HI136 The History of HI136 The History of GermanyGermanyLecture 5Lecture 5

Foreign and Foreign and Colonial PolicyColonial Policy

““there is not a there is not a

diplomatic tradition diplomatic tradition

which has not been which has not been

swept away . . . swept away . . .

The balance of The balance of power power

has been entirely has been entirely

destroyed.”destroyed.” Benjamin DisraeliBenjamin Disraeli

The International The International Consequences of German Consequences of German

UnificationUnification Answered the ‘German Question’ that had been a Answered the ‘German Question’ that had been a

feature of European politics for a generation.feature of European politics for a generation. Created a strong military and economic power at the Created a strong military and economic power at the

heart of Europe.heart of Europe. Demonstrated the weakness of Austria and, to a lesser Demonstrated the weakness of Austria and, to a lesser

extent, France.extent, France. Expelled Austria from Germany once and for all, forcing Expelled Austria from Germany once and for all, forcing

her to look south and east for foreign policy successes.her to look south and east for foreign policy successes. Encouraged nationalist movements elsewhere – Encouraged nationalist movements elsewhere –

especially in the Balkans.especially in the Balkans.

The Bismarckian SystemThe Bismarckian System After 1871 Germany needed peace and stability in order After 1871 Germany needed peace and stability in order

to consolidate the gains of the Wars of Unification.to consolidate the gains of the Wars of Unification. Bismarck thus needed to persuade Europe that Bismarck thus needed to persuade Europe that

Germany was a “satiated power”.Germany was a “satiated power”. The key to German security was keeping France The key to German security was keeping France

isolated.isolated. There were 5 Great Powers so Germany always needed There were 5 Great Powers so Germany always needed

to be part of a bloc of 3.to be part of a bloc of 3. The nightmare scenario of encirclement and a war on The nightmare scenario of encirclement and a war on

two fronts needed to be avoided at all costs.two fronts needed to be avoided at all costs.

The The DreikaiserbundDreikaiserbund (1873)(1873)

An informal agreement An informal agreement between Germany, Russia and between Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary.Austria-Hungary.

The terms were vague and The terms were vague and included no concrete military included no concrete military alliances.alliances.

Identified republicanism and Identified republicanism and socialism as common threats.socialism as common threats.

Committed all three powers to Committed all three powers to consult with one another in consult with one another in matters of common interest, matters of common interest, and to joint action if another and to joint action if another power should disturb the power should disturb the peace of Europe.peace of Europe.

The Near Eastern Crisis, The Near Eastern Crisis, 1877-781877-78

1875: Christian peasants in Bosnia & 1875: Christian peasants in Bosnia & Bulgaria rebel against Ottoman rule.Bulgaria rebel against Ottoman rule.

1876: Serbia and Montenegro declare 1876: Serbia and Montenegro declare war on Turkey.war on Turkey.

Thousands of Russian volunteers Thousands of Russian volunteers joined the Serbian army joined the Serbian army

Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria led to an Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria led to an international outcry and turned British international outcry and turned British public opinion against intervention to public opinion against intervention to support the Ottoman Empire.support the Ottoman Empire.

1877: Austria agrees to remain neutral 1877: Austria agrees to remain neutral in the event of Russian intervention in in the event of Russian intervention in return for being allowed to occupy return for being allowed to occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina.Bosnia-Herzegovina.

1877-78: Russo-Turkish War.1877-78: Russo-Turkish War. 3 March 1878: Turks forced to sign the 3 March 1878: Turks forced to sign the

Treaty of San Stefano.Treaty of San Stefano.

Punch cartoon showing Britain warning

Russia not to release the ‘Dogs of War’

The Congress of Berlin The Congress of Berlin (1878)(1878)

The fact that such a high-profile conference was held in Berlin The fact that such a high-profile conference was held in Berlin was an indication of Germany’s power and prestige.was an indication of Germany’s power and prestige.

Negotiations were stormy and only Bismarck’s energetic and Negotiations were stormy and only Bismarck’s energetic and skilful diplomacy kept them from breaking down completely.skilful diplomacy kept them from breaking down completely.

The resultant Treaty of Berlin (1878) created a smaller The resultant Treaty of Berlin (1878) created a smaller Bulgarian state under Russian protection, allowed Austria-Bulgarian state under Russian protection, allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina and gave Cyprus to Hungary to occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina and gave Cyprus to Britain.Britain.

The Congress succeeded in averting a major European war, The Congress succeeded in averting a major European war, but led to a deterioration in Russo-German relations.but led to a deterioration in Russo-German relations.

Russia felt that she had suffered a humiliating diplomatic Russia felt that she had suffered a humiliating diplomatic setback and that Bismarck was to blame. setback and that Bismarck was to blame.

The territorial settlement in the Balkans, 1878

Source: Farmer & Stiles, TheUnification of Germany 1815-1919

The Making of the Alliance The Making of the Alliance SystemSystem

The Dual Alliance (1879)The Dual Alliance (1879) Signed between Germany and Austria-Hungary.Signed between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Each agreed to come to the others aid in the event of war with Russia or to Each agreed to come to the others aid in the event of war with Russia or to

remain neutral in a war with any other power.remain neutral in a war with any other power. The treaty was to last for 5 years, but in the event remained valid until 1918.The treaty was to last for 5 years, but in the event remained valid until 1918.

The Three Emperor’s Agreement (1881)The Three Emperor’s Agreement (1881) Germany, Austria-Hungary & Russia agreed to remain neutral in the event of any Germany, Austria-Hungary & Russia agreed to remain neutral in the event of any

of them being involved in a war with another power.of them being involved in a war with another power. The Balkans divided into spheres of influence.The Balkans divided into spheres of influence.

The Triple Alliance (1882)The Triple Alliance (1882) Between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.Between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Germany & Austria agreed to intervene if Italy were attacked by France.Germany & Austria agreed to intervene if Italy were attacked by France. Italy agreed to support Germany if she were attacked by France.Italy agreed to support Germany if she were attacked by France.

The Reinsurance Treaty (1887)The Reinsurance Treaty (1887) Germany and Russia agreed to remain neutral in the event of either one of them Germany and Russia agreed to remain neutral in the event of either one of them

being involved in a war with a third power.being involved in a war with a third power.

Bismarck’s Colonial Bismarck’s Colonial PolicyPolicy

Bismarck was generally Bismarck was generally ambivalent about colonial ambivalent about colonial expansion, considering an expansion, considering an overseas empire to be an overseas empire to be an expensive indulgence.expensive indulgence.

But public pressure for a colonial But public pressure for a colonial empire led to the acquisition of a empire led to the acquisition of a number of territories in Africa.number of territories in Africa.

The Berlin Conference of 1884-5 The Berlin Conference of 1884-5 laid down the rules for European laid down the rules for European expansion in Africa and granted expansion in Africa and granted colonies to Germany.colonies to Germany.

However, Bismarck’s flirtation with However, Bismarck’s flirtation with colonialism was short-lived – by colonialism was short-lived – by 1887 he was resisting pressure to 1887 he was resisting pressure to acquire more colonies on the acquire more colonies on the grounds that to do so would grounds that to do so would needlessly antagonise Britain.needlessly antagonise Britain.Punch cartoon depicting

Bismarck as the “irrepressible Tourist” (1885)

German Acquisitions in Africa 1884-85Source: Farmer & Stiles, The Unification of Germany 1815-1919

Wilhelm II

Imperial Chancellors

Leo von Caprivi1890-1894

Chlodwig zu Hohenloe-Schillingfurst

1894-1900

Bernhard von Bülow1900-1909

Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg

1909-1917

Minister for the Navy:Alfred von Tirpitz

Philipp zuEulenburg

Pressure GroupsPressure Groups Deutscher KolonialvereinDeutscher Kolonialverein (German Colonial Association): (German Colonial Association):

Founded 1882.Founded 1882. Campaigned for the establishment of German colonies.Campaigned for the establishment of German colonies. Membership had reached 9,000 by 1884.Membership had reached 9,000 by 1884. Merged with the Society for German Colonization in 1887 to form the Merged with the Society for German Colonization in 1887 to form the

Deutsche KoloialgesellschaftDeutsche Koloialgesellschaft (German Colonial Society). (German Colonial Society). Alldeutscher VerbandAlldeutscher Verband (Pan-German League): (Pan-German League):

Founded in 1891 by Alfred Hugenberg & Karl Peters.Founded in 1891 by Alfred Hugenberg & Karl Peters. Radical right-wing nationalist organization which supported Radical right-wing nationalist organization which supported WeltpolitikWeltpolitik

and saw itself as an unofficial watchdog, critic and advisor to successive and saw itself as an unofficial watchdog, critic and advisor to successive governments.governments.

Had 8,601 members in 1896, rising to over 20,000 in 1900.Had 8,601 members in 1896, rising to over 20,000 in 1900. Deutscher FlottenvereinDeutscher Flottenverein (German Navy League): (German Navy League):

Founded in 1898 with just over 14,000 members.Founded in 1898 with just over 14,000 members. Campaigned for an enlarged German fleet and supported Campaigned for an enlarged German fleet and supported WeltpolitikWeltpolitik.. Had strong links with big business and Conservative politicians.Had strong links with big business and Conservative politicians. Had over 330,000 members in 1914.Had over 330,000 members in 1914.

The ‘New Course’, 1890-The ‘New Course’, 1890-9494

No a coherent policy.No a coherent policy. Reflected the Kaiser’s anti-Russian and pro-British Reflected the Kaiser’s anti-Russian and pro-British

sympathies.sympathies. 1890: Germany allows the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse1890: Germany allows the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse

Russia no longer considered Germany’s natural ally.Russia no longer considered Germany’s natural ally. Considered incompatible with Germany’s other commitments.Considered incompatible with Germany’s other commitments.

Overtures to BritainOvertures to Britain Close dynastic relationship.Close dynastic relationship. 1890: Anglo-German Convention.1890: Anglo-German Convention.

Result: pushes Russia into the arms of France.Result: pushes Russia into the arms of France.

““We definitely do not feel the need toWe definitely do not feel the need to

have a finger in every pie. But we have a finger in every pie. But we

believe that it is inadvisable, from believe that it is inadvisable, from

the outset, to exclude Germany fromthe outset, to exclude Germany from

competition with other nations in competition with other nations in

lands with a rich and promisinglands with a rich and promising

future. . . . We see it as our foremost future. . . . We see it as our foremost

task to foster and cultivate the task to foster and cultivate the

interests of our shipping, our trade interests of our shipping, our trade

and our industry, particularly in the and our industry, particularly in the

East.”East.”

Bernhard von BBernhard von Bülow (1897)ülow (1897)

WeltpolitikWeltpolitik A more aggressive and assertive foreign policy after 1897.A more aggressive and assertive foreign policy after 1897. A clear rejection of Bismarck’s ‘continental policy’ in favour of the A clear rejection of Bismarck’s ‘continental policy’ in favour of the

‘World Policy’ (‘World Policy’ (WeltpolitikWeltpolitik).). The emphasis on the expansion of Germany’s overseas empire – The emphasis on the expansion of Germany’s overseas empire –

intended to demonstrate her power and prestige to the other Great intended to demonstrate her power and prestige to the other Great Powers.Powers.

1897: Seizure of the Chinese port of Kiao-Chow & Shantung 1897: Seizure of the Chinese port of Kiao-Chow & Shantung province claimed as a German ‘sphere of influence’.province claimed as a German ‘sphere of influence’.

1898: Purchase of Pacific islands (the Carolines, Marshalls and 1898: Purchase of Pacific islands (the Carolines, Marshalls and Marianas) from Spain.Marianas) from Spain.

1899: Acquisition of the Samoan Islands.1899: Acquisition of the Samoan Islands. 1900: Germany leads multi-national intervention force after the 1900: Germany leads multi-national intervention force after the

Boxer Rebellion. Boxer Rebellion.

The German Empire and colonial possessions at their greatest extent in 1914.

““Give no quarter! Take noGive no quarter! Take no

prisoners! Anybody who prisoners! Anybody who

falls into your hands mustfalls into your hands must

be destroyed. Just as a be destroyed. Just as a

thousand years ago Attila’sthousand years ago Attila’s

Huns made a reputation forHuns made a reputation for

ruthless violence that stillruthless violence that still

resounds through the ages,resounds through the ages,

so let the name of Germans . so let the name of Germans . . . . .

acquire a similar reputation acquire a similar reputation thatthat

will last for a thousand will last for a thousand years.”years.”

Wilhelm II (1900)Wilhelm II (1900)

The Debate over The Debate over WeltpolitikWeltpolitik

Fritz Fischer et. al. Fritz Fischer et. al. → → Three main aims of Three main aims of WeltpolitikWeltpolitik: to create a : to create a large German Navy demonstrating her claim to be a world power, a large German Navy demonstrating her claim to be a world power, a Central African Empire (Central African Empire (MittelafrikaMittelafrika) and a Central European ) and a Central European customs union (customs union (MitteleuropaMitteleuropa). All part of a master plan to achieve ). All part of a master plan to achieve World Power (World Power (WeltmachtWeltmacht).).

Wehler, Berghahn, Geiss Wehler, Berghahn, Geiss → → WeltpolitikWeltpolitik motivated by domestic motivated by domestic concerns and a substitute for unwanted social change (‘Social concerns and a substitute for unwanted social change (‘Social Imperialism’).Imperialism’).

David Kaiser David Kaiser → → WeltpolitikWeltpolitik was ‘a patriotic umbrella, not a magic was ‘a patriotic umbrella, not a magic wand’ – rather than being designed to outflank the Socialists, it was wand’ – rather than being designed to outflank the Socialists, it was a means to unite the Conservatives, National Liberals and the a means to unite the Conservatives, National Liberals and the Centre Party behind the government. Appearances more important Centre Party behind the government. Appearances more important than realities. than realities.

FlottenpolitikFlottenpolitik A world empire required a strong navy to defend it.A world empire required a strong navy to defend it. In the 1890s Germany had only the world’s 7In the 1890s Germany had only the world’s 7 thth biggest navy, but its biggest navy, but its

share of world trade was almost as large as Britain’s.share of world trade was almost as large as Britain’s. 1898: Alfred von Tirpitz appointed State Secretary for the Navy.1898: Alfred von Tirpitz appointed State Secretary for the Navy.

““Up to now, our policies Up to now, our policies have completely overlooked have completely overlooked the political significance of the political significance of naval power. Yet if we want naval power. Yet if we want to go out into the world and to go out into the world and increase our economic increase our economic strength at sea, we will only strength at sea, we will only construct a hollow edifice if construct a hollow edifice if we do not obtain a degree of we do not obtain a degree of naval strength. If we go out naval strength. If we go out into the world, we will find into the world, we will find either existing interests or either existing interests or interests that will be claimed interests that will be claimed in the future. These make in the future. These make conflicts of interest conflicts of interest inevitable. . . . Naval power inevitable. . . . Naval power is the only politically is the only politically versatile type of power there versatile type of power there is. This is why we will always is. This is why we will always end up getting shortchanged end up getting shortchanged politically, even if there is no politically, even if there is no war.” war.”

Alfred von Tirpitz (1896)Alfred von Tirpitz (1896)

FlottenpolitikFlottenpolitik A world empire required a strong navy to defend it.A world empire required a strong navy to defend it. In the 1890s Germany had only the world’s 7In the 1890s Germany had only the world’s 7 thth biggest navy, but its biggest navy, but its

share of world trade was almost as large as Britain’s.share of world trade was almost as large as Britain’s. 1898: Alfred von Tirpitz appointed State Secretary for the Navy.1898: Alfred von Tirpitz appointed State Secretary for the Navy. 1898: First Navy Law – provided funds for the construction of 16 1898: First Navy Law – provided funds for the construction of 16

new battleships.new battleships. 1900: Second Navy law – allowed for the construction of 3 ships a 1900: Second Navy law – allowed for the construction of 3 ships a

year for the next 6 years.year for the next 6 years. 1906: Britain launches HMS 1906: Britain launches HMS DreadnoughtDreadnought, a revolution in naval , a revolution in naval

technology which was thought to have made all existing battleships technology which was thought to have made all existing battleships obsolete.obsolete.

1908-1912: Naval building stepped up, leading to a dangerous and 1908-1912: Naval building stepped up, leading to a dangerous and expensive arms race with Britain.expensive arms race with Britain.

The Anglo-German The Anglo-German RelationshipRelationship

Wellington and Blücher greet each other after the Battle of Waterloo

The Anglo-German The Anglo-German RelationshipRelationship

Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg andGotha (1819-1861)

Victoria, German Empress, Queen Consortof Prussia and Princess Royal (1840-1901)

The Anglo-German The Anglo-German RelationshipRelationship

Crown Prince Friedrich and the futureWilhelm II in highland dress at Balmoral

The Diplomatic Revolution, The Diplomatic Revolution, 1900-19071900-1907

1902: Anglo-Japanese Alliance1902: Anglo-Japanese Alliance Marked an end to Britain’s isolation.Marked an end to Britain’s isolation. Led to negotiations with France, as Led to negotiations with France, as

Britain feared that growing Russo-Britain feared that growing Russo-Japanese tensions would drag the UK Japanese tensions would drag the UK and France into war.and France into war.

1904: 1904: Entente CordialeEntente Cordiale Not an alliance as such.Not an alliance as such. France agreed to give Britain a free-France agreed to give Britain a free-

hand in Egypt in return for acceptance hand in Egypt in return for acceptance of her domination of Morocco.of her domination of Morocco.

Opened the way for future co-Opened the way for future co-operation.operation.

1907: Anglo-Russian Convention1907: Anglo-Russian Convention Persia, Tibet and Afghanistan divided Persia, Tibet and Afghanistan divided

into spheres of influence.into spheres of influence. Further aligned Britain with France and Further aligned Britain with France and

Russia against Germany and the Triple Russia against Germany and the Triple Alliance.Alliance.

Cartoon depicting Britain walking off with the ‘trollop’ France, while Germany pretends not to care.

The Moroccan Crisis The Moroccan Crisis (1905-06)(1905-06)

1904-05: Russo-Japanese War.1904-05: Russo-Japanese War. 1905: Revolution in Russia1905: Revolution in Russia

Russia temporarily weakened and distracted from European politics.Russia temporarily weakened and distracted from European politics. 1905: Moroccan Crisis1905: Moroccan Crisis

January: The Kaiser guarantees Moroccan independence.January: The Kaiser guarantees Moroccan independence. Germany insists that her commercial interests must be protected.Germany insists that her commercial interests must be protected. Refuses to negotiate with France and insists on an international Refuses to negotiate with France and insists on an international

conference to settle Morocco’s fate.conference to settle Morocco’s fate. 1906: Alge1906: Algeçiras Conferenceçiras Conference

Britain, Russia and Italy all support France.Britain, Russia and Italy all support France. A humiliating diplomatic defeat for Germany.A humiliating diplomatic defeat for Germany. Strengthens rather than breaks up the Anglo-French Strengthens rather than breaks up the Anglo-French ententeentente..

Negotiations between the Kaiser and the Tsar for a defensive Negotiations between the Kaiser and the Tsar for a defensive alliance (July 1905) come to nothing after France objects to the alliance (July 1905) come to nothing after France objects to the scheme.scheme.

The Annexation Crisis The Annexation Crisis (1908-09)(1908-09)

October 1908: Austria-Hungary moves to formally annex October 1908: Austria-Hungary moves to formally annex Bosnia and Herzegovina.Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Serbia, backed by Russia, demands compensation.Serbia, backed by Russia, demands compensation. Britain and France make it clear that they will not support Britain and France make it clear that they will not support

Russia over the issue.Russia over the issue. Germany supports Austria and threatens to intervene in Germany supports Austria and threatens to intervene in

the event of war.the event of war. Diplomatically isolated, Russia is forced to back down Diplomatically isolated, Russia is forced to back down

and recognize the annexation in March 1909.and recognize the annexation in March 1909.

The Agadir Crisis (1911)The Agadir Crisis (1911) July 1911: Germany sends to July 1911: Germany sends to

gunboat gunboat PantherPanther to the to the Moroccan port of Agadir in an Moroccan port of Agadir in an attempt to force territorial attempt to force territorial concessions from the French.concessions from the French.

Alarmed by these bullying Alarmed by these bullying tactics Britain threatens to tactics Britain threatens to intervene.intervene.

Austria makes it clear that she Austria makes it clear that she will not fight over Morocco and will not fight over Morocco and Germany is forced to back Germany is forced to back down.down.

An example of An example of WeltpolitikWeltpolitik at at its worst.its worst.

The Balkan Wars (1912-The Balkan Wars (1912-13)13)

First Balkan War (1912): Serbia, First Balkan War (1912): Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro wrest control of Macedonia from wrest control of Macedonia from Turkey.Turkey.

Second Balkan War (1913): Second Balkan War (1913): Bulgaria attacks Serbia and is Bulgaria attacks Serbia and is decisively defeated by the Greeks decisively defeated by the Greeks and Serbs.and Serbs.

Anglo-German co-operation Anglo-German co-operation secures a settlement in the secures a settlement in the Balkans at the London Balkans at the London Conference.Conference.

Germany initially restrains Austria,Germany initially restrains Austria, But after 1913 she agrees to back But after 1913 she agrees to back

her ally in any future confrontation her ally in any future confrontation with Serbia (and by extension with Serbia (and by extension Russia). Russia).

RearmamentRearmament All the Great Powers entered All the Great Powers entered

into an arms race after 1900.into an arms race after 1900. There was a desire for some There was a desire for some

kind of military advantage over kind of military advantage over the most likely opponent in a the most likely opponent in a future war.future war.

Germany was particularly Germany was particularly concerned that Russia’s concerned that Russia’s military reforms (due to be military reforms (due to be completed in 1917) would completed in 1917) would make her unbeatable.make her unbeatable.

Source: Farmer & Stiles, The Unification of Germany 1815-1919

ConclusionConclusion German Unification upset the balance of power.German Unification upset the balance of power. Despite Bismarck’s best efforts, Despite Bismarck’s best efforts, WeltpolitikWeltpolitik convinced convinced

the other Great Powers that Germany was dangerous to the other Great Powers that Germany was dangerous to the peace and stability of Europe.the peace and stability of Europe.

But Germany’s foreign policy based on the principle of But Germany’s foreign policy based on the principle of the search for security.the search for security.

By 1914 Germany felt surrounded by hostile powers, By 1914 Germany felt surrounded by hostile powers, was slowly being bankrupted by the arms race, and was slowly being bankrupted by the arms race, and under pressure from social change at home.under pressure from social change at home.

War was thus seen by some as the ideal way out of War was thus seen by some as the ideal way out of Germany’s problems.Germany’s problems.