Hal Draper Marx on Democratic Forms of Government

8/18/2019 Hal Draper Marx on Democratic Forms of Government

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Hal Draper

Marx on Democratic Forms of Government (1974)

from Socialist Register 1974, pp.101-124.

Starred [*] otes are foototes, t!e ot!ers gi"e so#rces.

$rascri%ed & mar'ed #p %( )ide +allag!a for t!e arists+ /teret rc!i"e.

$H/S is oe c!apter i a or' o arl ar+s $!eor( of Re"ol#tio !ic! ill %e

p#%lis!ed i t!e ear f#t#re. a( 3#estios coected it! t!e s#%ect of t!is

c!apter ad !ic! are ol( %rie5( metioed !ere are of co#rse disc#ssed i detail i

ot!er parts of t!e or'.

/ a geeral a(, ar+s socialism 6comm#ism as a political programme ma( %emost 3#ic'l( de8ed, from t!e arist stadpoit, as t!e complete democratiatio of

societ(, ot merel( of political forms. [1*] :#t t!e democratic mo"emet of t!e 19t!

cet#r( %ega %( p#ttig t!e str#ggle for ad"aced political forms i t!e forefrot;

ad so did ar, i a di


2/28

cotet etailed tr#l( democratic forms. ars t!eor( mo"es i t!e directio of

de8ig cosistet democrac( i socialist terms, ad cosistet socialism i

democratic terms. $!e tas' of t!eor(, t!e, is ot to ad#dicate a clas! %etee t!e

to cosideratios 6a !opeless o% oce t!e pro%lem is see i t!at lig!t, %#t rat!er

to grasp t!e social d(amics of t!e sit#atio #der !ic! t!e apparet cotradictio

%etee t!e to is resol"ed.

ar did ot or' t!is o#t simpl( it!i !is s'#ll; progress toard a sol#tio came

ol( i t!e co#rse of t!e 8rst !istorical eperiece !ic! !e et t!ro#g! i !ic! t!is

pro%lem as cocretel( posed. $!is as t!e period of t!e 1I4I-9 re"ol#tio, !e

democratic demads ad socialist aims seemed to %e at sords+ poit. e of t!e

res#lts as !is so-called t!eor( of permaet re"ol#tio@ e ill follo t!is process i

some detail i a later part, ad t!e pro%lem ill remai it! #s t!ro#g!o#t.

gaist E$!e ld $!esisF

=rom t!e start t!ere as t!e pro%lem of self-st(led radicals !o !eld t!e same attit#de

of !ostilit( ad cotempt for democratic forms t!at emaated from t!e old rJgime,

t!o#g! pres#ma%l( from a opposite directio. $!is is a aspect of t!e almost

#aimo#s ati-democrac( of pre-arist socialism. [C] K!e ar referred to it i $!e Lerma /deolog(, !e alread( called it cotempt#o#s/( Et!e old t!esisF@ E$!e old

t!esis, !ic! !as ofte %ee p#t forard %ot! %( re"ol#tioaries ad reactioaries,

t!at i a democrac( idi"id#als ol( eercise t!eir so"ereigt( for a momet, ad t!e

at oce retreat from t!eir r#le ...F [4] 6$!e polemic !ere is agaist t!e aarc!oid

Stirer. $!is as ol( oe fa"o#rite ati-democratic arg#met amog ma(, oe

!ic! 5o#ris!es toda( as l#stil( as to cet#ries ago. ar ga"e t!em all s!ort s!rift,

i t!e apparet %elief 6rog, as it t#red o#t t!at t!e( ere simpl( "estiges of t!e

past ad !ad o f#t#re. [2*]

$!is reectio of a(t!ig coected it! %o#rgeois democrac( o#ld later %ecome

associated mail( it! #ltra-left radicalism, %#t its %egiigs ere aot!er matter.

)gels descri%ed a case i a letter to ar from Garis, !ere !e as tr(ig to or'

it! oe .M. :era(s, a editor of t!e Garis NorOrts, t!e Lerma JmigrJ paper.

:era(s isists o ritig ati-%o#rgeois articles for a :erli paper !ic! is ati-

%o#rgeois from a reactioar( 6a%sol#tist stadpoit.

EHe rites i t!e :erlier Peit#gs-Halle ad reoices li'e a c!ild to see !is soi-disat

comm#ist epectoratios agaist t!e %o#rgeoisie prited t!ere. Qat#rall( t!e editorsad t!e cesors!ip let stad !ate"er is simpl( agaist t!e %o#rgeois ad stri'e o#t

t!e fe all#sios t!at co#ld %e o


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s(stem, %o#rgeois freedom of t!e press+, t!e represetati"e s(stem, etc. / eplai to

!im t!at t!is meas or'ig literall( po#r le roi de Gr#sse ad idirectl( agaist o#r

part( ... / ma'e clear t!at t!e Peit#gs-Halle is i t!e pa( of t!e go"ermet ...F [B]

EKor'ig po#r le roi de Gr#sse [for t!e 'ig of Gr#ssia]F meat, i =rec! idiom,

or'ig for ot!ig; %#t )gels arg#ed t!at :era(s as #ittigl( or'ig for t!e

Gr#ssia regime literall(, sice p#%lis!ig attac's o democratic istit#tios i

a%sol#tist Gr#ssia ol( !elped t!e regime discredit t!e democratic mo"emet. :#t,

coti#ed )gels, :era(s, a-g#s! it! setimetalit(, co#ld #derstad oe of t!is;

!e co#ld ot compre!ed, !e said, a approac! !ic! et eas( o people !e !ad

ala(s !ated, "i. t!e %o#rgeoisie. )gels added@

E/ !a"e read #mptee of t!ese Garis-datelied articles [%( :era(s]; t!e( are o epe#t pl#s [to t!e f#llest etet possi%le] i t!e iterest of t!e go"ermet ad i t!e

st(le of $r#e-Socialism.F

ar ad )gels+ approac! to t!e 3#estio of democratic forms 6rig!ts, li%erties,

istit#tios, etc. as completel( di


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ad pri"ileged part. =or ar, t!e pro%lem resol"ed itself ito t!is@ !o to pass

t!ro#g! t!is p!ase > t!ro#g! ad o#t > i s#c! a a( as to s!ift poer to t!e

#derl(ig or'ig strata of t!e pop#latio as epeditio#sl( as possi%le. $!is is !at

ill de8e t!e pro%lem of t!e Epermaet re"ol#tioF.

t a( rate, from t!e stadpoit of t!is t!eoretical approac! :era(s+ ia%ilit( to see

more t!a !is E!atredF of t!e %o#rgeois s(stem did ot mea t!at !e !ated t!e

%o#rgeoisie more t!a ar; it as a re5ectio of !is o-class poit of "ie. ar did

ot !a"e to eig! E!atred of t!e %o#rgeoisieF agaist t!e ad"atages of %o#rgeois

democrac( > a impossi%le calc#l#s. /t as rat!er a matter of ma'ig a class aal(sis

of t!e elemets of %o#rgeois democrac(@ sortig o#t !at as speci8call( %o#rgeois

6e.g. propert( 3#ali8catios for "otig from !at f#rt!ered t!e idest etesio of

pop#lar cotrol. [C*]

=or Re"ol#tio ad Democrac(

$!e re"ol#tios of 1I4I-9 temporaril( esta%lis!ed %o#rgeois-democratic go"ermets

i %ot! =race ad Lerma(, t!e to co#tries it! !ic! ar as mail(

cocered. $!ese go"ermets ere t!oro#g!l( %o#rgeois ad more or less

democratic as compared it! t!e pre"io#s regimes; t!e( t!erefore raised i#mera%lecocrete pro%lems of !at political forms s!o#ld clot!e democratiatio. / t!e case of

Lerma(, ar ad )gels+ articles i t!eir Qe#e R!eiisc!e Peit#g !ad to deal it!

ma( pro%lems da( %( da(, ot merel( i !istorical !idsig!t; !ece t!e( too' #p

smaller-scale 3#estios t!a are #s#all( fo#d i t!eir s(optic aal(ses of t!e e"ets

i =race.

$!e o"erall criterio is@ !at ill maimie t!e i5#ece eercised from %elo %( t!e

masses-i-mo"emet, o t!e political forces a%o"e $!ese political forces ere to

a%o"e all@ t!e moarc!ist regime ad its go"ermet, !ic! as still t!e eec#ti"e,t!o#g! o o t!e defesi"e; ad t!e represetati"es of t!e people i t!e assem%lies

esta%lis!ed %( t!e re"ol#tioar( #ps#rge. $!e latter represeted t!e potetialit( of

Epop#lar so"ereigt(F, i.e. democratic cotrol %( t!e people. :#t !e t!e Qatioal

ssem%l(, elected from t!e "ario#s Lerma states, met i =ra'f#rt o 1I a(, it

s!oed t!at t!e %o#rgeois-democratic delegates s!ra' from a clas! it! t!e

moarc!(. / t!e 8rst iss#e of t!e Qe#e R!eiisc!e Peit#g, o 1 #e, )gels

s#mmaried t!e sit#atio@

ESice to ee's ago, Lerma( !as a atioal costit#et assem%l( !ic! is t!eprod#ct of a "ote %( t!e !ole Lerma people.


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E$!e Lerma people !ad o its so"ereigt( i t!e streets of almost all t!e %ig ad

little cities of t!e co#tr(, especiall( o t!e %arricades of Niea ad :erli. /t !ad

eercised t!is so"ereigt( i t!e electios for t!e Qatioal ssem%l(.

E$!e 8rst act of t!e Qatioal ssem%l( !ad to %e to proclaim t!is so"ereigt( of t!e

Lerma people lo#dl( ad p#%licl(.

E/ts secod act !ad to %e to or' o#t a Lerma costit#tio o t!e %asis of t!e

so"ereigt( of t!e people, ad to get rid of e"er(t!ig i t!e act#all( eistig state of

a


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political pe, freedom of t!e t!e press. =rom t!e 8rst #m%er of t!e QRP ar ad

)gels made t!is a maor %attle-cr(. [11]

$!e go"ermet, rote ar, is tr(ig to appl( t!e Geal ode pro"isios agaist so-

called EsladerF i order to pre"et a( criticism of t!e rJgime. /deed, if a paper

protests t!at t!e go"ermet is c#r%ig freedom of t!e press, t!at is p#is!a%le as a

EsladerF e"e if it is tr#e. [A*] $!is applicatio of t!e Geal ode meas

Et!e real, de8iti"e 8is!-%lo to t!e 19t! of arc! [t!e re"ol#tio], to t!e cl#%s, ad

to freedom of t!e pressT K!at is a cl#% it!o#t freedom of speec! d !at is

freedom of speec! it! UU CB7, CBI, C70 of t!e Geal ode d !at is t!e 19t! of

arc! it!o#t cl#%s ad freedom of speec!F [1C]

s t!is alread( idicates, freedom of t!e press co#ld !ardl( %e separated from

freedom of epressio i all its forms. $!e !ole eistece of t!e Qe#e R!eiisc!e

Peit#g as a %attle for s#r"i"al agaist go"ermet s#ppressio. Haled ito co#rt,

ar, )gels ad ot!ers of t!e gro#p ere ac3#itted %( a ologe #r(, after defece

speec!es t!at ere mail( political epositios; %#t !e t!e co#terre"ol#tio

gaied co8dece, t!e paper as s#ppressed %( simple decree. / t!e co#rt case > as

)gels rote m#c! later > t!e( attac'ed Et!e mostro#s otio t!at a(oe ca place

!imself o#tside t!e commo la %( maitaiig a opiio. $!is is t!e p#re police-

state ...F [14]

s t!e QRP %ega its t!ird ee', )gels as'ed !at t!e re"ol#tio !ad o, %esides

%rigig t!e %ig %o#rgeoisie to go"ermetal poer@ E/t ga"e t!e people t!e eapo

of freedom of t!e press it!o#t sec#rit(-%ods, t!e rig!t of orgaiatio [B*], ad

partl( at least also t!e material eapo, t!e m#s'et,F !e asered. [1A] ar ad

)gels sa freedom of t!e press as a %arometer of go"ermetal ar%itrariess, amog

ot!er t!igs. K!e t!e Hasema miistr( s#%mitted a Eiterim laF to reg#late

t!e press, i.e. to m#le criticism, ar rote t!at Ei s!ort, e agai meet t!e most

classic mo#mets to t!e Qapoleoic despotism o"er t!e pressF, ad >

E=rom t!e da( t!is la goes ito e


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s t!e go"ermet tried Eto c!eat t!e re"ol#tio of its democratic fr#itsF [17], t!e QRP

as t!e lo#dest "oice raised i Lerma(. / #l( t!e go"ermet s#ppressed t!e cl#%

mo"emet i to cities; )gels ared@

EWo# %elie"e (o# !a"e 8is!ed it! t!e police-state Del#sioT > Wo# %elie"e (o#

possess t!e rig!t of free assem%l(, freedom of t!e press, armig of t!e people, ad

ot!er 8e slogas t!at ere s!o#ted from t!e arc! %arricades Del#sio, ot!ig %#t

del#sioTF [1I]

s t!e go"ermet as i process of c!oppig o< t!e Edemocratic fr#itsF of t!e

re"ol#tio, a militia %ill as proposed !ic! o#ld restrict t!e rig!ts of its citie

mem%ers to earl( ot!ig. ar as'ed@ K!at does t!is mea for t!e citie

militiama

E$!e ort!( ma !as gotte arms ad #iform o t!e coditio of reo#cig a%o"e

all !is prime political rig!ts, t!e rig!t to orgaie, etc. His tas' of protectig

costit#tioal li%ert(+ ill %e f#l8lled i accordace it! t!e spirit of !is desti(+ !e

!e %lidl( eec#tes t!e orders of t!e a#t!orities, !e !e ec!ages t!e c#stomar(

ci"il li%ert( t!at as tolerated e"e #der t!e a%sol#te moarc!( for t!e passi"e, ill-

less ad self-less o%ediece of t!e soldier. 8e sc!ool i !ic! to %rig #p t!e

rep#%licas of t!e f#t#reT ... K!at !as o#r citie %ee made ito t!ig some!ere

%etee a Gr#ssia gedarme ad a )glis! costa%le ... /stead of dis%adig t!earm( ito t!e people, as+t it a origial idea to dis%ad t!e people ito t!e arm(

E/t is tr#l( a %iarre spectacle, t!is trasformatio of costit#tioal p!rases ito

Gr#ssia realities.F [19]

$!e QRP carried o ot!er campaigs for democratic rig!ts agaist go"ermet

press#re, icl#dig t!e =ra'f#rt Meft+s programme for Eimmediate esta%lis!met,proclamatio ad g#aratee of t!e f#dametal rig!ts of t!e Lerma people agaist

all possi%le attac's %( t!e idi"id#al go"ermets [of t!e Lerma states]F. /t criticied

t!e ssem%l( li%erals for %eig too "ag#e o t!e iss#e of direct s#


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E$!e rig!t of t!e democratic mass of t!e people to eert a moral i5#ece o t!e

attit#de of t!e costit#et assem%l( is a old re"ol#tioar( rig!t of t!e people !ic!,

sice t!e )glis! ad =rec! re"ol#tios, co#ld ot %e dispesed it! i a( period of

storm( actio. /t is to t!is rig!t t!at !istor( oes almost all eergetic steps ta'e %(

s#c! assem%lies. /f ... t!e fait!earted ad p!ilistie frieds of freedom of

deli%eratios+ ail agaist it, t!e ol( %asis t!e( !a"e is t!at t!e( do+t at a(eergetic decisios ta'e a(a(.F

$!is alleged Efreedom of deli%eratiosF is ifriged, arg#ed ar, o t!e oe side %(

t!e press#res from t!e eistig state ad its arm(, co#rts, etc. d li'eise Et!e

freedom of deli%eratios+ is ifriged %( freedom of t!e press, %( freedom of

assem%l( ad speec!, %( t!e rig!t of t!e people to %ear armsF o t!e ot!er side, sice

t!ese too eercise #ated press#re o t!e represetati"es. :etee t!e to

species of EitimidatioF, t!e represetati"es !a"e ol( t!is c!oice@ E/timidatio %(

t!e #armed people or itimidatio %( t!e armed soldier(@ let t!e ssem%l( c!oose.F

[21]

$!e aimiatio of Democratic otrol

:#t s!o#ld a go"ermet permit acti"ities, e"e s#c! as are sacti8ed %( democraticrig!ts, !ic! ma( res#lt i its o o"ert!ro ar ad )gels+ aser as@ /f t!e

eercise of t!e people+s rig!ts edagers t!e go"ermet, t!e so m#c! t!e orse for

t!e go"ermet. Lo"ermets !a"e a !a%it of %elie"ig t!at acti"ities dagero#s to

t!em are ifrigemets o Eli%ert(F ;- amel(, t!eir o Eli%ert(F to eist. ar did

ot %elie"e t!at t!e people ere called o to sacri8ce t!eir o rig!ts i order to

relie"e t!e go"ermet+s pro%lem@

E$!e iistr( of ctio+ [Hasema miistr(] seems to espo#se pec#liar orietal-

m(stical otios, a 'id of oloc! c#lt. / order to protect t!e costit#tioal li%ert(+ of presidets, %#rgomasters, police c!iefs [a log list of go"ermet oVcials follos

!ere] ... i order to protect t!e costit#tioal li%ert(+ of t!is elite of t!e atio, all t!e

rest of t!e atio m#st let its costit#tioal li%erties, #p to ad icl#dig persoal

li%ert(, die a %lood( deat! as a sacri8ce o t!e altar of t!e fat!erlad. Geds-toi,

=igaroT $# +a#rais pas i"etJ celaTF [7*] [22]

$!e et da(+s QRP !ad a similar commet %( )gels o aot!er iss#e. motio %(

t!e left li%eral dep#t( aco%( !ad proposed t!at t!e ssem%l(+s decisios !a"e t!e

force of la it!o#t a(oe else+s coset@ a cr#cial iss#e of t!e re"ol#tio. Dep#t(:erg !ad deo#ced t!is as t!e attempt %( a parliametar( miorit( to i o#tside

s#pport, a attempt !ose cose3#eces Em#st lead to ci"il arF. :#t, replied )gels,


9/28

t!e Eo#tsidersF !o m#st ot %e appealed to > !o ere t!e( E$!e "oters, i.e. t!e

people !o ma'e t!e legislati"e %od(.F

E/ a ord@ Herr :erg+s priciple o#ld lead to t!e a%olitio of all political agitatio.

gitatio is ot!ig more t!a t!e applicatio of represetati"es+ imm#it(, freedom

of t!e press, rig!t to orgaie > i.e. t!e li%erties o #ridicall( i eistece i Gr#ssia.

K!et!er t!ese li%erties do or do ot lead to ci"il ar is ot o#r cocer; it is eo#g!

t!at t!e( eist, ad e s!all see !ere it leads+ if t!e attac' o t!em coti#es.F [2C]

ee' later, t!e 3#estio came #p agai, o a e"e more fatef#l iss#e. Mocal

Democratic ssociatios ere %eig s#ppressed %( t!e go"ermets, 8rst i St#ttgart

ad Heidel%erg, o i :ade; t!is made a moc'er( of t!e ssem%l(+s p!rases a%o#t

t!e rig!t to orgaie. E$!e %asic coditio [rote )gels] of t!e free rig!t oforgaiatio is t!at o associatio or societ( ca %e dissol"ed or pro!i%ited %( t!e

police, t!at t!is ca ta'e place ol( as a res#lt of a #dicial "erdict esta%lis!ig t!e

illegalit( of t!e associatio or of its acts ad aims ad p#is!ig t!e a#t!ors of t!ese

acts.F [24]

K!at as t!e go"ermet+s gro#d

E$!e moti"atios gi"e for t!is e act of police "iolece are etremel( edif(ig. $!e

ssociatios ated to aVliate to t!e orgaiatio of Democratic ssociatios for all

Lerma(, set #p %( t!e Democratic ogress at =ra'f#rt. $!is cogress set a

democratic rep#%lic as its goal+ 6as if t!at is for%iddeT ad t!e meas e"isaged to

attai t!is goal 5o, amog ot!er t!igs, from t!e s(mpat!( epressed i t!ose

resol#tios i fa"o#r of t!e agitators+ 6sice !e is s(mpat!(+ a illegal meas+ ...

Eccordig to Herr at!( [li%eral :ade politicia], t!e ssociatios i :ade are

t!erefore resposi%le for t!e resol#tios of t!e etral ommittee [of t!e Democraticssociatios] e"e if t!e( !a"e ot p#t t!em ito practice.F

at!( !ad arg#ed f#rt!er t!at it Eseems iadmissi%le ad pericio#s for t!e

fo#datio of t!e costit#tio to %e #dermied ad t!#s t!e !ole state str#ct#re

s!a'e %( t!e ssociatios+ poerF. )gels commeted@

E$!e rig!t to orgaie, Herr at!(, eists precisel( so t!at oe ca #dermie+ t!e

costit#tio it! imp#it( > i legal form, of co#rse. d if t!e ssociatios+ poer isgreater t!a t!at of t!e state, so m#c! t!e orse for t!e stateTF [2A]


10/28

ot!er "ital iss#e o !ic! t!e QRP !it !ard as a corollar( of t!e Eso"ereigt( of

t!e peopleF, "i. t!e so"ereigt( of t!e ssem%l( elected %( t!e people, as agaist t!e

poer of t!e go"ermet set #p %( t!e ro. $!e re"ol#tio !ad gi"e rise to to

lies of poer !ic! ere di"ergig, rote )gels@

E$!e res#lts of t!e re"ol#tio ere, o oe !ad, t!e armig of t!e people, t!e rig!t of

orgaiatio, t!e de facto ac!ie"emet of pop#lar so"ereigt(; o t!e ot!er, t!e

maiteace of t!e moarc!( ad t!e amp!a#se-Hasema miistr(, i.e. t!e

go"ermet of t!e represetati"es of t!e %ig %o#rgeoisie.

E$!e re"ol#tio t!#s !ad to series of res#lts !ic! ecessaril( !ad to di"erge. $!e

people !ad %ee "ictorio#s, t!e( !ad o freedoms of a decisi"el( democratic at#re;

%#t t!e immediate r#lig poer passed ot ito t!eir !ads %#t ito t!e %ig

%o#rgeoisie+s.

E/ s!ort, t!e re"ol#tio as ot completed.F [2B]

ar ad )gels+ lie as strogl( for all poer to t!e ssem%l( as t!e represetatio

of pop#lar so"ereigt(, as agaist t!e ssem%l( maorit(+s goal of a deal it! t!ero. $!e aco%( motio, pre"io#sl( metioed, t!at t!e ssem%l(+s decisios s!o#ld

!a"e t!e force of la it!o#t f#rt!er ado, as a sie 3#a o. /t o#ld %e icredi%le to

ot!er peoples, rote )gels, t!at t!e Lerma assem%l( !ad to de%ate a motio

assertig t!at it is so"ereig it! respect to t!e go"ermet. E:#t e are i t!e lad

of t!e oa' ad lide, ad so e s!o#ld ot %e easil( astois!ed %( a(t!ig.F $!e

ssem%l( as Eirresol#te, 5a%%( ad lac'adaisicalF. [27]

ar preseted t!e re"ol#tioar(-democratic proposal i terms of t!e cocetratio of

%ot! legislati"e ad go"ermetal 6eec#ti"e poer i t!e !ads of t!e people+s

elected represetati"es. $!e Radical ig of t!e ssem%l(, !e rote, as callig for a

go"ermetal eec#ti"e Eelected for a period determied %( t!e Qatioal ssem%l(

ad resposi%le to itF. :#t t!at as ot eo#g!. $!is eec#ti"e poer m#st %e

selected o#t of t!e ra's of t!e ssem%l( itself, as as demaded %( t!e left-igers

amog t!e Radicals. Sice t!e Qatioal ssem%l( as a costit#et %od( > i.e. o

costit#tio as (et eisted > t!ere co#ld %e o go"ermet ecept t!e ssem%l( itself@

Eit is t!e Qatioal ssem%l( itself t!at m#st go"erF. [2I] %o"e all, it m#st ta'e t!e

iitiati"e aa( from t!e go"ermets of t!e Lerma states@


11/28

E atioal costit#et assem%l( m#st a%o"e all %e a acti"ist, re"ol#tioar(-acti"ist

assem%l(. $!e assem%l( i =ra'f#rt does parliametar( sc!ool-eercises ad lets t!e

go"ermets act. S#pposig t!at t!is leared co#cil s#cceeds after t!e mat#rest

deli%eratios i 8g#rig o#t t!e %est ageda ad t!e %est costit#tio, !at ere t!e

good of t!e %est ageda ad t!e costit#tio if i t!e meatime t!e go"ermets p#t

t!e %a(oet o t!e agedaF [29]

$!is co#rse as dri"e !ome as t!e QRP aal(sed t!e ssem%l( de%ates. [C0] /f t!e

ssem%l( declied to ta'e o"er all t!e poers of t!e state, if i partic#lar it as e"e

depri"ed of t!e rig!t to eercise cotrol o"er t!e eec#ti"e t!ro#g! its commissios of

i3#ir(, t!e t!is amo#ted to Ea re#ciatio of t!e so"ereigt( of t!e people.F [C1]

$!e iss#e of t!e dep#ties+ imm#it( from arrest %( t!e go"ermet as oe "er(

cocrete aspect of t!e 3#estio of so"ereigt(@ t!e QRP campaiged for f#ll ad

#a%ridged imm#it( it! o loop!oles. [C2]

:#t i fact, istead of t!e ssem%l(+s ta'ig o"er eec#ti"e poer, it as t!e

go"ermetal poer t!at #sed e"er( meas to stregt!e itself. ar #sed t!e ilitia

:ill as a eample@ t!e idea of a pop#lar militia as co"erted ito a pla for a

%#rea#cratic force.

EGr#ssia perspicacit( !as osed o#t t!at e"er( e costit#tioal istit#tio o


12/28

$!is follos at#rall( from t!e "ie t!at democrac( is ge#ie isofar as it meas

pop#lar cotrol from %elo. Met #s see !o t!e poit is made i a #m%er of rat!er

detailed criticisms !ic! ar made of partic#lar costit#tios.

$!e 8rst s#c! costit#tioal aal(sis %( ar, ritte i 1IA1, dealt it! $!e

ostit#tio of t!e =rec! Rep#%lic dopted Qo"em%er 4, 1I4I. [I*] $!e mai fra#d i

t!is costit#tio, repeatedl( poited o#t %( ar, is t!at it lea"es room for its alleged

democratic g#aratees to %e #lli8ed %( s#%se3#et las p#t t!ro#g! %( t!e

go"ermetal poer.

Here is !is 8rst eample of t!e t(pe of pro"isio !ic! preteds to esta%lis! a

democratic rig!t %#t "itiates itself %( alloig for Eeceptios made %( laF.

EU C. $!e residece of e"er(oe o =rec! territor( is i"iola%le > ad it is ot alloed

to eter it ot!erise t!a i t!e forms prescri%ed %( la.+

E%ser"e !ere ad t!ro#g!o#t t!at t!e =rec! costit#tio g#aratees li%ert(, %#t

ala(s it! t!e pro"iso of eceptios made %( la, or !ic! ma( S$/MM :) D)TF

[CA]

ot!er pro"isio es#res freedom of associatio, opiio, press, etc. %#t it adds, E$!e

eo(met of t!ese rig!ts !as o ot!er limit, t!a t!e e3#al rig!ts of ot!ers, ad t!e

p#%lic safet(F. ar poits to t!e last p!rase as t!e o'er@

E$!at t!e limitatio made %( t!e p#%lic safet(+, ta'es aa( t!e eo(met of t!e rig!t

altoget!er, is clearl( s!e %( t!e folloig facts ... [ar t!e cites !at act#all(

!appeed i =race.]F

gai, t!e costit#tio sa(s E$!e rig!t of t#itio is free.F

EHere t!e old o'e is repeated. $#itio is free+, %#t #der t!e coditios 8ed %( la+,

ad t!ese are precisel( t!e coditios t!at ta'e aa( t!e freedom altoget!er.F [CB]

d so o. ar s#ms #p t!e c!aracter of t!is costit#tio@


13/28

E... from %egiig to ed it is a mass of 8e ords, !idig a most treac!ero#s desig.

=rom its "er( ordig, it is redered impossi%le to "iolate it, for e"er( oe of its

pro"isios cotais its o atit!esis > #tterl( #lli8es itself. =or istace@ t!e "ote is

direct ad #i"ersal+ > eceptig t!ose cases !ic! t!e la s!all determie+.F

$!e repeated form#la is t!at t!is or t!at freedom s!all %e determied %( a Eorgaic

laF to %e adopted > Ead t!ese orgaic las+ determie+ t!e promised freedom %(

destro(ig itF. [C7]

$!e folloig (ear ar icorporated t!e s#%stace of t!is re"ie of t!e =rec!

costit#tioal de"ice i !is )ig!teet! :r#maire. fter ma'ig t!e poit ad gi"ig

some eamples, ar rites t!at t!e Eorgaic lasF reg#lated all t!e li%erties grated

Ei s#c! maer t!at t!e %o#rgeoisie i its eo(met of t!em 8ds itself #!idered%( t!e e3#al rig!ts of t!e ot!er classesF. =or a(t!ig t!at cotra"ees its o safet(

is o%"io#sl( ot Ei t!e iterest of p#%lic safet(F.

E/ t!e se3#el, %ot! sides accordigl( appeal it! complete #stice to t!e ostit#tio@

t!e frieds of order, !o a%rogated all t!ese li%erties, as ell as t!e democrats, !o

demaded all of t!em. =or eac! paragrap! of t!e ostit#tio cotais its o

atit!esis, its o Xpper ad Moer Ho#se, amel(, li%ert( i t!e geeral p!rase,

a%rogatio of li%ert( i t!e margial ote. $!#s, so log as t!e ame of freedom as

respected ad ol( its act#al realiatio pre"eted, of co#rse i a legal a(, t!ecostit#tioal eistece of li%ert( remaied itact, i"iolate, !oe"er mortal t!e %los

dealt to its eistece i act#al life.F [CI]

/ t!e 1IA1 article, ar also icl#ded a poerf#l de#ciatio of aot!er de"ice %(

!ic! t!e go"ermet %#rea#crac( eercised de facto cotrol o"er t!e li%erties of t!e

idi"id#al regardless of costit#tioal or ot!er faYades. $!is de"ice is t!e iteral

passport ad Ela%o#r %oo'F.

E$!e ecess of despotism reac!ed i =race ill %e apparet %( t!e folloig

reg#latios as to or'ig me.

E)"er( or'ig ma is s#pplied it! a %oo' %( t!e police > t!e 8rst page of !ic!

cotais !is ame, age, %irt!place, trade or callig, ad a descriptio of !is perso. He

is t!erei o%liged to eter t!e ame of t!e master for !om !e or's, ad t!e reasos

!( !e lea"es !im. :#t t!is is ot all@ t!e %oo' is placed i t!e master+s !ads, ad

deposited %( !im i t!e %#rea# of t!e police it! t!e c!aracter of t!e ma %( t!emaster. K!e a or'ma lea"es !is emplo(met, !e m#st go ad fetc! t!is %oo' from

t!e police oVce; ad is ot alloed to o%tai aot!er sit#atio it!o#t prod#cig it.


14/28

$!#s t!e or'ma+s %read is #tterl( depedet o t!e police. :#t t!is agai, is ot all@

t!is %oo' ser"es t!e p#rpose of a passport. /f !e is o%oio#s, t!e police rite %o

po#r reto#rer c!e l#i+ i it, ad t!e or'ma is o%liged to ret#r to !is paris!T Qo

commet is eeded o t!is terri8c re"elatioT Met t!e reader pict#re to !imself its f#ll

or'ig, ad trace it to its act#al cose3#eces. Qo serfdom of t!e fe#dal ages > o

paria!dom of /dia !as its parallel. K!at oder if t!e =rec! people pat for t!e !o#rof is#rrectio. K!at oder if t!eir idigatio ta'e t!e aspect of a storm.F [C9]

$et( (ears later ar deo#ced t!e #se of t!e same s(stem %( t!e Nersaillese

go"ermet; oe of !is co#ts agaist t!e police-state met!ods of t!e $!iers rJgime

as Et!e reitrod#ctio of passports for tra"ellig from oe place to aot!er.F [40] /

%ot! cases t!e =rec! go"ermet #sed t!e iteral-passport s(stem for pop#latio

cotrol i t!e a'e of a re"ol#tioar( #ps#rge.

iimiatio of t!e )ec#ti"e Goer

/ 1IAC ar aal(ed t!e pro"isios i t!e e draft costit#tios for Sc!lesig ad

Holstei, otig t!eir #democratic c!aracter. / additio, !e otes t!at oe of t!e

Emost remar'a%le paragrap!s ... depri"es t!e co#rts of la of t!eir aciet rig!t of

cacellig admiistrati"e decrees ...F [41]

S#c! pro"isios are %ad %eca#se it is t!e Epoer of t!e %#rea#crac(F !ic! !as to %e

'ept do@ t!is is also spelled o#t i ar+s aal(sis, ritte i 1IAI, of t!e Gr#ssia

costit#tio of 1IA0. ce agai !e sees costit#tioal rig!ts #lli8ed %( t!e freedom

of actio accorded to t!e eec#ti"e poer@

E$!e 3#estio of miisterial resposi%ilit( possesses i Gr#ssia, as it did i t!e =race

of Mo#is G!ilippe, a eceptioal importace, %eca#se it meas, i fact, t!e

resposi%ilit( of %#rea#crac(. $!e miisters are t!e c!iefs of t!at omipotet, all-

itermeddlig parasitic %od(, ad to t!em aloe, accordig to article 10B of t!e

ostit#tio, !a"e t!e s#%alter mem%ers of t!e admiistratio to loo', it!o#t ta'ig

#po t!emsel"es to i3#ire ito t!e legalit( of t!eir ordiaces, or ic#rrig a(

resposi%ilit( %( eec#tig t!em. $!#s, t!e poer of t!e %#rea#crac(, ad %( t!e

%#rea#crac(, of t!e eec#ti"e, !as %ee maitaied itact, !ile t!e costit#tioal

Rig!ts of t!e Gr#ssias+ !a"e %ee red#ced to a dead letter.F [42]

$!e Gr#ssia realit(, rites ar, s!os t!e g#lf %etee costit#tioal t!eor( ad

act#al practice@


15/28

E)"er( step of (o#rs, simple locomotio e"e, is tampered it! %( t!e omipotet

actio of %#rea#crac(, t!is secod pro"idece of ge#ie Gr#ssia grot!. Wo# ca

eit!er li"e or die, or marr(, or rite letters, or t!i', or prit, or ta'e to

%#siess, or teac!, or %e ta#g!t, or get #p a meetig, or %#ild a ma#factor(, oremigrate, or do a( t!ig it!o#t o%rig'eitlic!e )rla#%is+ > permissio o t!e part

of t!e a#t!orities. s to t!e li%ert( of sciece or religio, or a%olitio of patrimoial

#risdictio, or s#ppressio of caste pri"ileges, or t!e doig aa( it! etails ad

primogeit#re, it is all mere %os!.F

ar eplais !( t!is is so i t!e same a( as !e eplaied t!e self-"itiatio of t!e

=rec! costit#tio of 1I4I@ all t!e li%erties are grated ol( it!i Et!e limits of t!e

laF, !ic! i t!is case meas t!e a%sol#tist la predatig t!e ostit#tio.

E$!#s t!ere eists a deadl( atagoism %etee t!e la of t!e ostit#tio ad t!e

costit#tio of t!e la, t!e latter red#cig, i fact, t!e former to mere moos!ie.

t!e ot!er !ad, t!e !arter i t!e most decisi"e poits refers to orgaic las ... $!e(

[t!e orgaic las o adopted] !a"e doe aa( it! g#aratees e"e eistig at t!e

orst times of t!e a%sol#te oarc!(, it! t!e idepedece, for istace, of t!e

#dges of t!e eec#ti"e Lo"ermet. Qot cotet it! t!ese com%ied dissol"ets, t!e

old ad t!e e-fagled las, t!e !arter preser"es to t!e ig t!e rig!t of

s#spedig it i all its political %earigs, !ee"er !e ma( t!i' proper.F [4C]

$!is is t!e secod time t!at e !a"e see ar #p!oldig t!e idepedece of t!e

co#rts agaist t!e eec#ti"e poer. /t is clear, !oe"er, t!at t!is is ol( oe aspect of

!is ad"ocac( of e"er( possi%le meas of miimiig t!e a#toomo#s poer of t!e

eec#ti"e. / 1IA9 ar rote a aal(sis of t!e Hessia costit#tio of 1IC1 !ic!

praised it as Et!e most li%eral f#dametal la e"er proclaimed i )#ropeF, ecept for

its #democratic met!od of electig represetati"es. Qat#rall(, t!is praise as relati"e

to t!e times; %#t !at stirred t!is et!#siastic descriptio

E$!ere is o ot!er ostit#tio !ic! restrais t!e poers of t!e eec#ti"e it!i

limits so arro, ma'es t!e dmiistratio more depedet o t!e Megislat#re, ad

co8des s#c! a s#preme cotrol to t!e #dicial %ec!es.F [44]

$!e article spells o#t t!e detailed reasos for t!is tri%#te, icl#dig t!e fact t!at Et!e

o#rts of la, empoered to decide de8iti"el( #po all t!e acts of t!e )ec#ti"e,

ere redered omipotetF. $!e co#rts also !a"e t!e 8al sa( Ei all 3#estios of

%#rea#cratic disciplieF. $!e represetati"es ca remo"e a( miister declared g#ilt(of misiterpretig its resol#tios; t!e Grice+s Erig!t of graceF is s!or, ad also !is

cotrol o"er mem%ers of t!e dmiistratio. E$!e Represetati"e !am%er selects o#t


16/28

of its mem%ers a permaet committee, formig a sort of reopag#s, atc!ig ad

cotrollig t!e Lo"ermet, ad impeac!ig t!e oVcials for "iolatio of t!e

ostit#tio, o eceptio %eig grated o %e!alf of orders recei"ed %( s#%alters

from t!eir s#periors i ra'. / t!is a(, t!e mem%ers of t!e %#rea#crac( ere

emacipated from t!e ro.F ilitar( oVcers are similarl( %o#d to t!e ostit#tio,

ot to t!e ro. E$!e represetatio, cosistig of oe sigle !am%er, possessest!e rig!t of stoppig all taes, imposts ad d#ties, o e"er( co5ict it! t!e

eec#ti"e.F Mater, metios ar, t!e re"ol#tio of 1I4I-9 democratied t!e electio

forms ad made to ot!er impro"emets. :ot! of t!e latter ere li'eise directed

agaist t!e poer of t!e eec#ti"e@ E%( p#ttig t!e omiatio of t!e mem%ers of t!e

S#preme o#rt ito t!e !ads of t!e legislat#re, ad, lastl(, %( ta'ig o#t of t!e !ads

of t!e Grice t!e s#preme cotrol of t!e arm(, ad ma'ig it o"er to t!e iister of

Kar, a persoage resposi%le to t!e represetati"es of t!e peopleF.

/ t!e same article ar poits to aot!er democratic feat#re of t!is costit#tio@

Eomm#al co#cillors, omiated %( pop#lar electio, !ad to admiister ot ol( t!e

local, %#t also t!e geeral police.F "er a decade later, ar poited to t!e Garis

omm#e+s s(stem of comm#it( cotrol of t!e police as a democratic ac!ie"emet.

[4A] / geeral, ar+s "ies o t!e miimiatio, or t!oro#g! s#%ordiatio, of t!e

eec#ti"e poer reac!ed f#llest epressio i !is aal(sis of t!e Garis omm#e.

Safet(-Nal"es for t!e :o#rgeoisie

ommets o "ario#s aspects of democratic rig!ts are, of co#rse, scattered t!ro#g!

t!e later ritigs of ar ad )gels, t!o#g! ot t!e s#%ect of a( s(stematic or'.

)amples of aspects ot (et metioed ma( !a"e some iterest@

61 =reedom of opiio. Disc#ssig t!e :oapartiatio of =race i 1IA1, e"e %efore

t!e co#p d+Jtat, ar commeted t!at t!e "er( last stra as t!e 1IA0 la !ic!restored cesors!ip of t!e drama. E$!#s freedom of opiio as %ais!ed from its last

literar( ref#ge.F [4B]

62 Restrictios o "oter eligi%ilit(. / t!e same coectio > t!e ati-democratic sig

i =race after t!e 1I4I defeat > ar oted to ifrigemets dealig it! "otig

limitatios. $!e la of C1 a( 1IA0 ot ol( ecl#ded political o


17/28

/ !is article o t!e Sc!lesig ad Holstei costit#tios, ar also oted a related

3#estio@ amog t!e #democratic restrictios is t!e pro"isio Ema'ig t!e rig!t of

electio depedet o t!e !oldig of laded propert(, ad limitig its eercise %( t!e

coditio of domicile+ i t!e respecti"e electoral districtsF. [4I] / !is alread(metioed article o t!e Gr#ssia costit#tio of 1IA0, !e remar'ed t!at alt!o#g! it

allos pa(met of dep#ties ad "otig rig!ts from t!e age of 2A, E$!e electoral rig!ts,

!oe"er, ad t!e mac!ier( of electio, !a"e %ee maaged i s#c! a a( as to

ecl#de ot ol( t!e %#l' of t!e people, %#t to s#%ect t!e pri"ileged remat to t!e

most #%ridled %#rea#cratic iterferece. $!ere are to degrees of electio.F [49]

6C Lerr(maderig. $!e E#%ridled %#rea#cratic iterfereceF i t!e Gr#ssia

electoral s(stem icl#ded more t!a t!e complicated s(stem of gro#pig "oters %( t!e

amo#t of ta paid, etc.

Es if t!is complicated process of 8lterig as ot s#Vciet, t!e %#rea#crac( !as,

moreo"er, t!e rig!t to di"ide, com%ie, c!age, separate ad recompose t!e electoral

districts at pleas#re. $!#s, for istace, if t!ere eists a to s#spected of li%eral

s(mpat!ies, it ma( %e samped %( reactioar( co#tr( "otes, t!e iister, %( simple

ordiace, %ledig t!e li%eral to it! t!e reactioar( co#tr( ito t!e same

electoral district.F

ar cocl#des@ ES#c! are t!e fetters !ic! s!ac'le t!e electoral mo"emet, ad

!ic!, ol( i t!e great cities, ca eceptioall( %e %ro'e t!ro#g!.F [A0]

64 Xicameralism. / geeral, ar as for a sigle represetati"e assem%l(, ot t!e

%icameral s(stem de"ised to c!ec' t!e e#%erace of pop#lar so"ereigt(. / !is

article o t!e Hessia costit#tio, !e oted appro"igl( t!at E$!e represetatio,

cosistig of oe sigle !am%er, possesses t!e rig!t of stoppig all taes, imposts

ad d#ties, o e"er( co5ict it! t!e eec#ti"e.F [A1]

6A Rig!t to demostrate. $!e folloig case i poit !as a special iterest. / 1I72 a

H(de Gar' demostratio as orgaied %( /ris! mem%ers of t!e /teratioal, to

demad a geeral amest(. :#t at t!e last sessio of Garliamet t!e go"ermet !ad

p#t t!ro#g! a la reg#latig p#%lic meetigs i par's@ it re3#ired to da(s+ prior

oti8catio to t!e police, icl#dig t!e spea'ers+ ames. )gels rote@

E$!is reg#latio caref#ll( 'ept !idde from t!e Modo press destro(ed it! oe stro'e

of t!e pe oe of t!e most precio#s rig!ts of Modo+s or'ig people > t!e rig!t to


18/28

!old meetigs i par's !e ad !o t!e( please. $o s#%mit to t!is reg#latio o#ld

%e to sacri8ce oe of t!e people+s rig!ts.

E$!e /ris!, !o represet t!e most re"ol#tioar( elemet of t!e pop#latio, ere ot

me to displa( s#c! ea'ess. $!e committee #aimo#sl( decided to act as if it did

ot 'o of t!e eistece of t!is reg#latio ad to !old t!eir meetig i de8ace of

t!e Lo"ermet+s decree.F [A2]

$!e police decided ot to iter"ee after all.

6B $!e iformer s(stem. $!e #se of iformers, spies ad stool-pigeos 6mo#c!ards i

=rec! ad also i ar ad )gels most of t!e time as, of co#rse, t!e commoistr#met of t!e go"ermets ad a costat plag#e i t!e radical ad la%o#r

mo"emets. Here, !oe"er, is a importat "ariat.

$!e #stria commader i ila, after s#ppressig a is#rrectio, decreed t!at

a(oe !o failed to deo#ce aot!er+s illegal act as !imself g#ilt(. ar reported

t!is %itterl(@

EK!oe"er ill ot %ecome a sp( ad iformer for t!e Haps%#rg s!all %e lia%le to

%ecome t!e laf#l pre( of t!e roat [#stria troops]. / a ord, Radets'( proclaims a

e s(stem of !olesale pl#der.F [AC]

67 =reedom i artime. fter t!e o#t%rea' of t!e =raco-Gr#ssia ar, :e%el ad

Mie%'ec!t ere arrested %( t!e :ismarc' go"ermet o c!arges of !ig! treaso >

Esimpl( %eca#se t!e( dared to f#l8l t!eir d#ties as Lerma atioal represetati"es,

"i. to protest i t!e Reic!stag agaist t!e aeatio of lsace ad Morraie, "ote

agaist e ar s#%sidies, epress t!eir s(mpat!( it! t!e =rec! Rep#%lic, ad

deo#ce t!e attempt at t!e co"ersio of Lerma( ito oe Gr#ssia %arrac'.F

So ar, i a protest p#%lis!ed i t!e Modo press. His letters also descri%ed t!e

go"ermetal repressio of ot!er ati-ar socialists, ad added@

E$!e fe idepedet Lerma o#rals eistig o#tside Gr#ssia are for%idde

admissio ito t!e Ho!eoller estates. Lerma or'me+s meetigs i fa"o#r of a


19/28

peace !oo#ra%le for =race are dail( dispersed %( t!e police. ccordig to t!e oVcial

Gr#ssia doctrie ... e"er( Lerma tr(ig to co#teract t!e prospecti"e aims of t!e

Gr#ssia arfare i =race+, is g#ilt( of !ig! treaso.F [A4]

He compares t!e li%ert( eistig i =race 6!ere t!e )mpire !ad #st %ee

o"ert!ro > it is t!e iterl#de %etee Seda ad t!e Garis omm#e@

E$!e =rec! soil is ifested %( a%o#t a millio of Lerma i"aders. Wet t!e =rec!

Lo"ermet ca safel( dispese it! t!at Gr#ssia met!od of rederig possi%le t!e

free epressio of opiio+. Moo' at t!is pict#re ad at t!atTF [AA]

/ tr#t!, t!e =rec! rep#%lica go"ermet co#ld !ardl( do ot!erise; it !ad come ito%eig t!ro#g! a mass #ps#rge i t!e streets after Seda, ad a re"ol#tio loomed

%efore it. Re"ol#tioar( press#res es#red its democratic distictio from Gr#ssiaism.

/ )glad, press#re agaist freedom i artime as political. D#rig t!e rimea

ar, o! :rig!t acc#sed t!e go"ermet of #dermiig Et!e Garliametar( s(stem of

t!is co#tr(F %( its itolerace of criticism. ar commeted@

E/t ma( %e as'ed of !at #se t!is s(stem is Domestic 3#estios m#st ot %e agitated

%eca#se t!e co#tr( is at ar. :eca#se t!e co#tr( is at ar, ar m#st ot %e

disc#ssed. $!e !( remais Garliamet ld [Killiam] o%%ett !as re"ealed t!e

secret. s a safet(-"al"e for t!e e


20/28

c!apters, aspects of t!e s#%ect ill emerge s#%se3#etl(. :#t a co#ple of %asic poits

ma( %e made !ere.

$!e Edemocratic sidleF as a sidle ot isofar as it as democratic %#t, o t!e

cotrar(, isofar as it #tilied democratic forms to fr#strate ge#ie democratic

cotrol from %elo. $!e p!rase itself comes from a referece %( ar to t!e co#tr(

!ic!, !e ell #derstood, as t!e most democratic i costit#tioal form at t!is

time@ t!e Xited States. /t as, ideed, Et!e model co#tr( of t!e democratic sidleF

[A7] ot %eca#se it as less democratic t!a ot!ers %#t for precisel( t!e opposite

reaso. $!e fact t!at t!e XS !ad de"eloped t!e formal str#ct#re of t!e costit#tioal

rep#%lic i t!e most democratic forms meat t!at its %o#rgeoisie li'eise !ad to

de"elop to its !ig!est poit t!e art of 'eepig t!e epressio of pop#lar opiio it!i

c!aels satisfactor( to its class iterests.

/ ar+s time t!ere as o pro%lem a%o#t p#ttig t!e 8ger o t!e mai met!od of

t!is eterprise@ t!e s(stem of ra' political corr#ptio metioed i t!e precedig

c!apter. s log as it as possi%le to or' it, it!i t!e cadre of a co#tr( t!at as

epadig ecoomicall( ad geograp!icall(, social eplosios co#ld %e a"oided. $!e

epese as ort! !ile to gai Ea safet(-"al"e for t!e e


21/28

as it is #seless, ad !ic! f#l8lls o ot!er p#rpose %#t to pre"et t!e atio from

prod#cig t!e greatest possi%le 3#atit( at t!e least possi%le epese, ad to

ec!age its prod#cts i freedom. Qecessaril( t!eir last ord is t!e :o#rgeois

Rep#%lic, i !ic! free competitio r#les s#preme i all sp!eres of life; i !ic! t!ere

remais altoget!er t!at miim#m ol( of go"ermet !ic! is idispesa%le for t!e

admiistratio, iterall( ad eterall(, of t!e commo class iterest ad %#siess oft!e :o#rgeoisie; ad !ere t!is miim#m of go"ermet is as so%erl(, as

ecoomicall( orgaied as possi%le. S#c! a part(, i ot!er co#tries, o#ld %e called

democratic.F [A9]

$ime ad agai ar or )gels aal(sed %o#rgeois-democratic politics as a eercise

i co"icig a maim#m of t!e people t!at t!e( ere participatig i state poer, %(

meas of a miim#m of cocessios to democratic forms. t!e e"e of t!e 1I4I

re"ol#tio > t!e precedig Qo"em%er, to %e eact > )gels too' #p t!e programmatic

maifesto iss#ed %( Mamartie, t!e poet-politicia !o !eaded t!e moderate

rep#%lica part(.

EK!at, t!e, is t!e meaig of t!e political meas#res proposed %( . de Mamartie $o

gi"e t!e go"ermet ito t!e !ads of t!e iferior %o#rgeoisie, %#t #der t!e

sem%lace of gi"ig it to t!e !ole people 6t!is, ad ot!ig else, is t!e meaig of

!is #i"ersal s#


22/28

E$!e priciples, ideed, of social ad political regeeratio !a"e %ee fo#d 8ft( (ears

ago. Xi"ersal s# t!ese are t!e essetial

coditios of political so"ereigt( ... K!at e at, is ot )glis! middle-class

epediec(, %#t 3#ite a e s(stem of social ecoom(, to realie t!e rig!ts ad satisf(

t!e ats of all.F [B1]

$!is as p#%lis!ed i a !artist paper ad ritte for t!e e(es of !artist or'ers,

!o ere ideed alread( %attlig for !at as t!e t!e political programme of t!e

democratic etremists. :#t )gels+ frieds i t!e left ig of !artism, Hare( ad

oes a%o"e all, ere 8g!tig for Et!e !arter ad Somet!ig )lseF, i.e. for t!e

etesio of t!e democratic idea to a social programme. $!is, of co#rse, !ad %ee

!at )gels !ad also #rged sice !is arri"al i )glad. s e !a"e see [B2], !e

%ega %( co#terposig Ecomm#ismF agaist democrac(, i t!e a'e of Gro#d!o

ad Keitlig. :( 1I44 !e !ad corrected t!is to ad"ocatig goig o"er from mere

political democrac( to a more %asic social trasformatio.

/ a 1I44 article !ic! )gels rote for a Lerma paper i Garis, !e aal(sed t!e

costit#tioal forms of :ritis! democrac( i t!is spirit. [9*] ocedig t!at E)glad is

#do#%tedl( t!e freest, t!at is, t!e least #free co#tr( i t!e orld, Qort! merica

ot eceptedF, !e #dertoo' a eamiatio of t!e met!ods ad forms of t!e political

s(stem Eo p#rel( empirical liesF, to s!o !o t!e str#ct#re is desiged toard

Ema'ig cocessios merel( i order to preser"e t!is derelict str#ct#re as log as

possi%leF, ad maitaiig t!e r#le of t!e middle class i parters!ip it! t!eprogressi"e-mided aristocrac(. [BC] Sice t!e represetati"e c!am%er, t!e Ho#se of

ommos, ielded all poer 6!e t!o#g!t, it folloed t!at E)glad s!o#ld %e a p#re

democrac(, if ol( t!e democratic elemet itself ere reall( democraticF. /t is t!e

latter coditio t!at !e s#%ects to detailed aal(sis, meas#rig costit#tioal ad

formal pretesios agaist t!e EempiricalF facts of class poer. His cocl#sio is t!at

E$!e )glis!ma is ot free %eca#se of t!e la, %#t despite t!e la, if !e ca %e

cosidered free at allF [B4], for it is t!e costat t!reat from %elo t!at es#res t!e

recogitio of democratic rig!ts i practice.

/t is, !e arg#es, li'eise t!e str#ggle of classes !ic! ill mo"e matters still f#rt!er@

E$!e str#ggle is alread( o. $!e costit#tio !as %ee s!a'e i its fo#datios. Ho

t!igs ill t#r o#t i t!e ear f#t#re ca %e see from !at !as %ee said. $!e e

alie elemets i t!e costit#tio are of a democratic at#re; p#%lic opiio too, as

time ill s!o, de"elops i accordace it! t!e democratic side; )glad+s ear f#t#re

is democrac(.


23/28

E:#t !at a democrac(T Qot t!at t!e =rec! Re"ol#tio, !ose atit!esis as t!e

moarc!( ad fe#dalism, %#t t!at democrac( !ose atit!esis is t!e middle class ad

propert(. $!is is e"idet from t!e etire precedig de"elopmet. $!e middle class ad

propert( are i poer; t!e poor ma is %ereft of rig!ts, oppressed ad seated; t!e

costit#tio disos !im, t!e la maltreats !im; t!e str#ggle of democrac( agaist

t!e aristocrac( i )glad is t!e str#ggle of t!e poor agaist t!e ric!. $!e democrac(!ic! )glad is !eadig for is a social democrac(.

E:#t mere democrac( is #a%le to remed( social e"ils. Democratic e3#alit( is a

c!imera, t!e str#ggle of t!e poor agaist t!e ric! caot %e fo#g!t o#t o t!e gro#d

of democrac( or politics i geeral. Hece t!is stage too is ol( a trasitio, t!e last

p#rel( political meas#re t!at still is to %e tried ad from !ic! a e elemet m#st

immediatel( de"elop, a priciple trascedig e"er(t!ig political.

E$!is priciple is t!e priciple of socialism.F [BA]

Eere democrac(F is merel( political democrac(, democrac( !ic! stops it!

go"ermetal forms ad does ot eted to t!e Esocial 3#estioF, to t!e

democratiatio of socio-ecoomic life.

/ s#m@ ar ad )gels ala(s sa t!e to sides of t!e comple of democratic

istit#tios ad rig!ts !ic! arose #der %o#rgeois democrac(. $!e to sides

correspoded to t!e to classes !ic! fo#g!t it o#t it!i t!is frameor'. e side

as t!e #tiliatio of democratic forms as a c!eap ad "ersatile meas of 'eepig t!e

eploited masses from s!a'ig t!e s(stem, of pro"idig t!e ill#sio of participatio i

t!e state !ile t!e ecoomic sa( of t!e r#lig class es#red t!e real cetres of

poer. $!is as t!e side of t!e Edemocratic sidleF. $!e ot!er side as t!e str#ggle

to gi"e t!e democratic forms a e social 6class cotet, a%o"e all %( p#s!ig t!em

to t!e democratic etreme of pop#lar cotrol from %elo, !ic! i t#r etailed

etedig t!e applicatio of democratic forms o#t of t!e merel( political sp!ere ito

t!e orgaiatio of t!e !ole societ(.

/ a( case, t!e 'e( as pop#lar cotrol from %elo. $!is p!rase as %est traslated

%( ar i a commet o a slipper( sloga, t!e Massallea catc!ord of a Efree stateF.

$a'ig it literall(, ar replied t!at e do ot at a state t!at is free, %#t rat!er a

state t!at is completel( s#%ordiate to societ(.

E=ree state > !at is t!is


24/28

E/t is %( o meas t!e aim of t!e or'ers, !o !a"e got rid of t!e arro metalit( of

!#m%le s#%ects, to set t!e state free. / t!e [:ismarc'ia] Lerma )mpire t!e state+

is almost as free+ as i R#ssia. =reedom cosists i co"ertig t!e state from a orga

s#perimposed #po societ( ito oe completel( s#%ordiate to it, ad toda(, too, t!e

forms of state are more or less free to t!e etet t!at t!e( restrict t!e freedom of t!e

state+.F [BB]

$!is proposes a %asic test for, ad meas#re of, freedom i t!e sese of pop#lar cotrol

from %elo, ad it applies e3#all( %efore ad after t!e social re"ol#tio.

$op of t!e page

=oototes

1*. s a li%eral ar-critic, .D. Midsa(, p#t it from !is o "iepoit@ Et!e Mi%eral, if

to %e a Mi%eral is to %elie"e i democrac(, m#st eplai !( !e ill ot eted

democrac( to t!e go"ermet of t!e collecti"e la%o#rer ad %ecome a socialist.Socialism is for ar essetiall( t!e democratiatio of t!e collecti"e la%o#rer.

:eca#se it as t!at, !e regarded it as ie"ita%le; for a societ( i !ic! t!e otio of

!#ma e3#alit( !as alread( ac3#ired t!e 8it( of a pop#lar pre#dice+, ad i !ic!

t!e pre"ailig form of prod#ctio is social ad i"ol"es go"ermet, is alread( i

priciple committed to it.F [1]

2*. eample@ mog t!e %ac'ard-loo'ig ati-democrats t!at ar ra ito as

t!e ma"eric' Da"id Xr3#!art, agaist !om ar ared i a article@ Et!ere is

aot!er cli3#e of ise me+ emergig i )glad, !o are discoteted it! t!e

Lo"ermet ad t!e r#lig classes as m#c! as it! t!e !artists. K!at do t!e

!artists at t!e( eclaim. $!e( at to icrease ad eted t!e omipotece of

Garliamet %( ele"atig it to people+s poer. $!e( are ot %rea'ig #p

parliametarism %#t are raisig it to a !ig!er poer. $!e rig!t t!ig to do is to %rea'

#p t!e represetati"e s(stemT ise ma from t!e )ast, Da"id Xr3#!art, !eads t!at

cli3#e.F [A] ar goes o to eplai t!at Xr3#!art ats to t#r t!e cloc' %ac' o

ci"iliatio, to ret#r to t!e old glo-Sao coditios, Eor, %etter still, to t!e rietal

stateF, to localism, to ecoomic coditios prior to t!e moder di"isio of la%o#r ad

cocetrated capital. $!e s#%ect of social tedecies !ostile to %ot! capitalism ad

t!e proletariat is reser"ed for separate cosideratio.

C*. / t!is eplaatio e !a"e #sed Edemocrac(F ad EdemocraticF i t!eir modersese; %#t i mid-19t! cet#r(, especiall( o t!e otiet %efore 1I4I, t!e

democratic forms i"ol"ed ere more commol( la%elled Eli%ertiesF, speci8c


25/28

EfreedomsF 6e.g. freedom of press, epressio, etc., speci8c Erig!tsF 6rig!t of

orgaiatio or assoclatio, etc., Epop#larF istit#tios, icl#dig Epop#lar

so"ereigt(F, ad so o.

4*. $!is is t!e same rold R#ge !o, 8"e (ears %efore, !ad %ee ar+s co-editor of

t!e De#tsc!-=raZsisc!e a!r%c!er, complaiig t!at t!e Lerma people ere!opelessl( apat!etic ad co#ld e"er ma'e a re"ol#tio. He as promiet amog

t!ose !o !elped to f#l8l !is prop!ec(. :( t!e 1I70s !e o#d #p o t!e pesio rolls

of t!e far-from-apat!etic :ismarc'. [9]

A*. ar as also ac3#aited it! t!e go"ermet de"ice of allegedl( s#ppressig

ol( EfalseF statemets %( t!e press. $!is %ecame promiet #der t!e :oaparte

dictators!ip i =race, !ic! claimed to %e for freedom of t!e press to tell t!e Etr#t!F

%#t ot its freedom to tell EliesF. / a 1IAI article ar derisi"el( 3#oted t!e

:oapartist press@ E$!e d#t( of t!e press is to elig!te t!e p#%lic, ad ot decei"e

it,F ad demostrated t!at t!is as ol( a faYade for t!e priciple t!at t!e d#t( of t!e

press is to o%e( t!e go"ermet+s orders o !o to decei"e t!e p#%lic. [12]

B*. Mit., t!e Erig!t of associatioF; so t!ro#g!o#t.

7*. $!is catc!-lie, adapted from :ea#marc!ais, amo#ts to a sarcastic EK!at a

%rilliat ideaTF

I*. $!is article as ritte %( ar for )rest oes+ paper as part of a series o $!e

ostit#tios of )#rope. /t is t!erefore "er( speci8call( cocered it! t!e eact

pro"isios of t!e doc#met, t!#s pro"idig a s#pplemet to t!e %roader political

aal(sis of t!is costit#tio !ic! ar !ad ritte t!e (ear %efore, i !is lass

Str#ggles i =race. [C4] (ear later, a, re"ieig t!e same !istor( i $!e

)ig!teet! :r#maire, icl#ded t!e costit#tioal poits too, as disc#ssed %elo.

9*. $!is as %efore )gels teamed #p it! ar, ad !ile !e as still deo#cig Eall

state formsF i priciple, i aarc!oid lag#age !ic! ca %e fo#d i t!e same

article. $!e cotradictio is stri'ig.

$op of t!e page

Qotes

)K \ ar-)gels Ker'e, :erli, Diet, 19B1-I. 6Nol. ad page o. a%%re"iated i

colo form; e.g. 2@CBC \ Nol.2, p.CBC.

)@SK \ ar-)gels, Selected Kor's i t!ree "ol#mes, osco, Grogress G#%., 19B9-

70.

)@ rt. :rit. \ ar-)gels, rticles o :ritai, osco, Grogress G#%., 1971.


26/28

QRP \ Qe#e R!eiisc!e Peit#g.

QW$ \ Qe Wor' 6Dail( $ri%#e.

) \ ar ad )gels.

?) \ ar or )gels.

1. .D. Midsa(, arl ar+s apital 6Modo, 19C7,, 10A.

2. $!is refers to ar+s 1I4C ma#script; i t!e +alle( traslatio 6t!e ol(

complete oe a"aila%le, am%ridge Xi"ersit( Gress, 1970, pp.C0-1 are especiall(

rele"at.

C. See m( $!e $o So#ls of Socialism 6:er'ele(, 19BB; or i Qe Golitics, Kiter 19BB,

A744.

4. )@ $!e Lerma /deolog( 6osco, G.G., 19B4, CB2.

A. @ $!e ssociatio for dmiistrati"e Reform, i )@ rt. :rit., 2CB-7.

B. ). to ., 9 arc! 1I47, )K27@7I.

7. ). i QRP, 1 #e 1I4I, )KA@14.

I. /%id., 1A-17.

9. =or R#ge+s political e"ol#tio, see K.. :raill, $!e Wo#g Hegelias 6Wale X.G., 1970,

2AB-9.

10. ). i QRP, C Septem%er 1I4I, )KA@CAI.

11. =or t!e 8rst #m%er, see ?) i QRP, 1 #e 1I4I, )KA@ 1I; %esides t!e

passages 3#oted f#rt!er alog, t!ere as costat emp!asis o t!e iss#e, e.g. ). i

QRP, 20 #l( 1I4I, )KA@2CI.

12. @ =race, i QW$, C0 pril 1IAI.

1C. . i QRP, 11 #l( 1I4I, )KA@200.

14. )@ Greface to arl ar "or de Zler Lesc!oree 61IIA, i )K21@201.

1A. ). i QRP, 1A #e 1I4I, )KA@BI-9.

1B. . i QRP, 20 #l( 1I4I, )KA@241.

17. ?) i QRP, 2C #e 1I4I, )KA@97.

1I. ). i QRP, 20 #l( 1I4I, )KA@2CI.

19. . i QRP, 21 #l( 1I4I, )KA@244-A.

20. ?) i QRP, 7 #e 1I4I, )KA@C9; . i QRP, 2 #e 1I4I, )KA@2C; ?) i QRP,

4 #e 1I4I, )KA@C0.

21. ?) i QRP, 17 Septem%er 1I4I, )KA@40B-7.


27/28

22. . i QRP, 21 #l( 1I4I, )KA@2A1.

2C. ). i QRP, 22 #l( 1I4I, )KA@229.

24. ). i QRP, 2I #l( 1I4I, )KA@27B.

2A. /%id., 27B-7.

2B. ). i QRP, 14 #e 1I4I, )KA@B4-A.

27. ). i QRP, 1I #e 1I4I, )KA@222-C.

2I. ?) i QRP, 7 #e 1I4I, )KA@C9-40.

29. /%id., 40.

C0. ).g. i ). i QRP, I #e 1I4I, )KA@49,A2.

C1. ?) i QRP, I #e 1I4I, )KA@AC.

C2. ?) i QRP, 19 #e 1I4I, )KA@IC; ditto 21 #e 1I4I, )KA@90-C.

CC. . i QRP, 21 #l( 1I4I, )KA@24A.

C4. @ lass Str#ggles i =race, i )@SK1@2CC-B.

CA. @ $!e ostit#tio of t!e =rec! Rep#%lic [etc.], i Qotes to t!e Geople, Qo.7, #e

1IA1, Nol.1, p.12A.

CB. /%id., p.12B.

C7. /%id., p.129.

CI. @ )ig!teet! :r#maire of M.:., i )@SK1@409.

C9. @ $!e ostit#tio of t!e =rec! Rep#%lic ..., 129.

40. @ i"il Kar i =race, =irst Draft, i )@ Kritigs o t!e Garis omm#e, ed.

Draper 6QW 1971, 1C4.

41. . i QW$, A Qo"em%er 1IAC 6#titled article.

42. @


28/28

49. @

Documents

Hal Draper Marx on Democratic Forms of Government