HI136 The History of GermanyHI136 The History of GermanyLecture 2Lecture 2

Bismarck’s Bismarck’s GermanyGermany

‘Proclamation of German Unification’ (1888) by Anton von Werner

– note the position of Bismarck in the composition.

Otto von Bismarck Otto von Bismarck (1815-98)(1815-98)

Born in SchBorn in Schönhausen in Brandenburg, önhausen in Brandenburg, the son of a Pomeranian the son of a Pomeranian JunkerJunker..

Educated at Göttingen University.Educated at Göttingen University. 1836: Entered the Prussian civil 1836: Entered the Prussian civil

service.service. 1839: Retired from the civil service to 1839: Retired from the civil service to

manage the family estates.manage the family estates. 1849: Elected as an ultra-conservative 1849: Elected as an ultra-conservative

member of the Prussian member of the Prussian LandtagLandtag.. 1851: Joined the Prussian diplomatic 1851: Joined the Prussian diplomatic

corps, serving as Prussian corps, serving as Prussian representative to the Federal representative to the Federal DietDiet and and then ambassador to Russia and then ambassador to Russia and France.France.

1862: Appointed Prussian Minister-1862: Appointed Prussian Minister-President.President.

1867: Became Chancellor of the North 1867: Became Chancellor of the North German Confederation.German Confederation.

1871-90: Chancellor of the German 1871-90: Chancellor of the German Empire.Empire.

The ‘mad Junker’?The ‘mad Junker’? Junker – a corruption of Junker – a corruption of Junger HerrJunger Herr (Young (Young

Sir): the title given to Prussian landowners Sir): the title given to Prussian landowners east of the River Elbe. Closely associated with east of the River Elbe. Closely associated with Conservative politics in the 19Conservative politics in the 19th th century.century.

The ‘White Revolutionary’?The ‘White Revolutionary’? RealpolitikRealpolitik – ‘a system of politics or principles – ‘a system of politics or principles

based on practical rather than moral or based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations.’ (OED).ideological considerations.’ (OED).

German Nationalist or Prussian German Nationalist or Prussian Patriot?Patriot?

The ‘Bismarck Myth’The ‘Bismarck Myth’

The architects of German Unification – Bismarck (left) with General Albrecht von Roon (centre) and Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke (right).

Helmuth von Moltke Helmuth von Moltke (1800-91)(1800-91)

Born in Mecklenburg, but moved Born in Mecklenburg, but moved to Denmark as a small child.to Denmark as a small child.

Educated in Royal Cadet Corps in Educated in Royal Cadet Corps in Copenhagen.Copenhagen.

1822: Commissioned in the 1822: Commissioned in the Prussian army.Prussian army.

Military career interrupted by ill Military career interrupted by ill health & he studied modern health & he studied modern languages and wrote poetry.languages and wrote poetry.

1832: Appointed to the Prussian 1832: Appointed to the Prussian General Staff.General Staff.

1832-36: Advisor to the Turkish 1832-36: Advisor to the Turkish Army.Army.

1855: Appointed aide-de-camp to 1855: Appointed aide-de-camp to the Prussian Crown Prince.the Prussian Crown Prince.

1858: Appointed chief of the 1858: Appointed chief of the General Staff General Staff

The Wars of Unification, The Wars of Unification, 1864-711864-71

The German-Danish War (1864)The German-Danish War (1864) The Seven Weeks (Austro-Prussian) The Seven Weeks (Austro-Prussian)

War (1866)War (1866)

The Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa), 3 July 1866

The Wars of Unification, The Wars of Unification, 1864-711864-71

The German-Danish War (1864)The German-Danish War (1864) The Seven Weeks (Austro-Prussian) The Seven Weeks (Austro-Prussian)

War (1866)War (1866) The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)

Traditional antipathy between France & Traditional antipathy between France & German states going back to the 17German states going back to the 17thth century century

The Luxemburg Crisis (1866-67)The Luxemburg Crisis (1866-67) The Hohenzollern Candidature Crisis (1870)The Hohenzollern Candidature Crisis (1870) The Ems TelegramThe Ems Telegram War!War!

Napoleon III and Bismarck after the Battle of Sedan

(1 September 1870)

The Battle of Mars-la-Tour (16 August 1870)

Results of the Franco-Results of the Franco-Prussian WarPrussian War

War with France created an huge upsurge in German national War with France created an huge upsurge in German national feeling – popular pressure in the South German states to transform feeling – popular pressure in the South German states to transform the wartime alliance into a permanent union.the wartime alliance into a permanent union.

However:However: The rulers of the South German states wanted a much looser federation than The rulers of the South German states wanted a much looser federation than

Bismarck proposed, giving them more control over their own affairsBismarck proposed, giving them more control over their own affairs Wilhelm I was reluctant to accept a ‘German’ title which he felt would lessen the Wilhelm I was reluctant to accept a ‘German’ title which he felt would lessen the

dignity of his position as King of Prussiadignity of his position as King of Prussia He insisted that he would only accept the Crown of Germany if it were offered by He insisted that he would only accept the Crown of Germany if it were offered by

his fellow German sovereigns, not the German peoplehis fellow German sovereigns, not the German people

Bismarck threatened to call on the German people to remove those Bismarck threatened to call on the German people to remove those rulers who opposed a united Germany.rulers who opposed a united Germany.

Symbolic concessions to South German states – Bavaria retained a Symbolic concessions to South German states – Bavaria retained a separate postal service and peacetime control of its own army.separate postal service and peacetime control of its own army.

Bismarck paid a huge bribe to King Ludwig II of Bavaria in order to Bismarck paid a huge bribe to King Ludwig II of Bavaria in order to get him to sign a letter offering the German crown to Wilhelm.get him to sign a letter offering the German crown to Wilhelm.

Germany annexed the territories of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany annexed the territories of Alsace and Lorraine from France.France.

The Constitution of the The Constitution of the German Empire, 1871German Empire, 1871

Based on the Constitution of the North German Confederation.Based on the Constitution of the North German Confederation. Germany was to be a federal state.Germany was to be a federal state. Power was divided between the central government and the governments of Power was divided between the central government and the governments of

the 25 states.the 25 states. The states preserved their own constitutions, rulers, parliaments and The states preserved their own constitutions, rulers, parliaments and

administrative systems with powers over direct taxation, education, public administrative systems with powers over direct taxation, education, public health etc.health etc.

As German Emperor, the King of Prussia was head of state, head of the civil As German Emperor, the King of Prussia was head of state, head of the civil service and ‘Supreme Warlord’ (Commander-in-Chief) of the armed forces.service and ‘Supreme Warlord’ (Commander-in-Chief) of the armed forces.

A bi-cameral parliament made up of the A bi-cameral parliament made up of the BundesratBundesrat (Federal Council) and (Federal Council) and the the ReichstagReichstag (National Parliament). (National Parliament).

Prussia dominated the institutions of the new Empire, with the most seats in Prussia dominated the institutions of the new Empire, with the most seats in both houses of parliament, shared institutions and a dominant position in both houses of parliament, shared institutions and a dominant position in military and administrative circles.military and administrative circles.

The Constitution of the The Constitution of the German Empire, 1871German Empire, 1871

ReichGovernment

The Chancellor (Reichskanzler)• The ‘highest official in the Reich’• Also Minister-President of Prussia• Responsible to the Emperor, not parliament• Chairman of the Bundesrat• Appointed government ministers• Could ignore resolutions passed by the Reichstag

The Emperor (Kaiser)• Always the King of Prussia• Could appoint/dismiss the Chancellor• Could dissolve the Reichstag• Could make treaties/declare war• Commander-in-Chief of the army• Had to approve all federal laws• Possessed the right to interpret the constitution

Bundesrat (upper house)• The Federal Council• Made up of 58 members nominated by states• Not directly elected• Consent required in passing new laws• 14 votes needed to veto legislation• Prussia had 17 of the 58 seats• Bavaria had 6, the other states had 1 each

Reichstag (lower house)• The National parliament• Elected by all males over 25• Limited powers to initiate new legislation• Government ministers could not be members• Members were not paid• Could approve or reject the federal budget• Elections normally held every 5 years

FederalCentralised government with specific Responsibilities for the Reich as a whole(foreign policy, defence, customs etc.)

StateRegional government with responsibilitiesFor individual states (education, direct Taxation, health, local justice etc.)

‘The continued existence within the Reich of an enlarged Prussian state with a virtual monopoly of military power, with a position in the Bundesrat superior to that of the other states, and with a parliamentary system of its own, based on a form of suffrage which was not democratic but favoured the propertied classes, was the best possible assurance against any possibility of the federal government succumbing to the forces of liberalism and democracy. In Bismarck’s Constitutional system, the federal government was given enough influence . . . to keep the particularism of the south within safe bounds, while Prussia was allowed to retain significant power to protect the aristocratic-monarchical system by discouraging dangerous experiments on the part of the federal government.’

G. A. Craig, Germany 1866-1945 (Oxford: OUP)

Germany’s Problem of Germany’s Problem of IdentityIdentity

Even after unification large numbers of Germans had Even after unification large numbers of Germans had difficulty in identifying with the new statedifficulty in identifying with the new state

Liberals – increasingly conscious that Bismarck’s Empire was not Liberals – increasingly conscious that Bismarck’s Empire was not the united Germany they had desired for so long.the united Germany they had desired for so long.

Conservatives – who remained un-reconciled to the idea of a united Conservatives – who remained un-reconciled to the idea of a united Germany.Germany.

Organized Labour – who felt that unification had done little to Organized Labour – who felt that unification had done little to improve their lot and that the system had been deliberately improve their lot and that the system had been deliberately designed to prevent them achieving their goals.designed to prevent them achieving their goals.

National SymbolsNational Symbols No national flag until 1896No national flag until 1896 No national anthem until 1922 (!)No national anthem until 1922 (!) Disagreement over national holidaysDisagreement over national holidays

The Niederwald ‘Germania’ Monument (1885) The Teutoburger Wald Monument (1875)

Statue of Bismarck in the Großer Stern in Berlin (1901)

The The KulturkampfKulturkampf 1870: The doctrine of Papal Infallibility published.1870: The doctrine of Papal Infallibility published. 1872: Catholic schools brought under state control. The 1872: Catholic schools brought under state control. The

Jesuit Order banned from Germany.Jesuit Order banned from Germany. 1873: The ‘May Laws’1873: The ‘May Laws’

Only candidates for ordination who had been trained in Germany and Only candidates for ordination who had been trained in Germany and passed a state approved examination could become priests.passed a state approved examination could become priests.

All religious appointments had to be approved by the state.All religious appointments had to be approved by the state.

1874: Civil marriage introduced.1874: Civil marriage introduced. 1875: All religious orders except nursing orders banned.1875: All religious orders except nursing orders banned. 1878-80: End of the 1878-80: End of the KulturkampfKulturkampf – Dr Falk dismissed – Dr Falk dismissed

and some of the anti-Catholic laws repealed.and some of the anti-Catholic laws repealed.

The Development of the The Development of the SPDSPD

1869: August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht form the Marxist Social 1869: August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht form the Marxist Social Democratic Workers’ Party.Democratic Workers’ Party.

1875: This merges with Ferdinand Lassale’s General German 1875: This merges with Ferdinand Lassale’s General German Workers’ Association to form the Social Democratic Party of Workers’ Association to form the Social Democratic Party of Germany (Germany (Sozialdemokratische Partei DeutschlandsSozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, SPD) at a , SPD) at a ‘Unity Conference’ in Gotha.‘Unity Conference’ in Gotha.

The party’s ‘Gotha Programme’ called for The party’s ‘Gotha Programme’ called for ““universal, direct, equal suffrage, with secret ballot and obligatory voting for universal, direct, equal suffrage, with secret ballot and obligatory voting for

all citizens over 20 years of age”all citizens over 20 years of age” freedom of press, association and assembly freedom of press, association and assembly the abolition of child & female labourthe abolition of child & female labour a shorter working weeka shorter working week free, universal primary educationfree, universal primary education

While the SPD was an avowedly Marxist party, pledged to While the SPD was an avowedly Marxist party, pledged to overthrow the established bourgeois order, they were committed to overthrow the established bourgeois order, they were committed to doing so through legal means.doing so through legal means.

Anti-Socialist LegislationAnti-Socialist Legislation Bismarck was fundamentally Bismarck was fundamentally

opposed to Socialism – they opposed to Socialism – they represented a threat to the very represented a threat to the very fabric of the society he sought to fabric of the society he sought to preserve.preserve.

1876: Legislation banning the 1876: Legislation banning the publication of Socialist publication of Socialist propaganda defeated in the propaganda defeated in the Reichstag.Reichstag.

1878: Two failed assassination 1878: Two failed assassination attempts on Wilhelm I provide an attempts on Wilhelm I provide an opportunity to introduce anti-opportunity to introduce anti-Socialist legislation.Socialist legislation.

Oct 1878: The Anti-Socialist Law Oct 1878: The Anti-Socialist Law passed by the Reichstag. Thispassed by the Reichstag. This

Banned socialist organizations Banned socialist organizations (including trade unions)(including trade unions)

Gave the police powers to break Gave the police powers to break up socialist meetingsup socialist meetings

Outlawed the publication and Outlawed the publication and distribution of socialist literaturedistribution of socialist literature

State SocialismState Socialism 1883: Sickness Insurance Act1883: Sickness Insurance Act

Provided medical treatment and up to 13 weeks sick pay Provided medical treatment and up to 13 weeks sick pay for 3 million low-paid workers. for 3 million low-paid workers.

1884: Accident Insurance Act1884: Accident Insurance Act Provided protection for workers permanently disabled or Provided protection for workers permanently disabled or

sick for more than 13 weeks.sick for more than 13 weeks.

1889: Old Age & Disability Act1889: Old Age & Disability Act Provided old age and disability pensions for people over Provided old age and disability pensions for people over

70 and those permanently disabled.70 and those permanently disabled.

1888 – The Year of Three 1888 – The Year of Three EmperorsEmperors

Wilhelm I (1861-88) Friedrich III (1888) Wilhelm II (1888-1918)

““I shall let the I shall let the old man shuffle old man shuffle on for six on for six months . . . then months . . . then I shall rule I shall rule myself.”myself.”

Wilhelm IIWilhelm II

‘‘Dropping the Pilot’Dropping the Pilot’ Bismarck and Wilhelm Bismarck and Wilhelm

disagreed over the need to disagreed over the need to retain close links with Russia.retain close links with Russia.

They clashed over social They clashed over social policy and the Anti-Socialist policy and the Anti-Socialist Law.Law.

In March 1890 Bismarck and In March 1890 Bismarck and Wilhelm quarrelled over Wilhelm quarrelled over ministers access to the ministers access to the monarch.monarch.

Wilhelm gave Bismarck an Wilhelm gave Bismarck an ultimatum: resign or be ultimatum: resign or be dismissed. The next day dismissed. The next day Bismarck resigned.Bismarck resigned.

AssessmentAssessment

Bismarck’s Bismarck’s admirersadmirers

He maintained peace between He maintained peace between 1871 and 18901871 and 1890

His policies helped Germany’s His policies helped Germany’s economic developmenteconomic development

He pioneered state socialismHe pioneered state socialism In the 1870s he worked closely In the 1870s he worked closely

with the National Liberals and with the National Liberals and implemented many liberal policiesimplemented many liberal policies

He was not a dictator – his powers He was not a dictator – his powers were limited and he worked with were limited and he worked with the parties in the Reichstagthe parties in the Reichstag

His long tenure in power points to His long tenure in power points to his political skillhis political skill

Bismarck’s CriticsBismarck’s Critics He was responsible for France He was responsible for France

remaining isolated and embitteredremaining isolated and embittered His influence has been His influence has been

exaggerated exaggerated ““Negative integration” – using Negative integration” – using

attacks on minorities to whip up attacks on minorities to whip up patriotism patriotism

The The KulturkampfKulturkampf was a major was a major miscalculationmiscalculation

His anti-socialist policies were His anti-socialist policies were unsuccessfulunsuccessful

He was unable to delegate and He was unable to delegate and jealous of perceived rivalsjealous of perceived rivals

A flawed legacy – Bismarck’s rule A flawed legacy – Bismarck’s rule led to Wilhemine & Nazi Germanyled to Wilhemine & Nazi Germany