Guidelines for Organic Farming · The OCB charges an annual fee for this service. After two years of successful conversion the farm is granted a symbol (organic) licence. Crops

Published by:TEAGASCHead OfficeOak ParkCarlow

Email: [email protected]

JUNE 2008

Guidelines for Organic Farming

9545 TEAG ORGANIC COVER JUNE08 05/06/2008 16:55 Page 1

Contents

Introduction to organic farming 2

The two-year conversion 5

Soil fertility 8

Grassland management 10

Beef production 16

Sheep production 19

Dairying 22

Tillage 25

Horticulture 29

Introduction to poultry production 33

Returns from organic farming 37

Market prospects for organic food 39

Teagasc services for organic farmers 41

Useful contacts 43

Guidelines for O

rganic Farming

Introduction to OrganicFarmingOrganic farming can be a profitablealternative to conventional farming.At EU and global level the industry isexperiencing rapid growth. Currentlymore than 31 million hectares offarmland are under organicmanagement worldwide. The EU landarea under organic managementstands at 4% or six million hectares ofthe total area farmed. In Ireland thesector is growing steadily, yet remainsrelatively underdeveloped with lessthan 1% of the total farming areanow farmed organically. At the end of2007 1,121 organic operators wereregistered with the Department ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food andthe area farmed organically wasapproximately 40,000 hectares.

What is Organic Farming?Organic farming is a system offarming which avoids the use ofsoluble fertilizers, pesticides, growthregulators, feed additives and otherchemicals. The organic farmer relieson the use of crop rotations, animalmanure, clover, low stocking rates andgood animal husbandry for producingoutputs. The natural immunity ofplants and animals are used tocombat disease whenever possible.

The organic tillage farmer andvegetable grower aim to have a highlevel of organic matter and a highlevel of biological life in the soil.Excellent husbandry, farmmanagement and planning skills arerequired, as quick fix chemical andpharmaceutical solutions are nolonger an option.

chapter 1


RegulationsA major factor distinguishing organicfarming from other approaches tosustainable farming is the existence ofinternationally acknowledgedstandards and certification procedures.The standards for organic productionwithin the European Union aredefined and enshrined in law byCouncil Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91.

With effect from 24 August 2000,Council Regulation 1804/99, whichsupplemented Regulation 2092/91,brought organic livestock andlivestock produce within the ambit ofEU rules. These standards have beendeveloped to provide organicproducers with clear rules as to howorganic food should be produced tomeet consumer demand.

Regulation 2092/91, which is backedup by Statutory Instruments 112 of2004 and 698 of 2007, creates aframework defining in detail therequirements for agricultural productsor foodstuffs bearing a reference toorganic production methods. The rulesnot only define the methods ofproduction for organic crops andlivestock but also regulate thelabelling, processing, inspection andmarketing of organic products withinthe European Community and theimportation of organic products fromnon-member countries.

In Ireland, the Department ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food is thecompetent authority for regulatingthe organic sector and ensuring thatthe obligations and requirements ofRegulation 2092/91, as amended, areadhered to. The EU legislation allows

2

Member States to use privateinspection bodies to carry out theinspection and licensing system oforganic operators. Two certificationbodies carry out this work in Ireland:Irish Organic Farmers and GrowersAssociation (IOFGA) and Organic TrustLtd.

Farmers considering the organicoption should read the standardsrelating to their farming enterprises indetail and discuss the options with anagricultural adviser. By studying thestandards, farmers and growers willbe able to see which practices on theirfarms do or do not meet the organicregulations. To avail of the pricepremiums and financial supports fororganic produce, a farmer must havehis farm certified by one of theOrganic Certification Bodies (OCBs)and must farm in accordance withorganic standards. Some of the mainrequirements of these standards areoutlined below.

The Standards for Organic Foodand Farming in Ireland• A two-year conversion period is

required before a farm is givenorganic status.

• Soluble mineral fertilizers areprohibited, but some fertilizsers arepermitted, such as lime and rockphosphate.

• Clover and other legumes supplynitrogen. The balance betweenfertility building crops, such as grass,clover lea and exploitative cropssuch as cereals and potatoes iscritical in a tillage rotation.

• Most manufactured agro-chemicals(e.g., herbicides) are prohibited.

chapter 1

Introduction to Organic Farming

• Ruminant livestock must be fed adiet which is at least 60% roughage.Tillage crops should be consideredon organic farms as it may becheaper to grow than to buy-inconcentrates. Cereals also producestraw for bedding, provide anopportunity to re-seed ground to aclover lea and to have clean grazingfor young stock.

• The highest standards of animalwelfare are obligatory. Housedanimals must be provided withbedding. Good ventilation and agenerous floor area for each animalare required.

• Routine preventative treatment ofhealthy animals is not allowed. Theemphasis is on prevention ratherthan cure, through managementtechniques. Obviously, sick animalsmust be treated, and treatment isalso allowed in the case of a knownfarm problem e.g., blackleg(permission is required in this case).

Applying the StandardsWhile the organic standards mayappear difficult at first glance, thereare many farms that could change toorganic production without muchdifficulty. Mixed farms with sucklercows, sheep and some tillage areideally suited to organic farming. The most critical element in asuccessful organic farm is the farmer.He or she will need excellent livestockand crop husbandry skills, have goodforesight and planning ability, keepgood records and successfully marketthe farm’s produce.

Getting InformationInformation on organic farming is

3

obtainable from any of the OCB’s andyour local Teagasc adviser. It isadvisable for farmers to visit organicfarms in their area first, to learn fromthe experience of other farmers andto see the changes required toconvert to organic farming. Details oforganic farms to visit can be obtainedfrom the OCBs or the Teagasc organicadvisers. There is a series of organicdemonstration farms walks eachsummer and short courses in organicfarming and growing are provided byTeagasc, the Organic Centre inLeitrim, County Wexford OrganicCentre and An tIonad Glas inLimerick.

Relevant Organisations

1. Organic Certification BodiesIreland has two Organic CertificationBodies:• Irish Organic Farmers and Growers

Association (IOFGA); and• Organic Trust.

These bodies are approved by theDepartment of Agriculture, Fisheries

chapter 1

Introduction to Organic Farming

and Food (DAFF) to provide a licensedinspection and certification scheme,under Council Regulation (EEC)2092/91, as amended. Farmers,growers and processors must registerwith one of the two organicassociations in order to produce andmarket a product to organicstandards. This is also a requirementunder the Organic Farming Scheme.

2. Department of Agriculture,Fisheries and Food (DAFF)

In Ireland the Department ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food is thecompetent authority for regulatingthe organic sector and ensuring thatthe obligations and requirements ofRegulation 2092/91 as amended, areadhered to. The DAFF Organic Unit isbased at Johnstown Castle Estate.Applicants must register as organicoperators and complete the DAFFForm ORG 1. DAFF also operate theOrganic Farming Scheme and the OnFarm and Off Farm Schemes of GrantAid for the Development of theOrganic Sector (outlined in Chapter 2).

3. TeagascDetails of services provided to organicfarmers by Teagasc are outlined inChapter 13.

4. Producer Support andMarketing Groups

There are several groups of producerswho aim to promote and supportorganic farming. Some also markettheir own produce. Such groups are avaluable support for those involved in,or considering, organic production.(See Chapter 14 for contact details ofrelevant organisations)

4

The Two-YearConversion

One of the specifications of theStandards for Organic Food andFarming in Ireland is that a two-yearconversion period is required before afarm is given organic status. Inexceptional cases the OrganicCertification Body may, with theapproval of the Department ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food,decide to extend or reduce theconversion period. In all cases at least12 months of the conversion is subjectto inspection. During the conversionperiod the rates of payment underthe Organic Farming Scheme aredoubled. This is to take account ofcosts associated with converting andthe fact that the produce is not yetcertified for sale with an organicsymbol. Some of the main changesrequired when converting to organicfarming are as follows:

• Introduce additional clover into thepastures;

• Modify existing buildings or addnew buildings;

• Cease using chemical fertilisers andsprays; and

• Avoid routine veterinary treatmentof animals.

Good management is crucial tobecoming a good organic farmer.Planning in advance and paying goodattention to detail are importantfactors. The Standards require thedrawing up of a detailed conversionplan.

chapter 2


The Conversion PlanThe conversion plan should be drawnup in consultation with an agriculturaladviser who is familiar with organicstandards. The plan should include:• A detailed description of the farm

and management practices;• The changes required to meet the

standards;• An animal health plan;• Livestock housing and feeding

system;• Details of crop and grazing

rotations;• Soil analysis results;• Details of soil fertility maintenance

plan;• Faecal analysis from 10% of the

herd/flock;• Farm maps plus sketch of buildings,

the plan, application form, ORG1form, accompanying documentsand licensing fee must be submittedto the OCB of your choice, and aninspection of your farm will bearranged soon afterwards. Followingsuccessful inspection, a conversionlicence is issued.

Each year the farm is inspected by aninspector from the OCB and a licenceis granted, provided that thestandards are adhered to. The OCBcharges an annual fee for this service.After two years of successfulconversion the farm is granted asymbol (organic) licence. Cropsharvested and sold in the first year ofconversion must be marketed as‘conventional’. In the second year ofconversion the produce may be sold as‘in-conversion to organic production’.No livestock or livestock products maybe sold as ‘organic’ until the land hasachieved full organic status.

5

Maximising PaymentsPractically all those converting toorganic production will either join theREPS scheme or already be in thescheme. Under the NationalDevelopment Plan 2007- 2013 (NDP),The Organic Farming Scheme is now astand alone scheme. The On-Farm andOff-Farm Schemes of Grant Aid forthe Development of the OrganicSector are also run by the DAFF tohelp fund developments for producersand processors.

Horticulture Only Holdings Organic horticulture only producers,with one hectare or more, are eligiblefor the following payments providedthat at least 50% of the area eligiblefor organic payment is cropped eachyear (excludes green manure):

chapter 2

The Two-Year Conversion

6

Table 1: Rates of payment for horticulture holdings

Horticulture Horticulture Area Horticulture AreaArea > 6 ha and up to >55 ha< 6 ha 55 ha

In conversion €283/ha €212/ha €30/ha

Full organic status €142/ha €106/ha €15/ha

Table 2: Payment rates for other holdings

Farmed Area of > 3ha up to 55ha Farmed Area > 55ha

In conversion €212/ha €30/ha

Full organic status €106/ha €15/ha

On all other holdings, applicants with 3 hectares or more of utilisable agricultural areaare eligible for the following payments:

REPS and the Organic FarmingSchemeThe relationship of REPS and organicpayments has changed under the NDP2007 -2013. Under the old NDP, theOrganic Scheme was part of REPS, nowit is separate. Under the NDP 2007 -2013 if a farmer is already in REPS 3and wants to join the Organic FarmingScheme, he must now change to REPS4 if he wants to continue in REPS. If afarmer is already in REPS 4; he can jointhe Organic Farming Scheme at hisconvenience. Under the Organic Farming Schemethere are some minimumrequirements:• A minimum stocking rate of

0.5LU/ha is required to avail of fullpayments (otherwise payment ispro rata);

• For crop production (non-livestocksystems) at least 50% of the areaeligible for payment must becropped each year. For mixedfarming systems, payment for cropproduction will be based on thearea cropped;.

• The maximum stocking rate islimited to the terms andconditions of the NitratesDirective;

• Farmers with commonages orgrazing rights may be allowed toparticipate in the Organic Schemebut will not get organic paymentson the commonage;

• Partial conversion is allowed, thusgiving more flexibility; and

• In REPS 4, participation in theOrganic Scheme will now be paidon land that is also attractingpayment for Conservation ofNATURA 2000 and Other PrioritySites (formerly SupplementaryMeasure A).

chapter 2

The Two-Year Conversion

Additional OptionStockless non-REPS farmers applying greencover during the conversion period mayqualify for an additional payment of€240/ha per year up to a maximum of 40ha.

Grant AidThere are now two grant schemes availableto help the development of the organicsector:1. The On-Farm Scheme of Grant Aid for

the Development of the Organic Sector;and

2. The Off-Farm Scheme of Grant Aid forthe Development of the Organic Sector.

The schemes aim to promote thedevelopment of the organic sector. Theseschemes provide 40% funding for on farmand off farm facilities, and equipment forproduction, grading and storage of organicproducts. The schemes also fund themodification of existing livestock housingon the farm. For further informationcontact a local Teagasc adviser.

7

Table 3: Accumulation of aid under REPS 4

Organic Payment Plus REPS basic payment Plus Owned Natura orAny one of:Linnet

Rare BreedsTraditional OrchardsRiparian Zone

Table 4: Total payments on organic farms also in REPS 4

Area Basic REPS Payment REPS + In conversion REPS + Full Organic

20 ha €4,680 €8,920 €6,80040 ha €8,780 €17,620 €13,02055 ha €10,010 €21,670 €15,84085 ha €10,310 €22,870 €16,590

Soil FertilityAppropriate soil management and themaintenance of soil fertility arefundamental to the success of organicfarming. Management of organicfarms should ensure regular inputs ofmanures and a level of microbial andearthworm activity sufficient tobreakdown organic matter andensure continuous and efficientnutrient cycling. Keeping soils at a pHthat facilitates organic matterbreakdown and nutrient recycling isessential for successful organicfarming.

LimeMany Irish soils are naturally acidic.Our high rainfall makes surface acidityvery common. Liming is the best wayof keeping soils at pH 6.0 – 6.5. Limeprovides the very basis of soil fertilityand works in a number of ways:• Lime corrects soil acidity. Acid soils

generally tend to be unproductive;• Liming leads to the release of

nutrients in the soil such asnitrogen, phosphorus andpotassium. In acid soils thesenutrients are in forms that areunavailable to plants; and

• Lime is a soil conditioner allowingthe breakdown of organic matter. Itincreases microbiological andearthworm activity and improvessoil structure, which leads toincreased soil pore size which inturn allows air and water to passthrough the soil more freely.

Lime requirement is the amount oflime required to change the pH of thesoil from where it is to a pH of 6.5 for

chapter 3


grassland. Soil testing indicates theamount and frequency of limeapplication needed. There aresituations where this ruling on pHshould be modified: • Lime use should be restricted on soils

with high molybdenum status; • pH should not be raised above 5.5 in

peat soils;• On very extensively run organic

farms with very low stocking, littleor no lime may be needed; and

• On heavy carboniferous soils limemust be used very sparingly in orderto avoid poaching.

Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K)Phosphorus is an essential element forplant and animal life. In animalsphosphorus is essential for boneformation. Low phosphorus levels inthe diet can cause depraved appetitein cattle and are also associated withpoor fertility. Recent research atJohnstown Castle suggests that lowsoil phosphorus can lead to poor andvery slow establishment of cereal andgrass crops. A satisfactory potassiumlevel in soils is essential for nutrientmovement within plants and when soillevels are low the productive grassestend to die out. Clover is particularlysensitive to low soil potassium andwhere levels are low clover canbecome very scarce in the sward. Thismeans nitrogen (N) supply could bevery poor. The target for soil P and Klevels are outlined in Table 5.

(overleaf)

8

Maintaining Soil FertilityThe aim of organic farming is tomaintain soil fertility levels byefficient recycling of farmyardmanure, slurry and or compost that isnormally generated on the farm. Theefficient storage and spreading offarmyard manure, slurry or compost isvital to organic farming. Onproductive organic farms, significantquantities of milk, meat and orcereals are sold off the farm. Theseproducts contain nutrients, forinstance: 1,000 litres of milk or 100 kgof beef contain approximately 1 kg ofphosphorus. If this phosphorus is notreturned to the soil it will becomeimpoverished over time. This must notbe allowed to happen. It is this logicthat led to the allowance of limitedfertiliser use in organic farming.

Use of FertilizersFertilizers are a nutrient and shouldbe regarded as a supplement to, andnot a replacement for, nutrientrecycling within the farm. They shouldbe used only to replace the nutrientsthat are removed by the farmingsystem. The first option for replacingthese nutrients is to bring in manuresfrom other farms and compost themon the users holding. These manuresmust be declared GMO-free and mustcome from non-intensive productionsystems. After these options areexhausted, certain types of fertilisers

can be used. In the Organic Standardsmineral fertilizers and supplementarynutrients are divided into twocategories: permitted and restricted. Ifthe product does not appear on eitherlist (e.g., CAN, super-phosphate,10:10:20) farmers can assume it isprohibited. A full list of these isavailable in the organic standards.Examples of permitted productsinclude rock phosphate, limestone,ground chalk, calcium sulphate, epsomsalts and herbal sprays. Examples ofrestricted products include rock potash(subject to chlorine analysis) basic slag,seaweed, fish meal and trace elements(boron, copper, iron, manganese,molybdenum and zinc), following thesubmission of soil, leaf or bloodanalysis. In all cases permission fromthe OCB must be gained beforerestricted products can be used.

9

Table 5: Target P and K levels in organic soils

Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K)

Soil Nutrient Index 2: Index 2: 51 – 100Level (mg/l) Grassland: 3.1 – 5.0

Tillage: 3.1 – 6.0

chapter 3

Soil Fertility

Grassland Management

While many of the basic principles offarming organic grassland are thesame as for conventional grasslandthere are some important differenceswhich influence organic grasslandmanagement. Most fertilisers familiarto the conventional farmer androutine worming of livestock are notallowed nor are herbicides for weedcontrol. Management practices mustbe adapted to suit the system.

FertilityThe three main nutrients needed for aproductive sward are nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium.Phosphorus and potassium have beendealt with in the previous chapter.

Nitrogen (N) can come from threemain sources on organic farms:• Clover;• Microbiological activity in well

managed soils can provide60kg–80kg N/ha/year by releasingnitrogen from decaying organicmatter; and

• Farmyard manure/slurry can containconsiderable quantities of nitrogenbut much of this can be lostdepending on spreading time andmethod.

Clover in Organic GrasslandClover drives successful organicfarming by fixing nitrogen from theatmosphere and is therefore the keyway for the organic farmer to getmore nitrogen into the soil. There aretwo main types of clover that aremost useful on Irish farms: whiteclover and red clover. White clover

chapter 4


can greatly increase swardproductivity by providing up to 100kg N/ha. A sward without clover orartificial nitrogen can growapproximately 5,000 kg of grass drymatter (DM)/ha/year, which couldsupport a little less than onelivestock unit. On the other hand, agood clover sward will support astocking rate of 1.5LU/ha or more.

Red clover can fix up to 200 kg N/ha,twice the potential of white clover.When sown with perennial ryegrassit can achieve yields of 11,000 kg to13,000 kg DM/ha/year. When usedfor silage it can lift the stocking rateas high as 1.7LU/ha or more. It is ashort-term crop, producing well fortwo to four years after which time itis generally followed by a cereal orroot crop or reseeded. Grazingdoesn’t suit red clover and it will dieout of a sward much more quicklyunder grazing than when used forsilage.

Clover-Rich SwardsOn many farms it is difficult toachieve adequate levels of whiteclover in the swards. In mid-August50% of the dry matter should bemade up of clover. This will appearas almost 100% ground cover. Theadvantages of a clover-rich swardare:• Clover maintains its digestibility

throughout the grazing season;• Intakes by stock are higher than on

nitrogen-based swards;• Mineral content is significantly

higher than in high nitrogenswards; and

• Clover enhances biological diversityin the sward.

10

Establishing Clover-Rich SwardsThere are several ways to establishclover-rich swards, includingploughing and reseeding, minimumcultivation and surface seeding.

Plough and ReseedThis is the most reliable method ofestablishing clover. It has severaladvantages: • Pests and diseases at or near the

surface are buried;• The existing sward is buried and this

allows the sown sward to establishwithout competition from the oldsward;

• The ploughed soil can be easilycultivated to provide the ideal seedbed;

• The opportunity can be taken tolevel land during the tillageoperations; and

• Organic manures and lime can beworked into the rooting layer of thesoil, rather than just placing themon the surface.

However, there are also somedisadvantages to ploughing. Deepploughing can bury soil nutrients,especially phosphorus, which tends toremain near the surface of the soil.Ploughing should only be to a depthof approximately 15cm. In grassland,ploughing can leave furrows that aredifficult to level out afterwards. Asthe seeds are small a firm, fineseedbed is essential to ensure closecontact between the soil and seed. Alight harrowing and firm roll willensure that the seed is in close contactwith the soil, it also presses downstones and helps retain soil moisture.The grass/clover seed mixture can be

chapter 4


under-sown into a cereal crop or arablesilage crop in the spring or sowndirectly in spring or autumn.

Minimum CultivationIn conventional agriculture, theprincipal way of reseeding withoutploughing is to kill the existing swardwith a herbicide, prepare the seed bedwith a power harrow or tillingequipment of various kinds, and addthe seed. As herbicides are not allowedin organic farming, it is critical toestablish the seeds rapidly before theexisting sward or weeds can competewith the new seedlings; this is difficultto achieve.

Management must be geared towardsminimising the growth of the existingsward and encouraging the growth ofthe new seedlings. One method ofdoing this is to take a high yieldingsilage crop off the site immediatelyprior to reseeding, so that the seeds arebeing sown into a ‘brown stubble’, asopposed to a ‘green stubble’. regrowthof the existing sward after silageharvesting is always slower thanregrowth after grazing. Cutting thesward close to the soil surface slows theregrowth of the existing sward. Limingimproves the chances of success as itneutralises acidic conditions due to thedecay of the old sward. After the silageis removed, the soil can be tilled withpower machinery. The seeds can also bedrilled directly into the soil, usingspecialist equipment, such as theMoore,Aitcheson, or Hunter drills.

Surface SeedingWhite Clover can be successfully addedto existing swards in the conditions

11

listed below: • Presence of bare ground and

absence of a dense mat of grass onthe soil surface. For successfulestablishment, there must becontact between the seed and soil;

• The existing sward needs to becurtailed for as long as possibleafter clover addition. A heavy,closely harvested cut of silage is thesurest way of ensuring this;

• Reseeding in damp weatherincreases the chances of success;

• Use 4 kg to 5 kg of clover seed/ha;• Lightly roll after sowing to ensure

seed soil contact; and• Graze regularly after sowing in

order to prevent the existing swardfrom competing with the newseedlings.

Timing of SowingA warm soil and sufficient moistureare necessary for seed germination.The optimum time for sowing is fromearly April to the end of May andfrom mid-July to mid-August. Sowingof grass or clover seeds during themonths of June and early July shouldbe avoided, as the risk of drought isconsiderable during this period. Inorganic farming spring sowing is moresuccessful than autumn sowing.

Seed MixturesFarmers must make every effort to useonly organically certified seed. Wheresuch seed is unavailable specificderogations for use of untreated non-organic seeds may be sought.Perennial ryegrass and white cloverwill make up the most part of seedmixtures for Irish organic grassland.Only when stocking rates are pushed

chapter 4


significantly above 1.5lu/ha does redclover become justifiable as part of atwo or three cut silage system.

Perennial RyegrassPerennial ryegrasses have been provento be well suited to Irish conditions asthey: • Produce in early spring and late

autumn;• Grow rapidly in the April to July

period to give high silage yields;• Produce large quantities of leafy

grass in mid-summer without toomuch topping;

• Are persistent and high tillering, yetare compatible with clover thusgiving a good long-term sward; and

• Are palatable to animals thus givinggood intakes and high production.

Given these strengths perennialryegrass should be included in allmixtures and a strong case must bemade to include other grass species atits expense.

12

chapter 4


Other Grass SpeciesApart from perennial ryegrass someother grass species may have a role onorganic farms.

Timothy produces leafy grass in midsummer but has poor spring growth.It is very palatable if not let go toseed. It is well suited to wetterheavier land and if used should beincluded at a rate of 2 kg/ha.

Meadow Fescue is slow to establishbut performs well when successfullyestablished. It can be quite leafy inmid-summer and combines well withTimothy in wetter areas. Cocksfoot is deep rooting whichmakes it drought resistant andbeneficial to soil structure. It becomesvery fibrous when mature whichreduces its feeding value and regulartopping is necessary to maintain itsfeeding value in grazing.Italian Ryegrass is suited for short-term leys which will be cut for silagethree to four times per year. It doesn’tfit in well with other grass species as itreaches cutting stage mush quickerthan they do.Hybrid Ryegrass is a cross betweenperennial and Italian ryegrass andoffers some of the advantages of bothspecies. It is best suited to short termleys for silage but is not as short-livedas Italian and more productive thanperennial ryegrass.

Forage HerbsForage herbs are deep-rooted, mineralrich plants which can increase themineral intake of livestock as well asenrich the upper layers of the soil.Their tap roots make them more

drought resistant than grasses andmay lead to a more open soilstructure. They tend to be overlookedin practice, however, as they tend notto last in good swards due tocompetition from dense grass/cloverswards. Because of this some farmersgrow them in herb strips at fieldmargins. The upright growth habit ofTimothy makes it a good companiongrass for forage herbs. Forage herbsare very palatable and are selectivelygrazed by livestock which may be partof the cause of their poor persistence.

Since herb seeds add extra costs toreseeding and limited mineralsupplementation is allowed forlivestock under organic standardsherbs may not be as important in thesward as once thought. It should benoted that grass clover swards tend tobe higher in mineral content thanhigh nitrogen pure ryegrass swards.

General Purpose Grazing/SilageMixturesGrass seeding rate should be in theorder of 20kg/ha to 22 kg/ha, whilethe white clover seeding rate shouldbe 3kg/ha to 4kg/ha. Many grass seedmixtures have only 1kg/ha of whiteclover, which is much too low. Redclover may be included at 1kg/ha.

Red Clover Silage MixturesRed clover can be sown as a mixturewith perennial, Italian or hybridryegrass. For leys intended for lessthan two years Italian ryegrass maysuit but for longer than that perennialor hybrid will suit best. Red cloverseeding rates vary from 3 kg/haryegrass to 13.5 kg/ha. Higher rates

13

chapter 4


will give good production for longer.At Johnstown Castle13.5 kg red cloverplus 13.5 kg perennial ryegrass perhectare were sown and gave goodsilage yields for four years. Whiteclover can be added to the mixture ata rate of 4.5 kg/ha and often becomesdominant when the red clover dies.

Management of Organic Swards

The following management hints canhelp achieve the best from organicswards and maintain high productivityand high clover levels:• Aim to have a 28-day rest period

between grazings rather than the21 days commonly used forconventional swards;

• Maintain soil pH between 6.0 and7.0;

• Maintain soil phosphorus(phosphate) levels between 3.1mg/land 6.0mg/l soil;

• Maintain soil potassium (potash)levels between 75mg/l and 120mg/lsoil;

• Graze bare (5cm) in autumn;• Do not poach, as poaching damages

the clover stolons, which ensuresurvival from one year to the next;

• Alternative cutting and grazinghelps clover survival by:

— ensuring a relatively open swardwhich greatly benefits clover

— prevents the build up of too muchnitrogen in the soil which candiscourage clover;

• Tight grazing in spring ensures thatthe emerging clover plants are notshaded by the rapidly growinggrass;

• Use a mixture of medium and largeleaved clovers; and

• Clover survives better in a rotationalrather than set-stocked grazingregime.

SilageCutting dates for organic swards willgenerally be later than forconventional swards to allow for latergrowth. The yield of a whiteclover/perennial ryegrass sward cut inmid-June would be expected to be 70to 80% of a high nitrogen perennialryegrass sward cut at the end of May.Digestibility should be about the samefor both silages, however. This ismainly because clover tends to hold itsdigestibility at a higher level and forlonger than grass. Both red and whiteclovers are lower in sugars thanryegrass and are, therefore, harder toensile. This means extra care has to betaken to ensure that high cloversilages are well preserved. A pre-cuttest for sugars is a big help in decidingif wilting or additive is needed.Molasses is the only freely availableadditive which is permitted.

Weed Control Herbicides are prohibited in organicfarming but most weeds can becontrolled to a reasonable extent bycareful grassland management. Listedbelow are some of the moretroublesome weeds and the controlmeasures that can be used againstthem.

• Docks rarely make up more than5% of herbage mass and theirimpact is therefore mainly visual.They flourish in high potassium,often compacted soils and are

14

chapter 4


therefore often found in fieldswhich receive slurry in the winter.Good slurry and FYM managementcan therefore reduce dock build-up.The root reserves of establisheddock can be exhausted by toppingat flowering but before seeding.

• Thistle and nettles should betopped at flowering as for docks.

• Drainage should be consideredwhere rushes and creepingbuttercup are a problem.

• Bent grass infestations can bereduced by more sequence of silagecuts or severe grazing. Under thelow soil nutrient status common onorganic grassland these measureeliminate the growth point of thebent grass and open up the sward.

• Ragwort is poisonous to animalsand should not be allowed to seed.It should be removed from the fieldby pulling or cutting and gatheringfor safe disposal.

15

Beef ProductionBeef systems on organic farms vary.Suckler farms, particularly along thewestern seaboard, tend to produceweanlings for sale. These weanlingsare bought by finishers either throughfarm to farm sales or through organicmarts. Depending on breed thesecattle may be finished between 20and 30 months of age. Some beef-only producers buy stores for finishingover the summer grazing period. Thissaves on housing costs but goodlinkages are needed to ensure asupply of organic animals whenbuying-in. Many organic weanlingsare sold as conventional and leak outof the system. Some organic farmersoperate a suckler to beef systemtaking their own calves to finish.

This system has a number ofadvantages:• The farmer has complete control

over the calving time and breedtype of his/her stock;

• A closed herd policy can beoperated, thus allowing the herd tobuild up resistance to the pathogenson the farm and reducing thechances of bringing in disease;

• The farmer gets the full benefit ofany premium for organic beef ; and

• The stress of transport, marts andintroduction to a new farm iseliminated thus reducing thelikelihood of stress-related healthproblems.

BreedingThere is a market for both traditionaland continental animals and mostbreeds are suitable for organicfarming. Soil type and location will

chapter 5


16

affect the choice of breed. Traditionallow maintenance breeds are wellsuited to poorer soil types whilebetter soils with more productivegrassland can suit continental breedsbetter. Animal performance should beas good on a well run organic farm ason a conventional one. Whenbreeding suckler cows the organicstandards recommend the use of easy-calving bulls. Problems at birth maygive rise to delayed re-breeding andthe use of hormones is prohibited.Artificial insemination is permitted.

Feeding• It is preferable that all feed be

produced on the farm.Notwithstanding this, a minimum of50% of the annual feed must beobtained from the unit or incooperation with other organicfarms. Derogation from the 50%may be permitted in exceptionalcircumstances.

• Post weaning, at least 60% of thedaily dry matter intake must consistof fresh or dried fodder, roughageor silage

HousingHousing can be the most expensivepart of converting to organic beefproduction depending on the farm

situation. It must meet the animal’sbehavioural need as regardsappropriate freedom of movementand comfort. It is not compulsory tohouse animals under organicstandards, and where soil conditionsare suitable, animals may be out-wintered. Out-wintering animalsis subject to the restrictions of theNitrates Directive. Having only slattedhousing on the farm is not permitted;at least half of the total floor areamust be solid and bedded. Straw,rushes or untreated wood shavingsare acceptable bedding materials andthese need not be organic. All animalhousing is subject to inspection andapproval by the OCB. Table 6 showsthe minimum area per head for

chapter 5

Beef Production

17

ANIMAL Minimum Indoor Areas(net area available to each animal)

Live Weight Minimum(kg)

m2/head

Table 6: Minimum housing area per head and by weight.

Up to 100kgUp to 200kgUp to 350kgUp to 500kgOver 500kgUp to 600kgOver 600kg

6.0min. 1m2 /100kg

10m2; (plus 30m2

separate outdoor exercise area)

1.52.54.05.0

min. 1 m2 /100kg

Calves; Beef Cattle;Bull Beef; SucklerCows

Dairy Cows

Breeding Bulls

animals depending on weight.Approximately two and a half timesmore space is required per animalcompared to conventional housing.Therefore, if it is intended to retainexisting animal numbers on the farmthen existing farm buildings willrequire extensions. Straw-beddedextensions may be added ontoexisting slatted houses allowing theanimals to be fed on the slatted area.If stock numbers are to be reduced toaccommodate the existing shed thenhalf of the slatted area must bereplaced with solid floor such asreinforced concrete slabs. A grant isavailable for these alterations throughthe On-Farm Scheme of Grant Aid forDevelopment of the Organic Sector.

Animal Health

A healthy herd is achieved by acombination of good management,sound nutrition and good animalhusbandry skills. Veterinary treatmentis considered an addition to and not asubstitute for good management.Homeopathic and naturopathictreatments are preferred toconventional drugs. Where there is aknown farm problem, permission maybe obtained from the OCB to treatthe animal, for example forvaccination for blackleg. Five-yearpermission may be granted for suchvaccinations.

Good management and planning ofgrazing rotations will generallycontrol stomach worms by ensuringthat younger animals are given thecleanest pasture which is fully grazedafter them by the older stock in a‘leader-follower’ system. The olderstock has a higher level of immunityand help to reduce the numbers ofworms at pasture and thus allow agradual build-up of resistance by theyoung stock. If conventionaltreatment is required for worms orfluke then either a veterinarycertificate or laboratory analysisshowing proof of a problem isrequired to get permission fortreatment. Where individual animalsrequire a treatment then permission isnot required, but the treatment mustbe recorded and withdrawal periodsobserved.

In any 12-month period only onecourse of antibiotic treatment isallowed for meat producing animals

chapter 5

Beef Production

while two courses are allowed forbreeding. Any more than this and theanimal must either re-enter aconversion period or be soldconventionally. In general thewithdrawal period for mosttreatments is twice the legalwithdrawal period. For mastitistreatment it is three times the legalwithdrawal period. Where nowithdrawal period is specified on theproduct a 48-hour withdrawal isimposed.

18

Sheep ProductionSheep production can fit in well on amixed organic farm but can provedifficult, or even impossible, if run asthe sheep-only unit. This is becauseparasites will be very difficult tocontrol where clean grazing is notavailable for at least part of theproduction cycle. If sheep are run as aminority enterprise on the farm, withthe larger proportion of the landtaken up with cattle and/or tillage,they will be much easier to managesuccessfully.

Sheep can help improve theperformance of beef and dairyenterprises by improving swardquality and helping to control weeds.In mixed grazing with cattle they alsoimprove overall efficiency by eatinggrass which cattle leave behind, i.e.,around dung pats.

Breeds and BreedingA crossbred ewe is ideal and a cross ofany two existing breeds can producegood quality ewes. If a farmer isaiming for a high lambingpercentage, the Belclare breed has abig advantage. Research has shownthat the Texel breed has substantiallybetter resistance to parasites than theSuffolk. This gives the Texel a distinctadvantage in organic production andthe breed also produces a lean carcass.The Belclare breed carries aproportion of Texel genes andtherefore also has advantages overthe Suffolk in parasite resistance.

If aiming to lamb ewes early(December to January) it is an

chapter 6


advantage to have Suffolk cross ewes.To produce lambs to sell as carcasessuitable for the French market, theram can be Suffolk, Texel or Charollais.

Breeding own replacements and thuskeeping a closed flock is of greatbenefit as it reduces the chances ofintroducing disease into the flock andhelps build up resistance to pathogenson the farm. If replacements with ahigh lambing rate are required, aBelclare ram should be used on about40% of the flock. However, theprogeny will have slower growth ratescompared to those from Suffolk, Texelor Charollais rams.

GrazingGrass on its own is a complete feedfor ewes and lambs and is a smallfraction of the cost of organicconcentrates. The most commonsystem of sheep farming in Ireland ismid-season lamb production, that is,ewes lambing in March, and the aim isto sell all lambs off grass. If lambing isearlier, such as in January, it will resultin a lower stocking rate, moreconcentrates being fed to ewes andmore consumption of creep feed bylambs, all of which increase costs.

For March lambing ewes, grass is thecheapest and best diet for a sucklingewe. It is uneconomical and inefficientto feed concentrates to a suckling eweon good grass. However if grass isscarce, concentrates should beintroduced. In most cases it isuneconomical to creep feed lambs ongood grass.

A rotational grazing system is

19

preferred to set stocking as it is easierto control grass quality; a rotationwith three to four paddocks or fields,which need not be the same size, isbest.

After weaning, lambs should continueto graze good quality pastures,preferably silage aftermaths, whichprovide clean grazing. Lambs performexcellently on pastures with highclover content.

SilageTwo-thirds of the weight gain of theunborn lamb takes place during thefinal seven weeks of pregnancy. Thismeans that from four weeks aftermating to week 14 of pregnancy, theewe will get by on a maintenance dietof silage or hay. A lowland ewe willeat 5.5 kg of silage per day or 1.5 kgof hay per day. The quality of thesilage does not have to be excellent;silage with a DMD of around 65% isadequate so this can be easilyobtained from one cut of silage takenin early June.

There is no difference between pitsilage and baled silage as a feed forin-lamb ewes. However, ensure thatbaled silage is adequately wrappedand that bales are not damaged asthis could result in mouldy silage. Thiscauses a disease known as listeriosis insheep. If troughs are used for feedingit is good practice to clean them outevery 10 days to avoid the build up ofmouldy silage.

ConcentratesIn the final six to seven weeks ofpregnancy, silage or hay alone is not

chapter 6

Sheep Production

adequate to satisfy the extra demandsof the ewe due to the rapidly growingunborn lambs. During this period feed25 kg of an 18% crude protein ration.Start at 0.1 kg/ewe/day six to sevenweeks pre-lambing and graduallybuild up to 0.7 kg/ewe/day at lambing.This is critical to avoid weak lambs,ewes with no milk and to preventtwin lamb disease. High crude proteinintake in the last three weeks ofpregnancy is essential for a goodsupply of quality colostrum and milk.

In the case of ewes lambing from earlyMarch onwards it is hoped that grasswould be available making mealfeeding unnecessary anduneconomical. In general Decemberand January born lambs should becreep fed, do not creep feed lambsafter early February.

HousingSheep housed for the winter must beprovided with a bedded solid floorarea. Up to 50% of the total area canbe slatted. Plenty of straw should beused to keep the lying area for theewe dry at all times. The spacerequired per ewe is 1.5m2(16 sq. ft) minimum. Adequateventilation is essential, if not, sheepare liable to get pneumonia. Alsomake sure there is no draught underthe sheep. A minimum of 50cm oftrough space per heavily pregnantewe must be provided. Any housetype is okay provided it meets theabove requirements.

Flock HealthDisease prevention is the key to goodflock health. Measures such as

20

operating a closed flock, doublefencing boundaries and good generalhygiene will reduce the risk ofinfection from various sources. Stressis a big cause of ill health in sheep, soat all times try to avoid anything thatstresses your sheep.

Stomach worm infestation in lambsduring their first summer is thebiggest health problem, in particularnematodirus in May. Grazing newpastures each year gives good controlof nematodirus. Weaning the lambs inlate June onto silage aftermath willgreatly reduce or eliminate thestomach worm burden in summer andautumn.

Regular foot-trimming and zincsulphate footbaths are therecommended way to controllameness. Other foot bathingproducts, such as copper sulphate, arepermitted but formaldehyde isprohibited. The foot rot organism willonly survive in the ground for about12 days without sheep being present.After foot bathing the flock should beput onto ground where sheep havenot grazed for the previous 14 days.

Fluke should be controlled bydraining, planting or fencing off wetareas but where fluke is a knownfarm problem one fluke dose perannum or a specific strategic flukecontrol regime with veterinaryconfirmation is permitted. Routineregular dosing for fluke is prohibited.

Regularly dagging to reduce the riskof flystrike is recommended.Cyromazine is permitted for

chapter 6

Sheep Production

prevention and deltamethrin as wellas shearing affected areas andremoving maggots is therecommended treatment for cases offlystrike.

Vaccines are not recommended butpermission may be given for their usefollowing a written confirmation by aveterinary surgeon that there is aknown farm problem.

21

Organic DairyingThe organic dairying sector is at anearly stage of development in Irelandand anyone considering organicdairying should first ensure that theyhave an outlet for their milk. There isone main processor handling most ofthe organic milk being produced andthey have plans for substantial growthin the volume of milk they areprocessing. For the foreseeable futureit is likely that organic dairy farmerswill have to produce winter milk, withmost if not all cows calving inautumn, to ensure a premium pricefor their milk. Important issues inorganic dairying include grasslandmanagement; concentrate feeding;housing, cow health and producingreplacements.

Grassland ManagementIn Ireland we are in a good position toproduce milk off grass, and organicdairy farmers should make the bestuse of grazed grass and clover for asmuch of the year as possible. Cloverdrives the whole system. The stockingrate may be lower in organic thanconventional dairying but the outputper cow need not be.

Cows must be kept well fed and atthe right body condition score toproduce well and stay fertile. Keepingenough grass/clover in front of thecows during the grazing season andextending it as far as possible is thekey to profitable organic dairying.

SilageIf white clover/perennial ryegrass isused over the entire farm a one-cut

chapter 7


silage system is most suitable. Becauseclover is a late-starter in the springthis silage is not likely to be ready forcutting before early June. Someorganic farmers graze all theirgrassland in the spring before closingthe silage ground. This means theycan get cows out earlier and save onexpensive concentrates. Also, cowhealth will generally be betteroutdoors in the spring. Grazing silageground will push back the silagecutting date but quality should notsuffer as clover does not lose qualitywith age as much as grass. If a farmerwants to push stocking rates beyond1.5LU/ha a multi-cut red clover systemwill almost certainly be part of theplan.

Concentrate FeedingConcentrates are the most expensivepart of a cow’s diet. Organic meal ismuch more expensive thanconventional so meal feeding must bewatched carefully and goodgrass/clover swards and silage must beused to the maximum to keep costsdown.

On some farms home-grown cerealsmay be feasible and could be a usefulway to establish clover/perennialryegrass swards as part of a rotation.Cereals will make up most of theconcentrates being fed but they aretoo low in protein on their own and agood protein source is essential tobalance the ration. Protein crops suchas peas, beans and lupins can begrown or bought in, but supply islimited at the moment and they aremore difficult to grow than cereals.

22

HousingIn organic farming cattle must beallowed more floor space than onmost conventional farms. At least 50%of the floor area must be solid andbedded i.e., not slatted. For manyfarmers a combination of a beddedlying area and a slatted feeding areamay offer the best solution (see Table6).

CubiclesCubicles are allowed if they are bigenough. They should be made to fitthe largest cow in the herd. For a600kg cow three square metres isneeded. A cubicle bed that is 2.5mlong by 1.2m wide would beadequate. Most existing cubicles onconventional farms are smaller andwill need substantial modification.Sizes must be pro rata for smallerstock such as weanlings. Cubicle bedsmust be clean and dry and sufficientlywell-bedded to give comfortable lyingconditions. Concrete beds are allowedprovided they are fitted with mats orother cushioning material and have alayer of bedding material on top.

Herd HealthThe basis for a healthy herd consistsof good nutrition, good conditions,good hygiene and good management.Providing enough feed in a balanceddiet, to meet the needs of the animalat all stages of its growth andproduction, is the first step to goodherd health. The main components of a balanceddiet are clean water, energy, protein,minerals, trace elements and vitamins.Forage supplies most of the animalsneeds and concentrates will generally

chapter 7

Organic Dairying

supply any shortfall in energy orprotein and may meet all the vitaminand mineral needs. In some cases, andat certain parts of the productioncycle, essential minerals, traceelements or vitamins may be lacking.Using a diverse range of plants in thesward may solve some mineral andtrace element problems as certainplants have higher mineral levels thanperennial ryegrass/clover swards.However some soils are naturallydeficient in particular minerals (suchas copper, iodine, selenium and cobalt)or may have high levels of minerals,which block the uptake of others(such as molybdenum). In these casestesting of blood, herbage or soilshould be carried out and, based onthese and veterinary opinion, theanimals should be supplemented asnecessary.

MastitisMastitis is the single most frequentanimal health problem on dairy farms.Prevention should always be the firstchoice in controlling the disease. Agood mastitis control programme isessential and its components are listedbelow. • Test the milking machine each year

and maintain it properly.• Avoid stress on the cow and use the

correct milking routine.• Teat dip immediately after milking.• Ensure clean, dry, comfortable

housing, yards and roadways.• Dry off gradually not abruptly,

restricting feed, reducing milking toonce-a-day and then to once everytwo days. Keeping cows outdoorswill reduce the risk of infection.

23

• Routine checking for infection at milking time will ensure promptdetection of clinical cases. A mildcase may respond to treatment bystripping regularly betweenmilkings and massaging with coldwater. Various non-conventionaltherapies have been suggested. Toavoid suffering in serious casestreatment with antibiotics may benecessary. Two courses of treatmentare allowed within a 12-monthperiod. If this is exceeded theanimal should be soldconventionally or should undergo afurther 15 months conversion.

• All cows should be regularly testedfor Somatic Cell Count (SCC). Thosewith consistently high counts shouldbe culled.

Rearing ReplacementsThe recommended practice is forcalves to be suckled, but bucketrearing is permitted. Calves shouldreceive colostrum as soon as possibleafter birth and should be suckled onthe mother for at least five days. Theycan then be trained to buckets orartificial teats and must be fed milktwice per day for at least nine weeksor longer if they are not eatingenough solids to be weaned. A dryclean bed must be provided andhousing should be well ventilated butnot draughty. Outdoor rearing ofcalves will reduce the risk of infection.

Using the leader-follower system withthe calves grazing ahead of the oneto two year-old animals should controlparasites. Clean grazing should beused for the younger stock as much aspossible. Bulls with good EBI figures

chapter 7

Organic Dairying

for survival and calving interval shouldbe used for breeding replacements.Cross-breeding may also be useful inproducing replacements with hybridvigour.

24

Arable Production IntroductionOrganic arable production represents asignificant ‘step up’ in farmmanagement skills compared with non-organic arable. This is because theorganic aim of preventing rather thancuring problems means that much betterintegration of all the farm’s systems isrequired. This is mainly achievedthrough a well-designed and continuallyadjusted rotation, which in turn issupported by specific practices. While atfirst this can appear daunting for thoseconsidering and/or starting organicproduction, once the new systems havebedded-in, day-to-day management canbe as straight forward as non-organicsystems, and, looking back, the processis often considerably easier than firstthought.

RotationsRotations are the foundation ofsuccessful organic crop production. Therole of rotations is to: • Replenish soil N by growing legumes,

principally clover, as part of pasture,but also green manures and cashcrops;

• Manage weed, pest and disease levelsby introducing ecological diversity inspace and time;

• Maintain soil organic matter andstructure, principally through a pasturephase, but also by using greenmanures;

• Allow a diversity of crop and animalenterprises to spread financial risk(stress-proof the farm business); and

Rotations have traditionally beenviewed as having a pre-ordained fixedorder, but in practice, they are highlyflexible and adaptable with changes

chapter 8


made yearly according to field history,market demands and other factors.

In most cropping rotations, N supply isthe factor limiting crop growth. In themajority of organic rotations legumesare the only practical means ofimporting N onto the farm unless thereis a ready supply of off-farm certifiedorganic manure. While green manuresand leguminous cash crops do fix N,their short duration, removal ofconsiderable amounts of N in harvestedseed or overwinter growth period,means in practice only small, e.g., 50kg/ha of N are retained. In comparisonclover and grass pasture which is twoyears old or older can import largeamounts of N, with up to 300 kg/ha/yearN fixed by red clover. A two-year cloverdominated pasture is thereforeindispensible for maximising N imports,and such pasture is also superior atimproving soil structure, organic matterlevels and general soil health than anyshort term restorative measure.

Soil ManagementThe foundation of maintaining aproductive healthy soil is a two year ormore clover and grass pasture phase inthe rotation. This is because grass rootsare the best at improving soil structurewhile clovers provide the nitrogen tooptimise growth and thus organicmatter production. This in turn is criticalfor maximising earthworm populationswhich are themselves immenselybeneficial for maximising soil quality. Tomaintain the healthy soil produced bypasture, tillage (cultivation) must bekept to the absolute minimum, as alltillage damages soil and reduces itsquality. This is principally through directdisturbance effects, but also by thecompaction associated with soil traffic.

25

Ploughing is the most damaging formof tillage, followed by deep tillage, sonon-inversion shallow (minimum)tillage is best as long as this is not tothe detriment of other aspects of crophusbandry e.g., crop establishment orweed management.

After pasture and minimising tillage,the maintenance of green cover‘cover cropping’, especiallyoverwinter, is the next mostimportant aspect of maintaining ahealthy soil. Cover crops can be anyplant species that will grow enoughto cover the ground, and include cashcrop species and crop volunteers.Probably the most valuable effect ofcover crops is to capture soil N thatwould otherwise be lost by leaching,but they also protect the soil fromrain impact and erosion and providefresh organic matter, which, coupledwith wet soil conditions, can result inhuge earthworm populations. Weedscan be used as cover crops with twoprovisos: that they will not set seedbefore they are killed and that theyproduce sufficient vegetation toeffectively cover the soil.

Plant Nutrient ManagementMaintaining optimum soilfertility/plant nutrients and hence soilhealth is the foundation of organicfarming. Unlike non-organicproduction where fertilisers areapplied to maximise individual cropyields, organics aims to ‘feed the soilto feed the plant’ with soil nutrientlevels maintained at optimum levelsfor healthy crop growth and yield. Inpractice, this means that cropnutrients are replaced according to

chapter 8

Arable Production

soil analysis results and nutrientbudgets. Nitrogen is replaced bylegumes, while phosphorous,potassium, and all other nutrients arereplaced by importing, either,allowable forms of mineral/rockfertiliser, or organic matter. It is vital toget up to date information from youradviser and/or to check with yourcertification agent prior to importingany nutrients.

Regular, field-by-field, soil nutrienttests and nutrient budgets aretherefore essential management toolsfor organic farming. The nutrientcontent of farm products and manuresvaries widely depending on a largenumber of factors and there isincreasing evidence that organicmanures and products have differentnutrient contents to non-organicequivalents. For the most accurateinformation, testing of the nutrientcontent of your manure and farmproducts is essential.

Weed ManagementEffective weed management in organicagriculture is achieved through awhole system of preventativeapproach, rather than the curativeapproach of attempting to kill weedsthat emerge in the crop, as is typical ofnon-organic production. There arefour legs to this integrated weedmanagement ‘stool’:• Rotation design;• False and stale seedbeds;• In-crop weeding; and• Minimising weed seed ‘rain’.

Rotations with a sufficiently longpasture phase, ideally three or more

26

years, allows the ‘weed seed bank’ todecline dramatically, with losses of up to95% of seed each year due to predationand death. The cropping phase can alsohelp eliminate perennial pasture weedssuch as dock, rush and buttercup asthese cannot survive repeated tillage.Therefore, rotations can control theoverwhelming majority of weeds, evenbefore they germinate, for little cost.

False and stale seedbeds both initiallyrely on creating a final planting tilth,but then delay crop establishment toallow weeds to emerge. For a falseseedbed, the weeds are killed byextremely shallow tillage, while in thestale seedbed they are killed by a non-tillage technique such as flame (thermal)weeding. Very importantly, bothtechniques are highly effective atreducing intrarow (with the crop row)weeds which are the most difficult andexpensive to control and the mostcompetitive with the crop. Comparedwith in-crop weeding, false and staleseedbeds can dramatically and cheaplyreduce in-crop weed populations andshould be attempted whenever croptiming and weather permit.

Farmer experience indicates thatIreland’s unpredictable rainfall means in-crop weeding tools that require dryconditions to effectively kill weeds, e.g.,spring tine harrows, do not achievesufficiently reliable results. Therefore,more aggressive knife-blade interrowhoes are recommended. The last fiveyears has seen the emergence ofcomputer vision guidance systems whichhave revolutionised in-crop hoeing asthis has permitted very large machineswhich can achieve forward speeds andprecision far greater than any human.

The seeds of annual weeds can survive in

chapter 8

Arable Production

the soil for many years, even decades,while the plants live for just a fewmonths. Therefore, preventing weedseed rain is a very efficient way ofpreventing weeds in following crops.Unfortunately, in arable systems thereare currently few economic means ofpreventing established weeds settingseeds so minimising the seed rain inarable systems is mostly dependent onminimising in-crop weed populations,i.e., the purpose of killing in-crop weedsis as much to manage weeds for thefollowing decades as it is to reducecompetition with the current crop.

While these are the four main legs ofthe weed management stool there are ahuge range of supplemental andsupporting techniques, for exampleploughing, competitive cultivars andsowing dates to name a few. All thesemust be understood and used to achievesuccessful weed management.

Pests and Disease ManagementPest and diseases are generally not suchsignificant problems in organic as innon-organic arable crops. The mainprotection is by planting resistantcultivars, rotations and targetedbiodiversity. The relatively low incidenceof diseases on organic cereals is also duein part to the hardier and more opentype of growth due to the loweramounts of soluble soil N which in non-organic crops results in ‘soft’ growthmore prone to pests and disease. Thiseffect can be bolstered by selectingcultivars with a high disease-resistantrating from the main DAFFRecommended List.

Natural predators, particularly insectssuch as beetles, ladybirds, lacewings, andparasitoid wasps can also be highly

27

effective at reducing insect pestpopulations. These can be encouragedby maintaining a metre wide strip oftussocky grass, e.g., Yorkshire fog andcoltsfoot, around field edges andplanting floral food sources such asbuckwheat and phacelia. To minimisebarley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV)infection in winter cereals, sow late inthe year, for example lateOctober/early November and forspring cereals, sow early.

Crops and Yields Farmer experience has foundconsiderable variation in how easydifferent crops are to grow organicallyin Ireland. This has primarily been dueto difficulties with weedmanagement, which the advent ofcomputer-guided hoes may wellsignificantly improve. However, cropsthat are poor weed competitors, suchas spring barley and many legumecrops, (e.g., peas and lupins), areavoided by experienced farmers unlessfields are particularly weed free. Cropsthat are good weed competitors, suchas triticale, winter wheat and winteroats, can be kept as weed free as nonorganic crops.

Yields of organic arable crops,particularly cereals are generally lowerthan non-organic production,primarily due to using legumes tosupply N rather than synthetic Nfertilisers. However, as for non-organicagriculture, yields are quite variable,both from year to year and farm tofarm. At present there is only limiteddata on organic cereal yields.Generally yields are 50% ofconventional crops but it depends on

chapter 8

Arable Production

the crop, position in rotation, landtype etc. Ideally this should bediscussed with your Teagasc adviser

Conclusion and Outlook for theFutureThe expansion of organic farming andthe end of derogations for non-organic livestock feeds should ensurea good market for organic grain andseed will continue. Present ex-farmprices are in excess of €350/t forbarley/wheat/triticale, which, with theongoing demand means that organicarable production should be aprofitable enterprise for theforeseeable future. Conversion toorganic arable production will beeasier for existing mixed farmingsystems, as fewer structural changes tothe farm will have to be made.However, it is just as feasible toconvert livestock or all arable holdingswith the necessary alterations.Organics requires a high standard ofmanagement and husbandry - it is notthe easy option, nor should it beattempted if the underlying farmbusiness is struggling. However, forthose farmers with the necessary skillsorganic farming is a highly rewardingand profitable enterprise.

28

HorticultureIntroductionThe market situation for organichorticultural produce is even moreacute than organic arable crops asthere are very few Irish organichorticultural producers. This meansnearly all produce is imported,especially that sold through themultiples, which, coupled with thecontinued strong growth in demandand policy pressure representssignificant and ongoing businessopportunity.

While there is great demand fororganic horticultural crops, marketingof vegetables, fruit and ornamentalsis considerably more complex than forarable crops. It is therefore essentialto have a clear-cut market outletbefore even considering growing ahorticultural crop, especially as manyhave a narrow harvest window andcomplex storage requirements whichmeans the whole crop could be lost ifa purchaser is not ready and waiting.

RotationsWith the greater production intensityof horticulture-only operations thereis often a desire to extend thecropping phase of the rotation asmuch as possible at the expense ofthe restorative pasture phase,especially where land area is limited.The higher value of horticultural cropsmeans that it can be economicallyviable to import materials, such ascompost, as a substitute for puttingthe land down to clover and grasspasture. However, most importedbiological (organic) materials will

chapter 9


have to be hot composted whichsignificantly reduces their N content.In addition, most horticultural cropsare similar in their weed ecology, eventhough they differ in their pest anddisease ecology, i.e. most are springplanted, so horticultural systems sufferfrom a build up of spring-germinatingannual weeds. Hence attempting tocut down on the restorative phase ofthe rotation is likely to be a significantfalse economy in the longer term.

There is considerable value, therefore,in integrating horticultural crops intoarable and/or livestock based systems,as this will diversify the overallrotation with many benefits for all theproduction systems.

Soil ManagementVegetable yield and quality areconsiderably more sensitive thanarable crops to sub-optimum soiltypes, structure, nutrient levels andoverall health. While vegetables canbe grown on a range of soil types,large numbers and/or sizes of stonespresent a major impediment tosuccessful in-crop weeding. Heavy soilssuch as clays can be fertile andtherefore productive, but when wet,field access can be impossible. Fieldoperations often have very narrowtime window so if wet weatherprevents field access then delays canbe very costly. Nutrient tests should beconducted at a minimum of everythree years, and a full ‘horticultural’analysis that includes all the minornutrients should be purchased.

The vegetable bed system is the onlyrecommended form of field

29

traffic/compaction management anddetailed consideration should begiven to using specialist horticulturaltillage equipment such as bed-formers. While it is possible to adopt aminimum tillage approach for foliagecrops, root crop production inevitablyresults in substantial soil disturbance,particularly at harvest which in wetweather can easily result in major soildamage. Detailed soil managementstrategies are therefore required toachieve optimum crop production.

Crop Nutrition ManagementAll crop nutrients apart from N shouldbe maintained though the use ofmineral fertilisers or imported organicmaterial according to the results ofsoil analysis and nutrient budgets asdescribed in the section on arableproduction above.

If vegetables or other annual cropsare included in a livestock or at thestart of an arable rotation with goodclover based pastures, nitrogen levelsare likely to be more than sufficientfor optimum production. In adedicated horticultural rotation,especially if it is maximising thecropping phase, then N may decreasebelow optimum levels, even for less‘hungry’ crops. Brought in organicmatter will help boost N supply, butgains may be modest, as mostmaterial will have to be composted.Leguminous green manures can helpincrease N levels, but as most land willbe under cash crops during thesummer months this only leaves theless productive winter months whenbiological N fixation will be lower.Therefore, while a minimum of a two

chapter 9

Horticulture

year (ideally red) clover based pasturestage in horticultural rotations maysuperficially appear ‘wasteful’, itsvalue for importing N, as well as itsmyriad other benefits for soil health,weed pest and disease managementare a very valuable investment.

Pest and Disease ManagementAs for arable production, a goodrotation is essential for effective pestand disease management, especiallysoil-borne pathogens such as clubroot. Good on-farm biodiversity (suchas maintaining tussocky grass fieldmargins of a metre width andproviding a continual supply offlowers such as phacelia andbuckwheat), will increase thepopulations and effectiveness ofbeneficial insects (e.g. carabid beetlesand parasitoid wasps) by providingthem shelter and food. However,there are a small number of pests anddiseases that escape the control ofsuch ‘broad-brush’ approaches andwill need specific intervention.

These include aphids, typically at thestart and end of the season,caterpillars on large areas ofcabbages/brassicas, carrot root fly andsome fungi such as potato blight.Controls include physical barriers suchas insect mesh crop covers which canbe practically 100% effective, orpermitted sprays such as Bacillusthuringiensis (BT) sprays forcaterpillars, and copper and sulphurbased fungicides. However, permissionto use allowable pesticides andfungicides will almost certainly haveto be obtained from certificationagents. In all cases, a detailed

30

understanding of the biology of thepests and diseases coupled with a pre-planned management strategy isessential.

Weed ManagementIn dedicated horticulture systems, thesimilarity of crops in terms of theirweed ecology (mostly spring sown,autumn harvested with low weedcompetitiveness) and only shortpasture breaks mean that rotationscan be considerably less effectivemeans of weed management than in-cropping systems. This means thatmuch greater effort needs to be putinto the remaining three legs of theweed management stool (see arablechapter) of false and stale seedbeds,in-crop weed control and preventionof weed seed rain. Fortunately thehigher value and greater intensity ofhorticultural crops means that thegreater cost of such techniquesrepresents a much lower proportionof production costs compared witharable production, therefore allowingconsiderably greater levels of weedmanagement than would be economicunder all-arable systems.

Every effort must be made tomaximise the use of false and/or staleseedbeds as far as weather and croptiming will allow. For in-crop weeding,‘precision’ is the key, with all aspectsof tillage, sowing and planting beingmeticulously implemented so tominimise the intrarow (unweededcrop row) area. Computer vision andGPS systems are a major advantage inachieving this. With Ireland'sunpredictably wet climate thehorizontal axis brush hoe is likely to

chapter 9

Horticulture

be an essential tool as it can kill largeweeds under very wet conditionsmaking it a critical backup to thefaster but less aggressive, knife bladehoes. There are now also a small, butincreasing, number of intrarowweeding tools. Finally, the cost ofphysically removing weeds from thefield just prior to setting viable seed islikely to be considerably less thantrying to control the weeds thatwould germinate from such seeds,therefore such activities should be aregular part of weed management.

Plant RaisingFor most organic horticultural crops,the use of transplants is highlybeneficial, primarily due to thecompetitive advantage over weeds,but also for ensuring correctspacing/populations and optimumland use. Considerable management,planning and infrastructure arerequired to ensure its success. The useof approved/certified organic compostis now mandatory and organic seedmust also be used where available or aderogation obtained.

Fruit GrowingThere is a vast difference betweengrowing a few fruit or other perennialcrops as part of a widely diversifiedholding compared with a specialistorganic fruit production enterprise.For diversified holdings, fruit can begrown in most parts of the countrybut areas with low summer rainfallare considerably more favourable asfungal diseases thrive under wetconditions. For dedicated perennialcrop production units only the bestsoils and climates are recommended.

31

Perennial crops also present uniquesoil, nutrient, pest and weedmanagement issues that requirethorough planning and advancedcrop husbandry skills.

Protected CroppingIreland’s wet and cooler climatemakes protected cropping, e.g.,polytunnels and glasshouses, anattractive option. These structures cangreatly enhance and stabilise thefinancial returns of any size holdingsdue to reduced risk of crop failuresbecause of the weather, althoughthey are particularly valuable onsmallholdings. They also provide ameans of extending the season forproduce and thereby provide acontinuity of supply for customers andan improved cash flow for the grower.

Conclusion and Outlook for theFutureVegetables and fruits are the mainconsumer entry point for purchasingorganic produce and they continue tobe the area in shortest supply with noimminent change in sight. Marketingopportunities vary from direct-to-customer sales, e.g., farmers’ markets,all the way up to multi-year contractswith wholesalers and the multiples.Fruit and vegetables are therefore anongoing profitable business sector,which, for those horticulturalists withthe requisite skills, offers a financiallyand professionally rewardingenterprise.

chapter 9

Horticulture

32

33

Introduction to PoultryProduction

OverviewFor full interpretation of the rules andregulations governing organic poultryfarming it is essential for prospectiveproducers to study the full text of thestandards document.

The poultry industry is divided intotwo distinct production sectors – meatand eggs. Within these areas thereare several separate enterprisesincluding breeding, fattening, pulletrearing and egg production underintensive, barn, free range andorganic systems.

Organic production is a very smallpart of total poultry production. Theconundrum is whether lack of supplyinhibits demand or lack of demandinhibits supply. Reading the signsseems to indicate that a promotionand marketing effort would generatean increase in demand.

While the standards for conventionalcommercial production and freerange production have beencontrolled to exclude all animal by-

chapter 10


products and fishmeal from the diet,the standards for organic productionare somewhat more demanding onthe producer than those for freerange.

General GuidelinesOrganic poultry must have continuousand easy daytime access topasture/range for at least 1/3 of theirlives. Range shelters must be provided,either natural (such as trees andshrubs) or artificial or a combination.Feed must be certified organic. Non-organic feedstuffs may be fed, withpermission, up to 10% of annualintake with a maximum daily intake of25%. This will decrease to 5% by 2010and by 2012 non-organic inclusions inthe diet will be completely prohibited.All organic operators must apply forpermission to purchase and feed non-organic feedstuffs. No synthetic aminoacid inclusions or genetically modifiedraw feed ingredients are permitted.Beak trimming of birds is not allowedas a routine management procedure.The permitted numbers of birds in ahousing unit are 3000 for layers and4,800 for broilers and 2,500 forturkeys. It is still permitted to useconventional straw and non-treatedwood shavings as bedding.

Organic Egg ProductionFree range production now accountsfor over quarter of the market. Withinthis sector there is a market fororganic eggs. The management of alaying flock does not vary significantlyfrom one system to another. Nutrition,lighting, health, welfare, egg qualityand biosecurity are the main issues ofconcern.

Sourcing StockIt is important to state at the outsetthat certified organically rearedpullets are not readily available. Tosurmount this problemderogations/permission protocols arein place. Put simply, when organicpullets are not available, then, subjectto prior authorization from thecertification body, conventionalpullets for egg production, not morethan 18 weeks old, can be broughtonto an organic holding providedthey have been reared in such a waythat their feeding and veterinaryroutine was in full conformity withthe standards for organic production.This assurance as regards conformitywith the standards for organicproduction can take the form of awritten statement from theconventional pullet producer to theorganic egg producer. The abovederogation will remain in place untilsuch time as organic hatcherystandards have been agreed at EUlevel. Work on these standards is at anadvanced stage and it is anticipatedthat the derogation will be removedas soon as these standards areintroduced. Thereafter, onlyorganically certified pullets for

chapter 10

Poultry Production

organic egg production can bebrought onto an organic holding.

For holdings undergoing a two-yearconversion period, existing layers fedon a certified organic diet for the lastsix weeks of their conversion periodmay produce organic eggs from thedate organic status is awarded to theland.

Vaccination is permitted in organicfarming systems where it is knownthat a disease risk has already beenincluded in the animal health plan forthe organic holding.

Management of Layers• Keen observation of bird behaviour

will tell a story. • Bring pullets into lay only when they

have reached a level of physicalmaturity capable of supporting goodegg production coupled withmarketable egg size. Thisbodyweight will vary with the strainbut will not be much less than 2kgfor organic production.

• Observe the basic two-partcommandment as regards lightingfor layers:

• Never increase day length for

34

Table 8: Housing and Facilities for Organic Egg Production – abbreviated

Maximum stocking rate 6 birds/m2

Maximum slatted floor area 2/3 of floor areaPerch space 18cm/bird (30 cm apart)Feeding space 10cm trough spaceDrinkers 1 circular drinker/100 birdsNest boxes (individual) 8 birds/nest Communal Nests 120cm2/birdRange Area 4m2/bird available in rotationPop-holes to exterior 4m/100m2 floor area

growing pullets; and• Never decrease daylight hours for

pullets once they have beenstimulated into production.

• As feed is 70% of direct productioncosts, use well designed feeders toprevent wastage.

• Keep vermin under control – theyeat, feed and carry disease.

• Wet litter increases ammonia levels– set drinkers to avoid waterspillage and have adequateventilation and insulation.

• Maintain clean nest boxes, collecteggs frequently and store below15oC in dedicated storage area.Damaged and dirty eggs are secondquality and of little value.

• Have fresh, good quality wateravailable to the flock at all times .

• The range should be divided intorotational paddocks to minimiseground wear. Land selected forrange should be free draining.

• Keep summer grass growth undercontrol by ‘topping’ if necessary.

chapter 10

Poultry Production

• The productive laying cycle isapproximately one year andtermination will often be governedby egg shell quality.

Observations and Experience• While the organic requirement for

nest boxes is one nest box per eighthens, our recommendation for good

35

Table 9: Housing and facilities for organic meat production - abbreviated

Broilers Turkeys Ducks Geese

Max. stocking rate 10 birds/m2 2 birds/m2 10 birds/m2 2 birds/m2

(21kg/ m2

max. liveweight

Max. slatted floor area 2/3 2/3 2/3 2/3Range area m2 /bird 4 10 4.5 15available in rotationPop-hole area (Length) 4m/100m2 4m/100m2 4m/100m2 4m/100m2

Minimum age at 81 days 140 days Depends on 140 daysslaughter for non-slow breed: Pekingrowing strains. 49 days;

Mallard 92 days

chapter 10

Poultry Production

36

flock management is one nest boxper five hens. This has implicationsfor egg quality and flock welfare .

• With regard to feeding layers, non-supplemented diets cannot supplythe balance of nutrients that yearsof scientific research has decreed asoptimum. This can lead to stress,particularly in the 18 – 35 weeksage period, when egg production isexpected to go from 0 – 90% +peak production, egg size isincreasing and the bird’s bodyweight is increasing by a further25%.

• The extra stress on the birds cancause feather loss and cannibalism.

• Feed consumption is significantlyincreased.

• Hens perform best at a housetemperature of 20ºC. It thereforepays to insulate the poultry house.Ventilation is essential to provideair changes throughout the house,to get rid of dust, vapour andgases.

Egg Marketing RegulationsUnder EU regulations, organic eggsmay only be sold to shops orwholesalers by registered packingstations. The Department ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Foodregisters and regulates productionand marketing of all eggs.

Organic Poultry Meat ProductionIn conventional production, growthrates for table birds have increasedsubstantially due to the ease withwhich selection for body weight canbe achieved and flocks areslaughtered by seven weeks. Wherethese bids are grown organically theirlifespan must be at least 81 days.

Sourcing StockAs with layers, supplies of organicallycertified stock are not readilyavailable. However, the standardsrequire that operators shouldendeavour to make use of slowgrowing, organically certified stock.Non-organic chicks can be purchasedat less than three days of age andmust undergo a ten-week conversionperiod.

Observations and ManagementHints• There is no register/list/definition of

slow growing strains. All except thetwo modern strains used incommercial production are regardedas slow growing for organicpurposes.

• Experience at Mellows Centre showsthat meat birds perform well underorganic regimes.

• Purchase stock from a reliablesource.

• Avoid feed wastage. • Maintain dry litter.• Manage range area with rotation

and topping long grass wherenecessary. (Long grass is notconducive to range use and cancause crop and gizzard impaction).

Returns from Organic Farming

Data from Organic DemonstrationFarms suggest high margins areachievable where management isstrong in terms of efficiency andmarketing.

As with conventional farming, thefinancial return is dependent on thelevel of efficiency and the productprice received. Any farmer thinkingabout converting to organic farmingmust consider a number of factors:

• The likely gross output;• The likely price achievable or the

price premium over conventionalproduct; and

• The level of costs includingadditional costs associated withconversion.

Reduced OutputNormally gross output will fall asstocking rates and crop yields will besubstantially lower. The level ofreduction in output will depend onmanagement and the existing level ofoutput. On many cattle farms stockingrates are already well below what isachievable in an organic system. Manyfarmers have already reducedstocking rates in response to theintroduction of the decoupled SingleFarm Payment and participation inREPS. Compliance with the NitratesRegulations may also have the effectof pushing stocking rates closer to alevel consistent with organic farming.Many beef farms, especially thoseparticipating in REPS, have a stockingrate of 1.4LU/ha or less. At this

chapter 11


stocking rate there may be little or noreduction in output followingconversion. On intensive cattle/sheepfarms stocking rates may have to reducemore. On intensive dairy and tillagefarms, the reduction in output can besubstantial.

As a guide, when converting to organicfarming the following reduction inoutput is likely: • Beef 0%-20%• Dairy 20%-30%• Tillage 30%-50%

CostsDuring conversion extra costs will beincurred especially with respect to theconversion of existing buildings andclover establishment. A number ofcapital grant schemes are availableincluding the On-Farm and Off-FarmSchemes of Grant Aid for theDevelopment of the Organic Sector.When the organic system is up andrunning, variable costs will reduce asthere are no fertilizer or chemicalinputs, but the cost of straw andconcentrates will increase.

Price PremiumThere is wide agreement amongstmarketing agencies that the followingpremiums would fit market expectationsand leave the producer with areasonable margin:

Meat and Dairy Products 20%-25%Cereals 60%-100%Vegetables 40%-100%

In recent years this level of pricepremium has been achieved orsurpassed. A variation in price premiumsis to be expected and on occasions when

37

an organic outlet is unavailable, someproduce may have to be sold onconventional markets. The pricepremium is often obtained by sellingdirect to the consumer. This meansthat organic producers must put agreater effort into marketing. Organicvegetables are not subject to thesame price fluctuations asconventional vegetables particularlyin mid season. The Organic FarmingScheme payments will contributesubstantially to profit. The paymentsare worth up to €11,660 a yearduring conversion and up to €5,830when fully organic (see Chapter 2).

Examining the Enterprises Cattle and Sheep ProductionThis sector has very good potentialparticularly on suckler/sheep farmswhere the progeny is carried toslaughter. Extra REPS 4 payments andthe organic price premium forlivestock generate additional income.A significant boost in net margin isachievable where management isgood and a secure organic outlet hasbeen identified.

Organic Milk ProductionA premium of up to 35% is currentlyobtained for organic milk. Whileoutput per cow can hold upreasonably well with goodmanagement, output per hectaregenerally falls. The system is bestsuited to dairy farms which alreadyhave a low stocking rate and farmswith a low milk quota per hectare.

Crop ProductionYields can fall dramatically during theconversion period due to the absenceof artificial nutrients and herbicides.

chapter 11

Returns from Organic Farming

Over time techniques are developedto control weeds and conservenitrogen and result in a more modestyield decline. With good husbandrythe price premium compensates forthe drop in yield. Yields can be quitevariable and organic tillage presents agreater challenge than otherenterprises.

38

Market Prospects forOrganic ProduceThe organic market offers a viableopportunity for both the Irish farmand food sectors. It is very importantthat any farmer who considersproducing an organic product shouldfirst of all identify a suitable outletfor the product. Organic products canbe sold directly to customers viacountry markets, door to door sellingor indirectly through speciality shopsor bigger retail outlets.

Where direct selling is feasible itoffers the possibility of a highermargin but there are manylimitations. All costs including thetime and effort required inmarketing, distribution, promotionneed to be considered. Selling theproduct on for further processing maybe necessary as with meat or dairyproducts and it may be desirable interms of developing the business.

If selling to a processor, it is importantto discuss production plans and to getsome commitment from the processorthat it is possible to sell this productinto the future. While there isconsiderable consumer interest, thedevelopment of the organic marketwill require more processing toachieve scale of economics andgreater retailer promotion.

World MarketThe total world market value of retailsales of organic produce in 2006 wasover $40 billion. Organic farming inthe EU is rapidly expanding withaverage growth rates of up to 25%

chapter 12


per year. Germany is the largestinternal market with a share of about30% of the total EU market; otherlarge markets for organic products arethe UK, Italy and France. NorthAmerica dominates the market fororganic products outside Europe. BordBia estimates that in 2007 the totalIrish organic market is estimated to beworth about €76 million with marketgrowth estimated at 15 – 20% perannum. Approximately 70% of theorganic food sold on the Irish marketis imported; highlighting the fact thatdemand for organic produce in Irelandis far greater than domesticproduction.

Fruit and VegetablesIn Ireland the market for organic fruitand vegetables is relatively welldeveloped accounting forapproximately 45% of the totalmarket. In the vegetable sectorproduce is largely sold through localmarkets and through supermarketchains. There are still considerablevolumes imported so there is anopportunity for Irish producers tosatisfy this market. Also, there ispotential for the production of organicfield scale vegetables.

MeatLamb and beef marketing is largelyconducted through the supermarketchains and through well establishedlocal butcher businesses. There are alsoa number of prominent producergroups including SROM (ShannonRegional Organic Meats) and North-West Producers’ Group who haveorganised a marketing promotionthrough local meat companies. Thereis considerable opportunity for Irish

39

beef and lamb producers to developthis market in consultation with bothprocessors and retailers.

Dairy ProduceThe organic milk sector in Ireland hasbeen slow to develop with less than30 substantial producers at present.Growth in the sector is dependent ongrowth in processing. AlthoughGlenisk, currently the main processorof organic milk and a number ofsmaller processors have indicated anintention to expand none of themajor players in the liquid milkindustry to date have shown aninterest in processing organic milk.

Developing the Home Market inIreland at present, there isconsiderable consumer interest in allorganic foods. However, there is aneed for the various outlets to drivethe development and marketing oforganic products if the growth rateswhich are common in ContinentalEurope are to be achieved here. If thehome market is to develop and ifIreland is to develop a ‘foot-hold’ inthe export market it is necessary tohave a minimum scale of production.

The Teagasc Taskforce Report onOrganic Farming in Ireland suggeststhe scale of production to be asfollows: • A minimum of 160 milk producers

with an average of 40,000 gallons;• 2,500 lamb/beef producers selling

an average of 20 finished cattle and40 lambs each; and

• 600 hectares of vegetables whichwill provide 25% of the market.

chapter 12

Market Prospects for Organic Produce

This scale will provide processors andretailers with the volume necessary todrive the development of the industry.The Department of Agriculture,Fisheries and Food will provideproducers and processors withassistance in the form of grant aidschemes.

40

Teagasc Services forOrganic FarmingTraining, advice and research areessential if organic farmers are toprovide products efficiently and to ahigh quality. In recent years Teagaschas devoted personnel, land and timeto provide the backup needed by theorganic sector. Teagasc providesservices in training, advice andresearch.

TrainingSix training courses have beendeveloped in consultation with theorganic organisations and have beenaccepted for FETAC certification. Anyindividual who completes these shortcourses can apply for certification andbuild up credits which can be addedto when further courses arecompleted. These courses can beprovided at any location where aninterested group, with a minimum of15 people, is prepared to attend.

The courses are:

1. Introduction to Organic ProductionThis is a short course setting out theprinciples of organic farming, dealingwith organic standards and assessingthe suitability of different enterprisesfor organic farming.

2. Organic Drystock Production This course is aimed at farmers whoare interested in organic drystockproduction and deals with theprinciples applying to conversion aswell as livestock management,pasture management and parasitecontrol on drystock farms.

chapter 13


3. Organic Crop Production This short course is aimed at peopleproducing crops and deals with theprinciples of organic crop production,rotations and management ofindividual crops.

4. Organic Dairying This short course is aimed at organicdairy farms and deals with themanagement of dairy farms, dairy cowmanagement, pasture management,winter feed production and parasitecontrol.

5. Introduction to Organic PoultryProduction

This course looks at the essential flockmanagement and the economics ofthe enterprise.

6. The Rural Environment ProtectionScheme for Organic Farmers

This course deals with grasslandmanagement, nutrient managementplans, associated environmentalrequirements and producing an agri-environmental plan in the organiccontext.

Teagasc Trials andDemonstrationsThree Teagasc research centres havefarms involved in organic production.These farms are at MellowsDevelopment Centre, Athenry, Co.Galway; Johnstown CastleEnvironment Research Centre, Co.Wexford and Crops Research Centre,Oak Park, Co. Carlow. They will beused in conjunction with courses andopen days.

41

Advisory ServicesEach Area Unit has advisers who havereceived training in the basicprinciples of organic farming. Theseadvisers are available for consultationwith anyone interested in organicfarming and are backed up byspecialised organic staff, working inorganic advisory, training andresearch. Specialist advisers arelocated at Oak Park, Moorepark,Grange and Mellows DevelopmentCentre (see Chapter 14 for details).The local advisers in each county actas a first contact for farmers. Thespecialist staff will provide advice tofarmers in production either on thetelephone or through individual visits.

ResearchResearch on organic production isconducted at three Teagasc centres inconjunction with mainstream researchon enterprises and crops. Oak Parkconducts research projects on organiccereals and pulse crops. The pulsecrops are grown to provide a cheapsource of protein for organicconcentrate rations. Research onorganic drystock and dairy productionis carried out at Johnstown Castle andMellows Development Centre.

Demonstration Farms Teagasc deliver demonstrationsannually on 21 demonstration farmsstrategically located throughout thecountry. These farms are run inpartnership with the Department ofAgriculture and Food and details ofdemonstration dates can be viewedon the Teagasc website atwww.teagasc.ie and on theDepartment of Agriculture and Foodwebsite at www.agriculture.gov.ie.

chapter 13

Teagasc Services for Organic Farming

42

43

chapter 14


Useful ContactsTeagasc Advisory and TrainingService

Pat BarryTeagascMooreparkFermoyCo. CorkTel: 025 42222Mobile: 087-2138331Email: [email protected]: www.teagasc.ie

James McDonnellTeagascOak ParkCarlowCo. CarlowTel: 059-9183502Mobile: 087-3293820Email: [email protected]: www.teagasc.ie

Daniel ClavinTeagascMellows Development CentreAthenryCo. GalwayTel: 091 845200Mobile: 087 9368506Email: [email protected]: www.teagasc.ie

Elaine LeavyTeagascGrangeDunsanyCo. MeathTel: 046-9026711Mobile: 087-9853285 Email: [email protected]: www.teagasc.ie

Department of Agriculture,Fisheries and FoodOrganic UnitDepartment of Agriculture, Fisheries and FoodJohnstown Castle Estate, WexfordTel: LoCall: (1890) 200 509or (053) 63400Fax: (053) 43 965Email: [email protected]

Organic Bodies

Irish Organic Farmers and GrowersAssociation Ltd. (IOFGA)Main StreetNewtownforbesCo. LongfordTel: 043-42495Fax: 043-42496Email: [email protected]

Organic Trust Ltd.Vernon House,2 Vernon Avenue,Clontarf,Dublin 3.Tel/Fax: (01)8530271Email: [email protected]

Course Providers

An tIonad GlasDromcollegher,Co. Limerick.Tel: (063) 83604Email: [email protected]

The Organic CentreRossinverCo LeitrimTel: (071) 9854338Fax: (071) 9854343Email: [email protected]

County Wexford Organic CentreCushenstownFoulksmillsNew RossCo. Wexford.Tel: (051) 428375/428392Email: [email protected]/header.htm

Organic Groups

The Leitrim Organic Farmers Co-OpThe Enterprise CentreHill RoadDrumshanboCo LeitrimTel: (078) 40868Fax: (078) 40869Email: [email protected]: www.leitrimorganic.iol.ie

Shannon Region Organic Meat Co-opBusiness CentreFrancis StreetEnnisCo. ClareTel: (065) 6820166or mobile (087) 2718730Fax (065) 6821234Email: [email protected]: www.shannonorganic.com

Mr. Stan McWilliamsNorth West Organic Co-operativeSociety LtdColpeyMuffCo. DonegalTel: (074) 9384107Fax: (074) 9384238Email: [email protected]

Western Organic NetworkNetwork Co-ordinatorTel: (071) 96 40868Email: [email protected]

Other Organic contacts

“The Organic Guide to Ireland” is apublication produced by the OrganicCentre with support from TheOrganic Unit at the Department ofAgriculture Fisheries and Food. Thisguide will include listings ofproducers, retailers, wholesalers andmanufacturers of certified organicgoods in the Republic of Ireland andNorthern Ireland. It will also includecertification bodies, organic sectorNGO's and relevant governmentagencies. For a copy contact OrganicCentre Publications, The OrganicCentre, Rossinver, Co. Leitrim.

44

chapter 14

Useful Contacts

Documents

Guidelines for Organic Farming · The OCB charges an annual fee for this service. After two years of successful conversion the farm is granted a symbol (organic) licence. Crops