) revealed that environmental perception was the largest single negative factor and over all accounted for 13% of the period of unemployment. The 8 traits contained in the model for the job seeking self efficacy accounted for 27% of the variance (R = .518, R2 .269, adj. R2

= .253). The highest factor predicting job seeking self efficacy was courage / fearlessness. Job seeking intensity revealed 5 traits in the regression model (R = .465, R2 .216, adj. R2

= .205) which found openness to experience to be the highest scoring factor. Although the power of the models appeared low, when other known unemployment variables like gender, level of education etc. were added, the power of the more specific models began to rise considerably. Collectively, the findings present an interesting psychological profile of reemployment in Ireland, and could benefit the content and objectives of current reemployment training programmes deployed by reemployment / guidance coaches to help reduce long term unemployment.

The study of reemployment as a subject of interest in psychology has slowly accelerated since the 1980’s when researchers began to move forward from studying the clinical effects and correlates of unemployment on mental health. Arguably, due to the social and political consequences of reemployment, job seeking and organisational entry could be justifiably claimed to be one of the most important fields of applied research in the current era. However, in it’s wider context, unemployment is represented by several academic disciplines like economics, sociology, political theory, career guidance, as well as work and organisational theorists. Since each discipline holds their own epistemological standpoint, the literature surrounding unemployment / reemployment has resulted in a mass of different languages, perspectives, and levels of explanation with little practical knowledge being eventually passed back to the reemployment practitioner or individual job seeker to assist them in their plight to source meaningful work. The rationale then for this study was to use the wider literature (extracted from a range of disciplines) to identify a lexicon of everyday collection of traits, skills, and dispositions, and assess which traits relate to prominent job seeking concepts and empirical measures that appear to mediate the reemployment process. Consequently the aim of this study was to unpack meta-concepts like job seeking self efficacy into component parts and correlates that feature in the Irish context. The anticipated data held the potential to help identify more tangible and declarative training objectives that could contribute significantly to the validity and content of reemployment training programmes.

Literature Review

Job seeking traits are a dynamic, evolving, and adaptable collection of competencies, dispositions, and personality traits that assist the job seeker at any one given period in time, and in any one environment, to source employment. In psychology, the most central concept in job seeking research has been the focus on

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job seeking self efficacy. In 1985, Kanfer & Hulin reported that job seeking self efficacy was the most reliable predictor of reemployment. Since then, various research groups have sought to unpack this concept and identify it’s correlates (Wanberg, Watt, & Rumsey, 1996, McArdle, Waters, Briscoe, & Hall, 2007). However, with a the exception if a few papers, the result was undoubtedly fragmentation. Saks, Zilic, and Koen (2015) highlight this where they report there is little consistency in the previous literature of how job seeking self efficacy has been, or should be measured. Their review found scales contained a mixture of job seeking knowledge, confidence in completing job seeking tasks and activities, confidence or clarity in career or job choice, confidence in undertaking job application methods, or projected confidence in a successful job seeking outcome. These are without doubt important, but somewhat different sets of criteria. What would be productive is to ascertain what traits underlie these behaviours associated with job seeking self efficacy in an Irish context.

Research Question 1 : What traits and skills correlate with Job Seeking Self Efficacy ?

Job seeking intensity has been recognised as related variable in reemployment research since the late 1980’s, and was first adopted as a variable by Robert Caplan, Amiram Vinokur, and Richard Price of the the Michigan Prevention Research Centre. Job seeking intensity was also identified in Wanberg, Hough, and Song’s (2002) model of reemployment success. This was further elaborated upon by Wanberg, Zhu, and Van Hooft (2010) who confirmed the level of job seeking intensity influenced the pace of reemployment. Tziner, Vered, & Ophir (2004) investigated the Big 5 in relation to job seeking intensity. Since then it has regularly featured alongside or within job seeking self efficacy measures. To measure job seeking intensity, Wanberg, Glomb, Song, & Sorenson (2005) adopted the 6 item scale originally developed by Caplan, Vinokur, Price, & van Ryn (1989). This procedure presented six different job seeking methods / activities, and asked respondents in a telephone survey to report the number of times they had used each method over a two week period. However, in Ireland such approaches could possibly yield unreliable results. Firstly, it assumes that each job seeking method would be equally available to the same extent in all geographical areas over the two week period. Secondly, it assumes that all job seekers are equally trained in how to job seek in each method to the same level of competence. Thirdly, in Ireland such a direct approach may create an ethical dilemma. To elaborate, job seekers benefit or allowance is paid on a contractual understanding that the individual is gainfully occupied in job seeking activity for the duration that that payment is claimed. This might induce some respondents to falsely report higher levels of job seeking activity than what had actually occurred, as well as possibly inducing a degree of discomfort for job seeking participants if asked directly. However, this does not negate the importance of attempting to ascertain what skills and competencies underlie job seeking intensity and requires a more subtle method being adopted.

Research Question 2 : What traits and skills correlate with Job Seeking Intensity ?

Closely associated with job seeking intensity, it is quite rational to assume that the coerced or self selection of specific job seeking methods may well reflect discreet traits and dispositions of the job seeker (which may be adversely affected with prolonged unemployment). Ellis & Taylor (1983) argued that the affective state will influence what job seeking methods are adopted. They predicted that job seekers with low self esteem would primarily opt for traditional job seeking methods requiring, ‘relatively little social skill’ (p.632), and result in a low level of job search intensity. Saks (2005) study of recently graduated college students indeed found distinctions in elected job seeking method and preparatory job seeking behaviours. As such, it may be reasonable to ask job seekers to rate the perceived effectiveness of different job seeking methods to indicate their prowess and efficacy in job seeking.

Research Question 3 : What traits and skills correlate with Job Seeking Method Selection ?

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Under normal circumstances, it could be assumed that the continued period of unemployment would present a linear degradation of some skills and their related traits within job seekers. Certainly, this was the positivist and rational position adopted by economic researchers in Ireland (O’Connell, McGuinness & Kelly, 2012). A previously employed job seeker may immediately expect Job Seekers Benefit for a period of nine months. However, this may actually skew the linear degradation of employability since in some cases the presence of financial benefit (or a redundancy payment) might result in an individual not immediately engaging in job seeking activity. After this initial period, job seekers can claim Job Seekers Allowance. This is a means tested payment bestowed at the satisfaction of the Department of Social Protection. As a qualifying condition, the job seeker is formerly expected to engage in, and direct their behaviour towards job seeking activity. However, for any individual, the reasons why a period of unemployment may become prolonged are varied, inconsistent, and frequently complex. Some reasons are external and empirical like the physical number of visible vacancies available in a given geographical area, an industry shift in a specific skill set or occupation type demand, technological changes, a shortage of childcare provision or accessibility, or, even a partner in a well paid job. O’Connell, McGuinness, Kelly, & Walsh (2009) previously cited the issue of, ‘skill erosion, and scarring, leading to difficulty in re-entering employment’ (p.xi). These reasons can be more psychological, perceptual, and tacit in nature like seeking a period of respite after a traumatic exit from the work place, a deficit in the knowledge of how to actually job seek, or (as well documented) cases of increased anxiety, depression, and a chronic loss of self esteem. As such, the behaviour and psyche of the job seeker is not always as readily measurable as researchers and policy makers would perhaps prefer. This leaves unemployment tenure as a troublesome variable for empirical tests. That said, whereas shorter periods of unemployment may be invalid (due to financial assistance and reduced monitoring), it is increasingly likely that some traits and skills may be adversely affected by longer periods of unemployment.

Research Question 4 : What traits and skills correlate with Unemployment Tenure ?

Method

In this quantitative exploratory design, dependent variables included the current period of unemployment. The rating of a wide selection of job seeking methods (the total number of methods selected are deemed an indicator of job seeking methodology / variety), and a self reported rating of the effectiveness and use of each method selected (and as a total is taken as an indicator of job seeking intensity). A forced mean, even scale of 1-10 was adopted as suggested by Dumas (1999) to help reduce central tendency bias and expose the variance between variables without disrupting the overall mean.

Across the literature, the measurement of job seeking self efficacy varies considerably. The trend being to select question items that reflect the nature of the study at hand rather than using complete scales. In the current context, job seeking self efficacy will be measured using a set of 15 questions drawn from a variety of validated job seeking efficacy scales aimed at detecting the metacognitive and mindful aspects of job seeking self efficacy. All the original question items return a minimum Chronbach alpha coefficient of .70 or above. Comparing different research papers, question items did not appear to lose validity when the wording is adapted into localised contexts. Note that since job seeking self efficacy relating to the use of particular job seeking methods was already captured in the previous section of the survey instrument, this type of question item was omitted.

The independent variables consisted of 126 traits which were identified from across a range of multi-disciplinary literature and were collated adopting a lexical approach (Allport & Odbert, 1936). This approach was chosen to reflect potential differences in colloquial discourse that may arise within an Irish context, as well as identify / validate the most meaningful traits that could benefit reemployment training programmes in Ireland. By adopting the lexical approach there was no pre-assumptions made as to what traits would appear

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the final models, adding validity to the results. The independent variables were operationalised into neutral declarative statements and balanced in terms of word length and level of description. The lexical method resulted in what would have appeared to be some similar traits being included in the original survey. However, semantically similar traits were not edited out until a pilot test had verified significant correlations (above .7), and the instrument had been blind reviewed by three independent and experts in the field. Direct feedback from an initial pilot test of 10 participants helped identify and adapt any remaining language issues regarding clarity and accessibility. After the review process, the final survey instrument was reduced to 85 question items by omitting 41 semantically related question items. Participants were instructed to use an even numbered 1-8 response rating to create the interval data needed for parametric analysis.

In addition to the above, materials included preparatory instructional sheets outlining the procedure, the aim of the research, and the ethical protocols observed. Survey administrators nationally were previously briefed on the timing, the survey administration procedure, and the ethical protocols to be observed and respected. Although the survey administrators would not be totally naïve by nature of their profession, they were blind regarding the specific hypotheses being investigated to reduce the potential of experimenter effect. According to the typology described by Tashakkori & Teddlie (2010), the research cohort consisted of a homogeneous critical case sample. This refers to participants who share common characteristics who may provide specific insight into the phenomenon of interest. Participants of mixed gender and age (18-65) were invited to complete the survey in 17 participating Job Club locations around Ireland representing a range of client types, a range of unemployment durations, varied educational and social backgrounds, and different habitats. It should be noted that Job Club operate group training through the medium of the English language, and a very small number of EEC citizens would have contributed to the study. To use the Job Club service, the command and use of English would be considered to be of a good / high standard (other services are available where literacy is an issue). The sample group of 430 job seekers approximately represented 5.7% of the population of job seekers in Ireland who used reemployment training services amongst the 54 Job Club’s nationally during the data collection period of April, 2012 to August, 2013. Although, some generalisations can be made to unemployed persons par se, the following distinctions are noted. Firstly, the cohort represents ‘active’ job seekers, and not necessarily members of the unemployed who consciously choose not to seek employment. Secondly, the cohort represents active job seekers who have elected to seek assistance in their job seeking (i.e. there may be other job seekers who job seek quite independently, or who may not of heard of Job Club services).

ResultsThe research process accumulated a large amount of data with only a small selection presented in this paper. Readers may correctly note numerous reported research papers that found distinctions in job seeking behaviours between variables like level of education, age, gender etc., and as such the following may only reflect a generic over view of the findings. However, this approach was adopted deliberately since the vast majority of public reemployment training programmes do not target generic groups of job seekers in Ireland. The geographic spread and concentration of specific types of job seekers across the country, as well as limited resources to develop such specific programmes would make such an approach unviable. Therefore, although the anticipated level of significance and power would be reduced, what remained could be applied to all job seekers.

Space does not allow a compressive report of the means, correlations and ANOVA’s that were conducted. As a result, the job seeking traits were ultimately assessed using regression analysis, a brief summary of which is reported here. The following statistics reflect inspection for the identification of residuals, and the removal of outliers, and the satisfaction of collinearity and homoscedasity criteria. The overall results are shown in the diagram below.

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Qu 1 - What traits are related to Job Seeking Self Efficacy / Confidence – The following 8 factor model accounted for 27% of the variance in the Job Seeking Self Efficacy score (R = .518, R2 =.269, adj. R2

= .253). The positive factors reflect job seeking knowledge, social / impression management skills, and character strengths that boost job seeking confidence. The highest single factor was courage / fearlessness, a belief built upon self efficacy to approach adversity and the unknown. The low factors represent social and interpersonal skills that if lost may undermine job seeking confidence by denying job seekers sources of competency feedback, and emotional and social support which helps reinforce feelings of self efficacy.

Low Score / negative score indicating as these traits decrease, job seeking self efficacy / confidence also decreases .

Social Altruism – An emotional intelligence trait that describes our care for others and our obligation act benevolently. Low altruism may indicate a lack of desire / motivation to fulfil social obligations through employment, or, a disregard or indifference for remaining on the social welfare system. A low score may also reflect a rise a egocentric survival instinct. A possible side effect here may include an elected withdrawal from social interaction.

Build Rapport – Another emotional intelligence trait described by Petrides, Pita, & Kokkinaki (2007). In this context it normally reflects the ability to forge productive relationships with potential employers and persons of influence which is central to networking during job seeking. In addition though, like above, a side effect here of a low score may result in a reduction of networking potential and a lack of social / emotional support to help build job seeking confidence.

Diagram to Show the Psycho-social Traits that Mediate Reemployment in an Irish Sample.

High Score / positive score indicating as these traits increase, job seeking confidence and self efficacy also increases.

Courage / Fearlessness – A positive approach orientation to engage in new and challenging situations in the confidence that a positive outcome is at least possible. Although identified by Seligman & Peterson (2004) as a buffer against depressive symptoms, this trait has not featured prominently in the job seeking literature to date.

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Job Search Knowledge – Previously identified by Price & Vinokur (1995), knowledge of the job seeking process and subsequent methodologies. This issue is significant when considering economic and organisational change.

Extraversion – An outward going / pro-social disposition is beneficial in counteracting modesty effects when promoting the self and one’s employable competencies. Dixon & Kirwan (2010) found extraversion significantly influenced the adoption of pro-social job seeking techniques that involved direct communication with employers.

Explicit Self Awareness – The empirical product of subjective competency as recognised by Evans & Kersh (2004). If confidence is awareness of competency, awareness must be grounded in immediately recallable and precise experiences that verify skill competency. This allows the job seeker to take conscious ownership of the skill, and possess a sense of authentic legitimacy when declaring skills and competencies to recruiters at interview.

Resourceful – The ability to cope with new or difficult situations and using people or sources of information to find solutions to problems is synonymous with job seeking and will help the job seeker persist through many challenges.Audience Designed Language – An empathy / impression management strategy proposed by Clark & Murphy (1982). Adapting language according to the perceived status, perceived knowledge, and purpose of the conversation to insure optimum rapport, effective communication, and insurance of meeting conversation objectives.

Qu 2/3 - What traits are related to Job Seeking Intensity / Job Seeking Methods - The resulting models between job seeking intensity and job seeking methods were similar and so for the purposes of this short report have been combined. The traits reported accounted for 21% of the total variance (R = .465, R2 =.216, adj. R2 = .205). The highest factor for job seeking intensity score was self perception (self value judgement) of your CV, which goes to support the importance of CV design as stressed by Dixon & Buckley (2004). The highest factor for the number of job seeking methods adopted was openness to new experiences as previously identified by McArdle, Waters, Briscoe, & Hall (2007). The following traits and skills were related high scores that foster job seeking intensity & adoption of more job seeking methodologies ;-

Openness to Experience – An uninhibited approach orientation to try new things and experiences is omnipresent in job seeking. It also indicates to what extent the job seeker is inclined to try new job seeking methods, or even new job roles.

CV / Self Evaluation – Subjectively, CV is a narrative self portrait (indicating the importance attached to CV design), if we like it, are proud of it, and are happy for others to see it – we will use it more often. Feelings of shame, inadequacy, regret will lead to only producing it on demand and the CV’s marketing potential is subsequently reduced.

Career Identity – As previously acknowledged by Ashforth & Fugate (2001), Job seeking effort is accelerated by a clear and consistent career identity / job target. Job seeking efforts become focused and efficient. As a result, the perception and communication of Person : Organisation fit becomes more tangible and explicit.

Loci of Control – The belief the self has the resources and independent ability to alter and change outcomes. Job seeking is positively influenced by the belief ‘I can do this’ as described by Fugate, Kinicki, & Ashforth (2004).

Problem Solving – The ability to solve problems, make compromises, seek new ideas & solutions is beneficial in a changing work environment where previous experience may not be comprehensive enough to cover all potential scenarios.

Belongingness / Loyal – One of the character strengths identified by Peterson & Seligman (2004), in this context belongingness may represent the need for attachment / affiliation to a target job or organisation.

Analytical / Evaluative – According to Liptak (2005), analytical skills help foster EI competencies. The ability to judge and break down information and knowledge. To use that knowledge in a creative, strategic, and goal directed fashion.

Creative / Innovative – To synthesise new knowledge and create new solutions from current resources, and assist in the procurement of new skills / knowledge. Recognised as a character strength (Peterson & Seligman, 2004), and a core EI competency (Goleman, 1998).

Interview Self Efficacy – To know that you can approach an interview with the prospect of success. Van Ryn & Vinokur (1992) considered interview self efficacy as a distinct sub group within job seeking self efficacy.

IT Skills – To utilise information technology to acquire new knowledge, to engage with computer applications / networks, and market oneself to a wider audience of potential employers using information technology.

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Intrinsic Hobbies – Lammers (1993) suggest hobbies help indicate to employers intrinsic self motivation. They also create an opportunity for self reinforcing achievement as well as opportunities for social feedback and interaction during periods of unemployment.

The low factors detract from active job seeking and were also linked significantly to cognitive factors like memory and self awareness of competency (certainly an issue for competency based interviews), and speed of processing (which might negatively impact upon response time at interview when asked a question. See Liu, Li, Xiao, Yang, & Jiang, 2012).

Recruit Assistance – A low ability to recruit or seek assistance was directly related to the level of job seeking intensity, and consequently reduced the number of job seeking methods adopted. This disposition / behaviour was previously identified by Van Hoye, Van Hooft, & Lievens (2009).

Episodic Memory – Low ability to recall memories of events and examples of our experience, not only affects confidence but directly impacts on the quality of applications and performance in competency based interviews. This issue has not been previously explored in the job seeking literature but has been identified in mindfulness and clinical research (Heeran, Van Broeck, & Philipott, 2009, Liu, Li, Xiao, Yang, & Jiang, 2012).

Concentration / Attention Span – The ability to think and process information quickly, as well as focus for longer periods is beneficial when engaging socially with employers, especially when responding to questions concerning experience at interview. Low concentration / attention may also negatively impact upon the number of items that can be held in short term memory. This trait is not previously described in the job seeking research, but is described as a feature of organisational engagement (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker, 2002).

Impulse Control – Recognised as a core EI trait (Bar-On, 1997), low impulse control reflects a tendency to act sporadically, erratically, or spontaneously. In the context of job seeking, this trait appears to contribute to higher levels of job seeking activity. It may result that fewer opportunities are lost, or, fewer delays / withdrawal due to procrastination and/or negative self talk is avoided. However, low impulse control have negative consequences if applications are poorly prepared in a rush to submit them, and hence could be regarded as an act of desperation.

Initiative / Self Motivation – An EI trait described by Abraham (2004). Low levels of initiative / self motivation may indicate an inability to job seek independently, or lead to job opportunities being lost.

Qu 4 - What traits are related to the Period of Unemployment – Considering the array of concrete barriers that can affect reemployment, the result that the psycho-social traits uncovered in the nine factor model accounted for 13% of the variance (R = .362, R2 = .131, adj. R2 = .112) in the unemployment period was a notable finding. Note, when variables like gender, education, and age etc. were added to the statistic, the model value for specific groups increased significantly. The low factors directly add to, or may even be responsible for longer periods of unemployment by their absence or decline. The highest single low scoring factor was environmental perception, namely the self attributed or learned belief there are no jobs available. The fear is here that a self fulfilling prophesy is created. Environmental perception holds a high degree of influence upon whether the job seeker overly focuses on the visible job market, or explores hidden job options.

Environmental Perception – Our belief of what is ‘out there’. An external factor which may install hopelessness if low, coined with a belief that we therefore may not have any power to change the situation. This belief was previously identified by Wanberg, Hough, & Song (2002).

Subjective Competency – Our awareness of what we are competent in, mindful consciousness what we are good at the arguably precedes self efficacy. This concept was indirectly identified by Taylor & Betz (1983), but requires further investigation. However, a low score may install the belief we are redundant, unemployable, and worthless.

Listening Skills – A low score not only indicates an inability to listen to others, but also to learn from them and respond / adapt. Low listening skills may also indicate an increased level of egocentrism and social withdrawal.

Independence – Identified by Fugate, Kinicki, & Ashforth (2004) a low score is related to a low locus of control, low independence denotes the inability to help oneself and thus increased dependency on others / state services.

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Stress Awareness – An EI trait described by Bar-on (1997), a low awareness of stress indicates a degree of denial / acceptance and may indicate an increase in depression type symptoms.

Charisma – Low charisma indicates a dulling of social skills, and perceived attractiveness; which may cause or increase social isolation. The polar opposite of what Willner (1984) described in effective leadership.

High score / positive score indicates that as these traits increase, unemployment becomes prolonged.

Maintain Stamina – Methodologically it cannot be distinguished whether the ability to maintain stamina in this case denotes the ability to endure prolonged unemployment (an inoculation effect perhaps due to the Irish benefit system), or, the result of unemployment produces increased resilience to source work (Senécal & Guay, 2000). In essence then, it would seem beneficial that a low tolerance or impatience, would be more productive in the form of avoidance motivation to evade prolonged unemployment.

Handwriting / literacy – It is normally those with low literacy skills who proclaim its importance since they invariably use low literacy as a concrete barrier rationalising their unemployment state.

Logical Decision Making – Logical decision making in this context may prolong unemployment since in a downsized economy some reemployment options may at first appear illogical if they represent a detraction from the idealised job target. This over focus, may lead to procrastination while waiting for the ideal job opportunity. This trait may also indicate the increasing conflict between the opportunities of poor or short term employment solutions, and the financial resources available through state benefits.

Summary

From a critical realist perspective (Bhaskar & Lawson, 1998), empirical studies reflect the shadows on the wall in Plato’s cave. Yet, they infer or indicate something real, and the aim is to identify the underlying trends that created the shadows. No one doubts the concrete realities of unemployment, yet it would appear that the interpretation and influence of these concrete factors, and consequently reemployment, is significantly psycho-social as argued by Fugate, Kinicki, and Ashforth (2004). Affective objectives are frequently overlooked in training programmes, yet they could potentially mediate the transfer of training and adaptation of more active job seeking behaviour. Economic research invariably tends to utilise behaviourist modes of application to manipulate behaviour. These findings however strongly endorse a more cognitive and affective model of reemployment intervention. It is not claimed that these findings will generalise outside of Ireland, but the lexical approach may prove insightful since it utilises previous research without the findings being determined by them. What was particularly interesting was that using the lexical approach, the traits could have appeared in each model. With the exception of the job seeking intensity and job seeking methods models (which arguably would present some overlap), the models for unemployment period and job seeking self efficacy were quite distinct. Further to this, the identification of positive and negative values through the regression analysis helped to highlight the nature and behaviour of the psycho-social traits relevant to the job seeking and reemployment process. There is of course, much more research to be conducted baring in mind the temporal influences of economic change in contemporary society. However, in terms of Ireland at least, this research has helps to inform in which direction to shine the light.

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documents.grenadine.codocuments.grenadine.co/MCI Group/EAWOP 2017... · Web viewPoster presentation (Paper No. 904) at the 18th Conference of the European Association of Work and