HIST T Letter from the Team}4ltrpress.cengage.com/hist/volume2/docs/HIST_PG_Final.pdf · iv CONTENTS HIST SCHULTZ 16 Reconstruction, 1865–1877 17 The Industrial Age 18 Creating

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{ }Letter from the Team

he book you are holding is the answer to questions we have asked hundreds of students like yours: When and where do you study? What do you like about the course? What makes it hard? How much of your textbook have you read so far? How can we improve it? Comments along the lines of “The book is too long. Oh, and too expensive” did not

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THIST PREVIEW GUIDE

KEVIN M. SCHULTZ

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HISTKevin M. Schultz

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SCHULTZ

HIST� 1 Three Societies on the Verge of Contact

� 2 Contact and Settlement, 1492–1660

� 3 Expansion and Its Costs, 1660–1700

� 4 Expansion and Control, 1700–1763

� 5 Toward Revolution, 1763–1775

� 6 The Revolution

7 Confederation and Constitution, 1783–1789

8 Securing the New Nation, 1789–1800

9 Jeffersonian Democracy, 1800–1814

10 The Market Revolution

11 Politics of the Market Revolution

12 A Regionalized America, 1830–1860

13 The Revived Move West

14 The Impending Crisis

15 The Civil War

16 Reconstruction, 1865–1877

Brief ContentsVOLUME 1

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iv CONTENTS

SCHULTZ

HIST�16 Reconstruction, 1865–1877

17 The Industrial Age

18 Creating an Industrial Society in the North

19 The New South and the Industrializing West

20 The Progressive Era

21 Becoming a World Power

22 Prosperity and Change in the Twenties

23 The Great Depression and the New Deal

24 World War II

25 Cold War America

26 The Sixties

27 The Limits of Liberalism: The 1970s

28 Reagan's America

29 America in the Information Age

30 Globalization and Its Discontents

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Brief ContentsVOLUME 2

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CONTENTS vCONTENTS v

1 Three Societies on the Verge of ContactNative America

The Paleo-Indian Era: The First Settlers (15,000–10,000 Years Ago) • The Archaic Era: Forging an Agricultural Society (10,000–2,500 Years Ago) • The Pre-Columbian Era: Developing Civilizations (500 BCE–1500 CE) • North America in 1492

AfricaPolitics • Society • Religion and Thought • Africa on the Eve of Contact

EuropeEurope up to 1492 • The Decline of Feudalism • The Decline of Catholic Europe • Europe in 1492

2 Contact and Settlement, 1492–1660Exploration and Discovery

Reasons for Exploration • Routes of Exploration

Early Settlements and ColonizationPortuguese • Spanish • French • English

England Founds the Southern Colonies, 1607–1660Virginia • Maryland

Founding the New England Colonies, 1620–1660Why More Colonies? • Massachusetts • Rhode Island • Continued Expansion and Indian Confrontation

3 Expansion and Its Costs, 1660–1700Expansion of English Holdings in North America, 1660–1700

English Motives for Further Expansion • The Creation of Colonies During and After the Restoration • Where Were the Spanish? • Conclusion

IndiansColonial Land Lust, Colonial Democracy

SCHULTZ

HIST Contents

The Expansion of American SlaveryMotivations • Why the Transition from Indentured Servitude to Slavery? • Africans Transition from Servants to Slaves • Slave Codes

Wars for EmpireKing William’s War and Queen Anne’s War, 1689–1713

4 Expansion and Control, 1700–1763Expansion of Colonial Economy and Society, 1700–1763

New England • The Middle Colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware) • The Chesapeake • The Southern Colonies

Expansion of Colonial Intellectual and Cultural LifeThe American Enlightenment • The Great Awakening

African SlaveryEnslavement • The Spread of Slavery • Life Under Slavery Slavery and Racism

Attempted Expansion of English ControlSalutary Neglect • The French and Indian War, 1754–1763 • The Albany Congress • Pan-Indianism

5 Toward Revolution, 1763–1775British Attempts to Rein in the Colonies

Tightening Control • Limiting Settlement • Raising Revenue

Beginnings of American ResistanceColonial Response to British Reforms • Repeal of the Stamp Act

Taxation Without Representation, 1767–1773The Townshend Acts of 1767 • Local Conflicts, 1770–1773 • The Tea Act, 1773 • The Coercive Acts, 1774

The Shot Heard ‘Round the WorldMilitia Preparations • Britain’s Response to the Preparations • Lexington and Concord • Colonial Response to Lexington and Concord • The Battle of Bunker Hill

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vi CONTENTSvi CONTENTS

6 The RevolutionFrom Rebellion to Revolution

Underlying Causes • Precipitating Events • Choosing Sides • The Declaration of Independence

The War for IndependenceThe Opposing Sides • The First Phase of the War, 1775–1779 • The Second Phase of the War, 1778–1781 • Peace Negotiations, 1782–1783

Significance of the WarThe Impact on Politics • The Impact on American Nationalism • The Impact on Slavery • The Impact on Native America • The Impact on Women • The Impact on Religious Minorities

7 Confederation and Constitution, 1783–1789State Constitutions, 1776–1780

Content • Results

The Articles of Confederation, 1777–1787Origins • Mechanics • Division of Powers • Merits of the Articles • Demerits

Day-to-Day Operations of the ConfederationThe Western Problem • The Problem of Foreign Relations • The Debt • The Failure of the Articles of Confederation

The Constitutional ConventionMembership • Preliminary Plans • Drafting the Constitution

The ConstitutionThe Powers Given to Congress • The Executive Branch • The Judicial Branch • Federal and State Powers • Relationship of the Government and the Governed

The Ratification DebateA Slow Start • The Federalists • The Anti-Federalists • The Debate • The Bill of Rights

8 Securing the New Nation, 1789–1800Creating a New Government

The First Citizens • The First Congress • The First President

Political DivisionsThe Problem of Finance • The Problem of Foreign Policy • Indian Relations

The Rise of Two-Party PoliticsThe Democratic-Republicans • The Federalists • The Slavery Issue

Adams’s Presidency and Dealing with DissentAdams’s Election • The XYZ Affair • Alien and Sedition Acts

The Bloodless “Revolution of 1800”

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CONTENTS viiCONTENTS vii

9 Jeffersonian Democracy, 1800–1814Jefferson’s Presidency

Jeffersonian Democracy • Jefferson’s Domestic Policies • Jefferson’s Foreign Affairs

James Madison and the War of 1812The Election of 1808 and Declaration of War • The War of 1812 • The Significance of the War of 1812

10 The Market RevolutionEconomic Nationalism

The American System • A New National Bank • A Protective Tariff • Court Cases • A Protected Hemisphere • Opponents of the American System

The Market RevolutionThe Transportation and Communications Revolution • Commercialized Farming • Industrialization • Social Changes Associated with the Market Revolution

ReformersThe Creation of the Middle Class • The Religious Foundations of Reform • The Reform Impulse • The Women’s Movement

11 Politics of the Market RevolutionPolitics in the Age of Jackson

A New Kind of Politics • Andrew Jackson and the Politics of the “Common Man”

Jackson as PresidentPatronage • The Nullification Crisis • The Bank War • Westward Expansion and Indian Removal • The Panic of 1837

The Development of the Second Two-Party SystemJackson’s Democrats • The Whigs • Constituencies • Political Stability

12 A Regionalized America, 1830–1860Social Life in the Commercial North

Life in the Northern Countryside • City Life • Conclusion

Social Life in the Cotton SouthSouthern White Society • The White Defense of Slavery • Slave Society

13 The Revived Move WestWestern Conquest and Development, 1820–1844

Texas • Oregon and the Oregon Trail • Utah and the Mormons • California: Ranches and Gold • Tribal Conflicts • Mountain Men • Conclusion

The Expansionist Spirit ReboundsTexas and the Rise of James K. Polk • Oregon and American Dominance in the West • Manifest Destiny • The Mexican War

14 The Impending Crisis Arguments over Slavery in the New Territories

The Democratic Response • The Wilmot Proviso and the “Free Soil” Movement • The Compromise of 1850 • Western Destiny Deferred

The Kansas-Nebraska Act and New Political PartiesSlavery in Kansas and Nebraska? • The Death of the Second Two-Party System • “Bleeding Kansas” • “Bleeding Sumner” • The Election of 1856

Three Events That Catapulted the Nation into WarThe Dred Scott Controversy • John Brown’s Raid • The Election of 1860

Secession and Civil WarThe Deep South Secedes • Conciliatory Efforts • Fort Sumter

15 The Civil WarEach Side’s Strengths

Northern Advantages • Southern Advantages

The Fallacy of an “Easy War”: 1861–1862The Battle of Manassas (Bull Run) • The Water • The West • The East

Full Mobilization and the Making of a Modern StateRaising Armies • Suspension of Civil Liberties • Taxation • A Changing Nation

DissentDissent in the North • Dissent in the South

The Tide of Battle Turns, 1863–1865Slavery and Emancipation • Union Military Triumphs • The Election of 1864

The Destruction of the South and the End of the WarThe Thirteenth Amendment • The Destruction of the South

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viii CONTENTSviii CONTENTS

16 Reconstruction, 1865–1877Freedmen, Freedwomen

The Freedmen’s Bureau

Political Plans for ReconstructionLincoln’s Plan for Reconstruction and His Assassination • President Johnson and Presidential Reconstruction • Radical Reconstruction • Johnson’s Impeachment • The Fifteenth Amendment • Women’s Rights

Grassroots ReconstructionBlack Officeholders • Carpetbaggers and Scalawags • Sharecropping

The Collapse of ReconstructionIn the North • In the South

17 The Industrial AgeThe Industrial Revolution

The Basic Industries • Harmful Business Practices

The Age of InnovationTechnology • Innovative Financing, Law, and Business Practices

The National Market: Creating Consumer DemandAdvertising • National Brands • Stores and Mail Order

18 Creating an Industrial Society in the NorthUrbanization

Cities • Suburbs • Entertainments

ImmigrationThe Immigrant Experience • Working Conditions • Ethnicity, Assimilation, and the American Dream

Economic Disparity The Wealthy • The Workers

The Politics of the Industrial AgeJustifications of the Industrial Order • Political Corruption • Political Divisions

The Rise of LaborThe Railroad Strike of 1877 • The Struggle over Union Expansion • The Knights of Labor • Growth and Frustrations • The Rise of the AFL • Labor and Politics

19 The New South and the Industrializing West The “New” South

Southern Industries • Southern Urbanization • Segregation in the New South • Society and Culture in the Postwar South

The Industrializing WestExpansive Farming • Industry in the West • Western Cities • Outsiders in the Industrializing West

The PopulistsProblems Confronting Farmers • Farmers Unite • Populism

20 The Progressive EraThe Reformers

Secular Missionaries • Women • Reforming the Cities

State Political ReformDemocratizing Trends • Professional Administrators • Progress of Reforms

Women’s ProgressivismProgressivism in National Politics

Theodore Roosevelt, Reformer • Woodrow Wilson, Reformer

Progressive Influences on American CultureThe Muckrakers • Progressivism in Business • Progressive Education • The Role of Laws • Pragmatism

21 Becoming a World PowerWhy an American Empire?Beginnings

The Naval Buildup • Pacific Acquisitions • Latin America

The Spanish-American WarWar on Two Fronts • Why Become an Empire? Anti-Imperialism at Home • Anti-Americanism Abroad

Progressive-Era ImperialismTrade with China • The Panama Canal • Policing Latin America • America as a World Power

World War IThe European War • American Neutrality, 1914–1917 • Declaring War • American Involvement in the War Effort, 1917–1918 • Making Peace

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CONTENTS ixCONTENTS ix

22 Prosperity and Change in the TwentiesThe Consumer Economy

1920s Work • 1920s Consumerism

The End of the Progressive EraNational Politics • Prohibition

Culture1920s Popular Culture • The “New Negro” • The New Woman • Disillusioned Writers, Liberalizing Mores • Reactions • Religious Divisions • Immigration Restriction and Quotas • Social Intolerance • The Election of 1928

23 The Great Depression and the New DealThe Economics and Politics of Depression

Causes • Statistics • Hoover

The Depression Experience in AmericaUrban America • Rural America • Cultural Politics • Radicalizing Politics • The Election of 1932

The New DealThe First New Deal • Critics of the First New Deal • The Second New Deal • Decline and Consolidation

The Effects of the New DealCulture • Crime • Labor • Politics • Continued Segregation • The Indian New Deal

24 World War IICauses of War

Provocations • Reactions

American Foreign Policy Before the War1930s Isolation • From Isolation to Intervention • Aid Short of War • Conflict in the Pacific

The WarThe Alliance • The Pacific Theater, 1941–1942 • The European Theater, 1942–1943 • 1944: Victory in View

The American Home FrontThe War Economy • Opportunities • Demographic Shifts • Leisure in Wartime

A World Remade, 1945Germany’s Last Stand • Final Moves • Defeat of Japan

25 Cold War AmericaThe Cold War

Background • The Policy of Containment • Hardened Lines • The Berlin Crisis • Conflicts in Asia • American Rearmament • The Korean War • A Cold War, Not a Hot One

The Cold War HomefrontTruman and the Postwar Economy • Economic Growth • Suburban Nation • Postwar Domestic Politics • McCarthyism • Early Civil Rights Breakthroughs ©

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x CONTENTSx CONTENTS

26 The SixtiesKennedy and the Cold War

President Kennedy • Kennedy the Cold Warrior

The Freedom MovementExpanded Nonviolence • National Successes • Laws and Rifts

The Great SocietyThe Kennedy Assassination • Lyndon Johnson • Johnson’s Great Society

Johnson’s VietnamMaking the Commitment • Battle

Domestic Criticism

The “Counterculture” and Liberalism AdriftProtests on Campus • Black Power, Chicano Power • The Women’s Movement • The Vietnam War at Home • Social Divisions and Popular Unrest • Nixon and Vietnam

27 The Limits of Liberalism: The 1970sThe Nixon Era

Nixon as President • Nixon’s Foreign Policy • Nixon the Accidental Liberal • Watergate • President Ford • President Carter • Tax Revolts and the Rightward Shift

America in the 1970sThe Politics of Identity • The Women’s Movement • Gay Liberation • The High Tide of Environmentalism • New Religious Divisions • Grassroots Conservatism • Popular Culture

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28 Reagan’s AmericaReagan’s Politics

Domestic Politics • Foreign Affairs

America in the 1980s: Polarization of the American Public

Divisions in Wealth • Continued Crisis in the Cities • Culture Wars • AIDS

Reagan’s Successor and the End of the Cold WarGeorge Bush • Bush’s Domestic Policies • End of the Cold War • Other Foreign Affairs

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CONTENTS xiCONTENTS xi

29 America in the Information Age The Century’s Last President

The Fall of Bush • The Rise of Bill Clinton • Bill Clinton, Free Trader • The Republican Surge • Clinton’s Recovery

The Information RevolutionEconomic Rebound • The Digital Age • Consolidation and Globalization

MulticulturalismTwo Americas

Protesting the Third Way • Political Polarization • The 2000 Election

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30 Globalization and Its DiscontentsAnother President Bush

September 11 • War in Afghanistan and War on Terror • Domestic Policies

Remaking the Middle East?Regime Change in Iraq • A Democratic Middle East? • Abu Ghraib

Domestic Woes A Slowing Economy • Corporate Scandals • The Election of 2004 • Hurricane Katrina

The Election of 2008 …

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Contact andSettlement1492–1660

Learning OutcomesAfter reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

LO 1 Explain the reasons for Europeans’ exploring lands outside Europe, and trace the routes they followed.

LO 2 Describe the founding of European nations’ first colonies in the New World.

LO 3 Trace the expansion of England’s holdings in the southern colonies.

LO 4 Outline the reasons for and timing of England’s founding of colonies in New England.

2C H A P T E R

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Exploration and Discovery 3

“At first, the results of contact were generally bad: the tale is mostly one of hunger, disease, and death.”

In the collision of cultures that took place in the New World, Europeans were the initiators. Their desire to find wealth and spread Christ-ianity brought Indians, West Africans, and Europeans into sustained contact for the first time. At first, the results of contact were generally bad: the tale is mostly one of hun-ger, disease, and death. After this difficult start, however, the seeds for a new nation were planted.

LO 1 Exploration and Discovery

Reasons for ExplorationBeginning in the fourteenth century, Europeans took advantage of the new tech-nologies developed during the previous century, especially the nautical advances made during the Hundred Years’ War, when large parts of central Europe became

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The legacy of the initial phase of colonial development was unparalleled freedoms for the settlers, compared to what they could have had in Europe.Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

What do you think?

��

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The reasons why . . .{ }To alleviate a trade deficit. After the Crusades,

many Europeans began to consider spices and other

luxuries from the Middle East, India, and parts of Africa

true necessities. To reach Europe, the goods had to be

shipped from the Far East, through the Middle East and

Middle Eastern traders, and then through Italian traders.

This sequence of middlemen drove prices up, leading

to a problem: Because the Europeans had few com-

modities to trade in return, Europeans had to use gold

to pay for the goods, and gold supplies subsequently

diminished. This trade deficit, in turn, led to a depres-

sion throughout Europe, as a great deal of money was

going out and very little was coming in. The depression

sparked a scramble to find another way to obtain the

desired goods; namely, a cheaper route to the Far East

that would avoid Muslim and Italian middlemen.

To spread Christianity. The second factor

in European expansion was the mission to spread

Christianity, initially Catholicism, around the world.

Like many other religions, Christianity has a mission-

ary message within it, and many of the first explorers

thought they could simultaneously search for riches

and spread the gospel. Competition from the rapidly

growing Islamic faith provided further motivation for

spreading Christianity, as did the continuing battles

between Catholics and Protestants that began dur-

ing the Reformation. An important consequence of

Christianity’s messianic message was that Europeans

did not seek only beneficial trade relations with those

they came in contact with, but also dominion over the

new worlds they encountered.


4 CHAPTER 2 Contact and Settlement, 1492–1660

Africa searching for the dramatic left turn that would lead them to India and the Middle East. After several failures, in 1498, they finally succeeded. In that year, Vasco da Gama (1469–1524) reached India by rounding the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa, then heading back north to India. His success made Portugal a wealthy nation through-out the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

The Beginnings of European Slavery

Before da Gama’s success, however, Portuguese sailors in the 1440s had probed West Africa and made a discovery that would be critical for the development of future rela-tions between cultures. African

kings wanted to trade with the Portuguese along the shore, and both sides benefited from the trade in goods. But in the process, the Portuguese also bartered for African slaves. They carried them back to Portugal as living novelties, thus introducing the system of African slavery to Europe during the fifteenth century.

By the 1490s, the Portuguese had taken control of a previously uninhabited island off the west coast of

Africa called São Tomé. São Tomé had the perfect soil for growing sugar, a product much in demand in Europe. Sensing profits, in the 1500s the Portuguese began using African slaves to harvest sugar in São Tomé, thus establishing the first modern economy dependent primar-ily on slave labor.

The Western Route to the New World

With Portugal’s numerous successes, rival Spain acted like a jealous neighbor, and Spanish sailors began advo-cating the search for a west-ern route to the Orient. After years of delay, the Spanish monarchy finally agreed to

battlegrounds that required cir-cumvention. Europeans sought to explore lands outside Europe for two principal reasons: to alleviate a trade deficit (and therefore increase wealth) and to spread Christianity.

Routes of ExplorationThe search for riches and for lands not already in the hands of Christians drew European explor-ers to several locations around the globe, many of which they encoun-tered quite accidentally. (Indeed, the Americas were perhaps the largest pieces of land ever dis-covered by mistake.) In 1298, the adventurer Marco Polo wrote that the Orient was the source of many desired goods and that there might be a western route there across the Atlantic Ocean. Others still believed in the existence of an eastern route, through Africa. Both beliefs propelled explorers into the unknown.

Eastern Route

Portuguese leaders were among those who still believed that an eastern route could be found (see Map 2.1). Led by Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460), Portuguese sailors traveled down the western coast of

Read a firsthandaccount of Vasco

da Gama’s travels.

“Plenty of rubies, plenty of emeralds!

You owe great thanks to God,

for having brought you to a country

holding such riches!”—Vasco da Gama

Fifteenth-century exploring ship

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Exploration and Discovery 5

Map 2.1 Routes of Early Exploration

View an interactive version of this map.

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fund the costly venture. The first voyage that Spain reluctantly funded, in 1492, was that of Christopher Columbus (1451–1506), a Portuguese-trained Italian sailor. The Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, sent him westward with three small ships, the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. On October 12, 1492, Columbus and his crew sighted land in the present-day Bahamas. Thinking this was an outlying portion of Asia and India, he called the local inhabitants “Indians.” Columbus returned to Spain shortly thereafter, bring-ing some treasures and, more importantly, tales of the possible riches via the western route. In fact, of course,

he had not found Asia or India at all; he was the first European in several centuries to set foot in North America.

Predecessors and Followers

Columbus and his crew probably were not the first Europeans to land in North America since the clos-ing of Beringia some ten thousand years earlier. Around the year 1000 C.E., Leif Ericson and a cadre of Scandinavian explorers sailed their brightly colored ships to Greenland and possibly as far south as Cape Cod, in today’s Massachusetts. During the following decade or two, Scandinavians made several expedi-tions to North America, but established neither last-ing settlements nor substantive trading posts.

After Columbus, a host of other explorers set out in search of treasures in the Middle and Far East. Many continued to search for the lucrative “passage to the Orient” by sailing west from Europe. John Cabot (c. 1450–1499), like Columbus, was an Italian sailor in search of a patron. He found backing from the English merchants of Bristol, a city in southern England. He

set sail in late May 1497 and landed a month later in what is today northeastern Canada. Riding the east-erly winds home, Cabot landed in England just two weeks after he departed from Canada. His stories and his rapid return fueled further interest in exploration.

The Americas got their name from the first sailor to realize that he had reached a “new world,” rather than the coast of Asia: Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512). Vespucci explored the Caribbean Sea and the coast of South America from 1497 to 1502. Vasco de Balboa (c. 1475–1519) was the first European to sail the Pacific (1513). Ferdinand Magellan’s (1480–1521) crew com-pleted the first circumnavigation of the world from 1519 to 1522 (although Philippine tribespeople killed Magellan shortly before the end of the journey). All these men, and others who explored North America, were prominent players in what historians have dubbed the “Age of Exploration” (see Map 2.2).

LO 2 Early Settlements and Colonization

Most of these early voyages were intended simply to create trading networks. Few sought to create lasting settlements, and even fewer sought to colonize these exotic lands. However, each European power competi-

“They ought to be good servants.

Our Lord pleasing, I will carry off

six of them at my departure . . . in

order that they may learn to speak.”

—Christopher Columbus

Read Columbus’s 1493 letter about his findings.

Christopher Columbus

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tively sought the profits of sustained contact, and this competition for wealth drove them to create encamp-ments that would enable them to defend their claims to those faraway natural resources.

PortugueseAfter Columbus’s voyage, Spain claimed possession of all of North America. Predictably, the Portuguese would have none of it. They protested Spain’s claim. To prevent open conflict between the two Catholic nations, Pope Alexander VI intervened. In 1493, he drew a line on a map that extended from north to south, proclaiming that all land east of the line

belonged to Portugal, all land west of it to Spain. The effect of this line, called the Line of Demarcation, was to grant all of Brazil to Portugal, while Spain had claim to Central and North America. In 1500, the Portuguese explorer Pedro Cabral accidentally landed in Brazil, beginning what would be Portugal’s most profitable colonial venture. As perhaps the first act of modern European colonialism, the pope made his arbitration with no consideration of the peoples already inhabiting the land.

SpanishSpain’s First Colonies

Despite Portugal’s early ambition, it was Spain that established the first colonies in North America. In the process, they began one of the bloodiest

Map 2.2 Exploration in the New World, 1492–1542

View an interactive version of this map.

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Line of DemarcationLine drawn by Pope Alexander IV through a map of the Western Hemisphere. He granted the eastern half to Portugal and the west-ern half to Spain, in what could be considered the first act of modern European colonialism.

Early Settlements and Colonization 7

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chapters in the world’s his-tory, as disease and warfare nearly vanquished the native populations of the Caribbean, Mexico, and North and South America. The advent of dis-ease was so bad that perhaps as many as one in five people then living on Earth died in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Furthermore, Spain, searching for gold and other sources of wealth, brutally abused the native popula-

tions, often enslaving them and forcing them to work in gold mines to increase Spain’s vast wealth. Just two decades after Columbus first crossed the Atlantic, the Spanish had established permanent settlements in Hispaniola, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Panama. By 1513, the enslaved natives of Hispaniola were pro-ducing $1 million worth of gold annually. It would be only a few years before the Spanish expanded their settlements into the interior of North America in search of greater riches.

Spanish Expansion into North America

The system the Spanish used to develop their colo-nies was distinct. In the early sixteenth century, Spanish conquistadors, mostly minor noblemen, led private armies to the New World. These armies were relatively small, usually made up of fewer than one thousand men, but they devastated indigenous popu-lations with weapons and disease wherever they went. Once they had overpowered a kingdom, it became known as an encomienda, in which Indian villages were obliged to pay a tribute, usually in gold or slaves, to the conquistadors. This, in essence, enslaved the Indians in Spanish-controlled lands, although no one actually owned another human being. (In doing this, the Spanish were adapting the system that had been enforced by the North African Muslims in order to control the Spanish when they conquered Spain.) As the number of encomiendas grew, viceroys reporting directly to the Crown began to govern them.

The most successful of the conquistadors were Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) and Francisco Pizarro (c. 1475–1541), whose adventures sparked widespread interest in the New World.

Cortés and Mexico. Between 1519 and 1521, Hernán Cortés led an expedition of six hundred men against the Triple Alliance (better, if incorrectly, known as the Aztecs) in Mexico and their ruler, Montezuma. Four weapons allowed Cortés and his men to overrun

the huge civilization: horses, which allowed mobility; fire-arms, which terrorized their victims; the support of other Indian tribes who had suffered under Aztec rule; and, by far the most important weapon, dis-ease. Smallpox was first intro-duced to the New World by one of Cortés’s men and by 1520 had decimated the Aztecs. Under assault from these four weapons, the great civilization of the Aztecs fell into Spanish hands within two years of Cortés’s arrival, and, to Cortés’s delight, so did the Aztecs’ gold and silver reserves. The Spanish built Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán. Hoping to find the same plunder that Cortés had found, Spanish colonists soon arrived in large numbers, and Mexico City became the largest “European” city in America.

Pizarro and Peru. By the 1530s, Pizarro, well aware of Cortés’s triumph, explored the western coast of South America from a base he established in Panama. In 1532,

conquistador One of the Spanish noble-men who sailed to the New World with small armies to vanquish kingdoms there.

encomiendaTribute, usually payable in gold or slaves, demanded of conquered Indian villages by the conquistadors.

viceroyRepresentative of the Spanish crown who governed conquered Indian villages.

Read firsthand descriptions of

Cortés’s first contact with the Aztecs.

Experience the battle between

Aztecs and Cortés’s menthrough the simulation “Colonial Expansion.”

>>The sacrificial practices of the Aztecs were scarcely more bru-tal than their treatment at the hands of Cortés and his men.

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he and his army of just 168 men (mostly untrained soldiers) encountered the tremendous Inca empire of Peru. Initially, like the Aztecs, the Incas welcomed the army, but the relationship quickly soured. Many of the Inca soldiers were off at battle with another tribe because the ravages of smallpox, which had spanned the continent less than a decade after being intro-duced by Cortés’s men and had created political strife for the Incas. In the meantime, Pizarro kidnapped the Inca leader, amassed a huge fortune by ransoming his life, killed him anyway, and seized the Inca capital of Qosqo. With the Inca warriors away, Pizarro faced only mild resistance from what would have been formidable foes. When the Inca soldiers returned, Pizarro and his men were already entrenched in the empire. Pizarro founded the city of Lima as his capital in 1535 and ruled from there until his death in 1541. Again, internal battles within the Indian populations and especially smallpox contributed to the decline of what had been a vibrant civilization.

Florida. In today’s United States, the Spanish devel-oped settlements in Florida and the Southwest. The Spanish initially had little interest in Florida, but when French adventurers began to use eastern Florida as a base from which to attack Spanish ships traveling to Mexico and Peru, Spain sent soldiers to drive out the French pirates. In 1565, in order to secure the region, the Spanish conquered the city of St. Augustine from the French. Once established, Florida was a

low priority for the Spanish because it did not contain the riches of Mexico, Peru, or other parts of Central America, but it

was important as an outpost guarding against attack.

The American Southwest

The Spanish also explored the American Southwest, heading north from Mexico as far as present-day Colorado. As with St. Augustine in Florida, the Spanish occupied the town of Santa Fe to secure the region against intruders but had lit-tle other use for it.

Results of Spanish Conquest

By the middle of the 1500s, Spanish conquistadors controlled numerous areas surrounding the Gulf of Mexico. There were five principal results of this initial Spanish conquest: financial, biological, racial, reli-gious, and geopolitical.

Financial. Financially, the economic impact of the flow of silver from the mines of these lands was enormous. The influx of minerals made Spain one of the wealthiest nations in the world. Spain could now afford to defend a three-way trade between West Africa, the Americas, and Europe. But the sudden abundance of silver also meant that many people had access to money, causing prices to rise. The result was an inflationary price revolution, which badly hurt European laborers and landless agricultural work-ers, whose wages could not keep up with increas-ing prices throughout Europe. Increased numbers of impoverished Europeans were driven to emigrate to the Americas in search of a new life.

price revolutionInflationary event, such as the huge influx of silver to Spain in the mid-1500s, that causes the price of goods to surpass the wages paid to laborers and landless agricultural workers.

Columbian ExchangeBiological crossover of agri-cultural products, domesti-cated animals, and microbial diseases from Europe to the New World and vice versa.

“Victory! Victory!

the French fort is ours!”

—from The Founding of St. Augustine

Read an account of the capture of St. Augustine.

Read more about the founding of Santa Fe.


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Biological. The most important result was the Columbian Exchange, in which agricultural products, domesticated animals, and microbial diseases crossed over from one civilization to the other, creating a vast



If the exchange of microbes had horrifying rami-fications, the mutual transfer of plants and animals led to a more positive biological exchange between the Americas and Europe. Contact allowed the cul-tures to expand the kinds of food they could grow and animals they could domesticate. Horses and livestock were introduced to the Americas by the Europeans; maize, tobacco, tomatoes, chocolate, and potatoes, all of which had been first cultivated by Indians, came to Europe. The development of sugar plantations in the Caribbean Islands was also a product of the Columbian Exchange, although their dependence on slaves was a corrosive element of the exchange.

Racial. Racially, Spanish exploration began the pro-cess of mixing various races of people. For one, the Spanish explorers procreated with Indian women. For another, their diseases had greatly depopulated Native America, a circumstance that expedited the introduction of African slaves as a labor force in the New World. By 1600, the multiracial character of the New World was firmly established.

Religious. In order to convert the Indians, the Spanish often destroyed Indian temples and replaced them with Catholic cathedrals. Catholic friars tried to use the religious symbols of the Indian religions to teach the lessons of Catholicism. But often the Indians transformed Catholic saints into spiritual likenesses of their preexisting gods and goddesses. The most famous example of this religious meshing was the Indian corn goddess and the Virgin Mary.

Many Indians were able to accept the Catholic faith on their own terms once it had been hybridized in this way.

Geopolitical. Geopolitically, the Spanish successes meant that other European nations became hungry for conquest. Rivalries grew as nations sought resources they lacked at home. Of the five major results of the Spanish conquest, geopolitical concerns were the most significant in bringing the French and the English into New World exploration.

FrenchLike the Spanish and the Portuguese, French explorers, too, had been searching for the fabled route to the

>>“How Indians Treat Their Sick,” from Neue Welt und Americanische Historien by Johann Ludwig Gottfried

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“exchange” that would forever change the world, for good and for ill. As more Spanish came to the New World, they unknowingly carried with them microbes for several diseases to which Indians had not been exposed, smallpox being the most destructive. The direct result of the spreading of these microbes was the death of perhaps as much as 95 percent of the Indian population. The numbers tell the story. Historians estimate that more than 25 million people lived in central Mexico before Cortés arrived; fifteen years after his arrival, more than 8 million had per-ished. Within a few generations, diseases eliminated two-thirds of the native population. And a century after first contact, the Indian population of Central Mexico was around 700,000. It took less than one hun-dred years for this population to fall from over 25 mil-lion to 700,000. Diseases spread far from the location of their initial inception as well, debatably stretching as far north as New England. This is perhaps one rea-son why English explorers found so few Indians when they first landed on the Atlantic coast in the 1600s, although diseases affecting New England’s tribes may also have come from contact with European fisher-men off the coast of Canada. For their part, Indians probably introduced syphilis to Europeans, but syphi-lis was hardly as deadly as smallpox or measles proved to be. Lest this part of the exchange be used to induce latter-day guilt in Europeans or European-Americans, most historians believe that, due to complex genetic dispositions within the Indian popu-lation, there would have been no way to prevent this microbial transmission.


Orient. They focused on looking for the Northwest Passage that would lead them through today’s Canada to the Pacific Ocean. The French never found this non-existent route, but they did find valuable products, mainly furs, that they could return to France.

The result was the creation of several encamp-ments in present-day Canada that served as French trading posts in the New World. The largest was Quebec, founded in 1608. At these encampments, the French traded for furs with the Indians and spread Catholicism. However, the French were belea-guered by disease, by warfare with the Iroquois (who resented the French’s successful trade with the Algonquians), and by the weather of the Northeast. Thus they remained a small but sturdy presence in North America, with holdings that extended great distances but vanished quickly after challenges from the more entrenched English throughout the 1700s. In the mid-1600s, there were only about four hundred French colonists in North America.

EnglishThe English were slow to enter into New World explo-ration because the Tudors were still consolidating their Crown in the early 1500s, when Portugal, Spain, and France were busy traveling abroad. Furthermore, the Tudors at this time were closely allied with Spain (both were still Catholic) and did not want to challenge Spain’s dominance in the New World. Also during the early 1500s, the English textile industry was booming, so wealthy individuals invested in textile businesses rather than in high-risk overseas ventures.

By the middle of the 1500s, this English disinclina-tion toward exploration began to change. There were religious, social, economic, and geopolitical motives for this transition (see “The reasons why. . .” on page 12).

Planting Colonies, Not Marauding Wealth

Despite hopes to the contrary, England (and all other European nations other than Spain) did not find great wealth through quick plundering of existing civiliza-tions in the Americas. England’s wealth from the New World came instead through prolonged colonization, the development of substantial economies, and the exploitation of agricultural resources. As illustrated by Sir Walter Raleigh’s explorations, it would take time and experience for the English to learn to focus on such endeavors. The desire for quick riches has persisted as a human flaw through the ages.

Sir Walter Raleigh and Roanoke. Sir Walter Raleigh was the first Englishman to found a New World colony. Raleigh received a royal patent to claim New World lands in the name of the queen, who was eager to check Spain’s colonial expansion. In 1585, he estab-lished his first colony, using the Spanish conquista-dors as his model. Like the Spanish adventurers who had conquered the Aztecs and Incas, Raleigh and his men sought gold and silver, and planned to exploit native labor to mine these treasures.

But there was a hitch in Raleigh’s plan. Hoping to avoid conflict with the Spanish, Raleigh decided to focus his search to the north of Spain’s territories in Mexico and South America. He and his men established their base at Roanoke, on the outer banks of modern-day North Carolina, a region lacking mineral wealth. Frustrated in their search for New World gold and silver, Raleigh’s men abandoned the colony within a year.

After the first Roanoke settlement failed, Raleigh decided to continue his efforts on a different basis. He returned to the same region because he still wanted to avoid the Spanish, but this time he declared that he would not seek easy treasure. Learning from his initial failure and drawing on the experience of


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English settlements in Ireland earlier in the century, Raleigh decided that his second colony would consist of plantations. Instead of sending conquerors, he sent whole families to the New World; he hoped to re-create English society and its agricultural economy. Poor English farmers would per-form the labor on the plan-tations, while transplanted gentry would perform their traditional functions of land ownership and governance.

But Raleigh’s second Roanoke colony ultimately failed as well. Voyages to resupply the colonists were delayed, and by the time a ship finally reached Roanoke in 1590, the outpost was deserted, perhaps after an attack by a local Indian tribe that was outraged after the colonists killed a tribal leader and displayed his head on a stake. The fate of the roughly one hundred settlers has

never been conclusively deter-mined, and the second Roanoke settlement came to be known as the lost colony of Roanoke.

Lessons of Roanoke. Although Roanoke was a cata-logue of failures, it did teach the English two lessons. First, Raleigh had discovered that the formula for successful English colonization would not be quick strikes of gold but rather a plantation model that would create self-sustaining settlements. Second, Raleigh’s efforts demonstrated that more than one person needed to fund such ventures—the demands were too great to be borne by a single purse. This realization resulted in the expansion of joint stock companies, or companies that sold stock to numer-ous people in order to raise large sums of money. At first, the English used joint stock companies to finance trade and, in the second half of the sixteenth century, English investors started a number of joint stock companies for ventures in the Old World. In 1553, the Muscovy Company traded for furs and naval stores in Russia; in 1581, the Levant Company was founded for trade with the Turkish Empire; in 1585, the Barbary Company focused its attention on North Africa; in 1588, the Guinea Company traded in West Africa; and in 1600, the East India Company formed to trade in Asia. Many of these companies were highly successful, and they encouraged many English investors to consider establishing colonies overseas by the early 1600s.

plantationLarge farm staffed by an entire family in an agricultural economy.

lost colony of RoanokeSecond settlement by English colonists at Roanoke; deserted sometime before 1590.

joint stock companyCompany that sold stock to numerous investors in order to raise large sums of money.

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you’re the crime scene investigator.

The reasons why . . .}Religious. After several contentious decades during which Catholics

and Protestants fought bitterly over whose faith was the rightful inheri-

tor of the Bible, Protestant Queen Elizabeth I came to the throne. Queen

Elizabeth’s support of the Reformation suddenly turned England into

Europe’s leading opponent of the increasingly powerful Catholic Spain.

Their rivalry increased after Spain supported two unsuccessful Roman

Catholic plots to assassinate Elizabeth for her support of the Reformation

(whether Pope Sixtus V was aware of these attempts remains an open

question). Making things worse, in 1588, Spain tried unsuccessfully to

invade England. This intense rivalry meant that the English were unwill-

ing to allow Catholic Spain to convert all the non-Christians of the New

World without competition from the surging English Protestants.

Social. Meanwhile, the enclosure of farms and the inflationary price

revolution created a glut of impoverished Englishmen seeking to escape

poverty by leaving England. But the poor were not the only English

affected by limited economic possibilities. The English gentry was grow-

ing, and after the Church of England separated from the Catholic Church,

traditional opportunities for the younger sons of nobles to serve in the

Catholic Church were closed. With little unsettled land remaining in

England, many members of the English upper class were willing to seek

their fortune in the colonies.

Economic. The third motive for English expansion was that the textile

markets of Antwerp, Belgium failed in the late 1500s, a development

that left English producers without this market for their cloth. As a result,

many wealthy individuals stopped investing in textiles and looked for new

opportunities, such as New World exploration. In addition, the English

economy was burdened by importing large quantities of raw materi-

als, which created a dangerous trade imbalance. The New World had

the potential to supply the English with these raw materials at cheaper

prices.

Geopolitical. Fourth, Queen Elizabeth’s durability as a monarch,

reigning for over fifty years, stabilized the Tudor throne, meaning that

England could now participate wholeheartedly in New World ventures.

The bitter relations between Spain and England had erupted into war

after Elizabeth knighted the British pirate Francis Drake for his exploits

raiding Spanish treasure ships from 1578 to 1580. The Anglo-Spanish

war, most noted for the defeat of the Spanish Armada, led to an English

victory. For our purposes, the Anglo-Spanish war is significant for two

reasons. First, it established England as ruler of the sea, prompting it

to begin exploring the New World, and second, it signaled the decline

of Spain as a world power. Now other nations could more successfully

capitalize on the promises of the New World.

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LO 3 England Founds the Southern Colonies, 1607–1660

These two lessons observed, if not always adhered to, the English began to expand their holdings in the New World. Between 1600 and 1660, more than 150,000 English people left for the New World. Most went to the West Indies, but perhaps slightly less than a third crossed the Atlantic in order to settle the eastern coast of North America.

VirginiaJamestown

Despite 115 years of contact, the year 1607 is often regarded as the first year of American history. It was in that year that the English estab-lished their first lasting colony in the land that would become the United States: Jamestown, in present-day Virginia.

Begun by the Virginia Company of London (a joint stock company), Jamestown began with 104 colo-nists, some of whom favored the plantation model of settlement, others of whom favored the conquista-dor model. Failure bedeviled them, however, mainly because of a harsh drought and because this group of settlers included too many English gentlemen who had little desire either to work the soil or to build fortifications. Most notably, John Smith attempted

to unite this first group of settlers, but his rise to power insulted many of the gentle-man explorers, who had him shipped back to England. The first years for these settlers were difficult, as disease, lack of food, poor manage-ment, and hostile relations with Indian tribes took a toll. Historians now call the win-ter of 1609–1610 the starv-ing time, when food supplies were so scarce that at least one colonist resorted to can-nibalism. Only the continued arrival of new colonists kept the settlement function-ing. From 1607 to 1609, more than 900 settlers arrived in Jamestown. Only 60 survived the first few years.

Jamestown Finally Succeeds

Jamestown eventually succeeded, and its success depended on two things: Indian relations and tobacco.

The Powhatan Confederacy. First, the English set-tlers, badly in need of food, relied on a group of six Algonquian villages known as the Powhatan Confederacy (named after its leader). Powhatan and

his tribe saw the English settlers as allies who would accept food in

return for knives and guns, which would help Powhatan secure his confederacy against

other tribes. The relationship between Powhatan’s tribe and the

Virginians was often difficult and sometimes violent, especially when crops were limited. But the tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy did assist the set-tlers throughout their struggling early years.

Tobacco. Second, in the early 1610s, the English settlers hit a jackpot: They successfully cultivated tobacco. The Spanish had introduced the crop to Europe in the late 1500s after first encountering it in the Caribbean. Tobacco had been a tremendous success in the mar-kets of Europe, making it, along with sugar, one of the most profitable cash crops of the New World. By 1612, the Virginia settler John Rolfe (best known for making peace with the local tribes by marrying Pocahontas, the daughter of a local chieftain) had

JamestownEnglish settlement of 1607 in present-day Virginia.

starving timeWinter of 1609–1610 in Jamestown, when food sup-plies were so scarce that at least one colonist resorted to cannibalism.

Powhatan ConfederacyGroup of six Algonquian vil-lages in present-day Virginia, named after its leader.

cash cropAgricultural product grown primarily for sale. Examples include sugar and tobacco harvests.

From 1607 to 1609, more than 900 settlers arrived in

Jamestown. Only 60 survived the first few years.

Read John Smith’s Generall

Historie of Virginia.

Take a tour of Jamestown.

England Founds the Southern Colonies, 1607–1660 13

>>What became of the colonists left at the stockade on Roanoke Island?

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successfully cultivated an imported strain of tobacco in Jamestown. The colo-nists shipped the first crop to England in 1617, and by 1620 they had delivered 40,000 pounds of the cured plant back to England. Within a few years, shipments had climbed to 1.5 million pounds. Virginia was about to boom.

Jamestown Grows

The success of tobacco made Jamestown a more appeal-ing place to be. But cultivat-ing tobacco requires labor. To meet this need, early tobacco growers attempted to follow the Spanish model and force Indians to work in their fields. Such efforts were hampered by several problems: Indians

objected to the concept of growing surplus crops for cash; language barriers made it dif-ficult for English planters to explain their demands; and, chiefly, the colonists lacked

the military force required to enslave Indians. In 1619, Dutch traders imported a small num-ber of Africans to Jamestown, who performed much of the

backbreaking work of establishing a town. However, due to cost con-siderations, the institutionalized importation of Africans was slow to progress throughout the seventeen century.

The result was the expansion of a system of labor called indentured servitude, in which English and Irish poor sold their labor for four to seven years to a farmer who would fund their voyage across the Atlantic. To encourage their importation, the Virginia Company offered a head right of 50 acres to any individual who paid their own passage, which put more property in private hands. Throughout the 1600s, almost 80 per-cent of the immigrants to Virginia were indentured servants, most of whom were young lower-class males. These servants had to endure several years of “sea-soning,” a period of time during which they were exposed to the New World’s microbes. Many did not survive.

Consequences

Jamestown continued to grow in size and in popula-tion. This expansion had three major consequences: increased hostility with Indians, change in leadership of the colony, and the introduction of African slavery.

Increased hostility with Indians. Local Indian tribes were leery of the growth of Jamestown, which was rapidly encroaching on lands to which they had pre-viously had access. After Powhatan died in 1618, his successor, Opechancanough, began planning an attack to expel the colonists. A fierce assault in 1622 resulted in the death of 357 English colonists, or one quarter of the Jamestown settlement. Angered, the settlers felt

the attack gave them justification to destroy every Indian they encountered. Hostilities brewed.

Change to royal control. A second result of Jamestown’s growth was a change

in who controlled the colony. Opechancanough’s attack of 1622

wiped out vital infrastructure and subsequently bankrupted the Virginia

Company of London, which had had a grant for the land from the Crown. This, combined with

internal conflicts within the com-pany, led England’s King James I to seize the colony and place it under royal control. Virginia thus became a royal colony, with a gov-ernor chosen by the King. But the colonists fought for their liber-ties and forced the governor to work with an assembly that would be chosen by the landholders (a democratic method carried over

from the Virginia Company). This

indentured servitudeSystem of labor whereby Virginia farmers paid the Atlantic passage for English and Irish workers in exchange for four to seven years of their work on farms or plantations.

head right50 acres of land granted by the Virginia Company to any individual who paid his or her own passage across the Atlantic. This put more prop-erty in private hands.

“seasoning”Period of several years dur-ing which indentured ser-vants were exposed to the New World’s microbes. Many did not survive.

royal colonyEnglish settlement whose governor was chosen by the King.

Read a contract of indenture.

>>Tobacco was a currency, also used to pay fines and taxes. For example, persons encouraging slave meetings were to be fined 1,000 pounds of tobacco; owners letting slaves keep horses were fined 500 pounds tobacco; if a person wanted to become married, he had to go to the rector of his parish and pay the man so many pounds of tobacco.

Read Rolfe’s first-hand account of

conditions in Jamestown at the end of its first decade.

Read more aboutthe economic

aspects of colonial tobacco culture.

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proprietary colonies, or colo-nies overseen by a proprietor who was allowed to control and distribute the land as he wished. The King granted Lord Baltimore the land in part to end a religious problem, because Lord Baltimore was a prominent English Catholic looking for a haven for mem-bers of his faith. The first set-tlers landed in Maryland in 1634, with large numbers of Catholics but even a slightly larger number of Protestants. Learning from the mistakes of Roanoke and Jamestown, the colonists under Lord Baltimore developed an economy based on the plantation model, raising corn and livestock for food and tobacco for profit.

Politics and the Toleration Act

Although Lord Baltimore and his sons at first attempted autocratic rule over Maryland, they quickly opted to create a legislature in the model of the House of Burgesses, which allowed the colonists a good amount of self-rule. Self-rule had its prob-lems, though: As more Protestants came over from England, Lord Baltimore realized that he must protect his fellow Catholics. The result was one of the major landmarks in the history of liberty: the Toleration Act of 1649, which granted freedom of worship to anyone who accepted the divinity of Jesus Christ. The act did not end religious disputes between the colonists, as Protestants continued to battle Catholic rule in the colony. But it did prevent legal action from being taken on account of one’s faith. Christians, whether Catholic or Protestant, could not be impris-oned for their faith.

Life on the Chesapeake

Although Maryland and Virginia prospered, mainly due to tobacco, life on the Chesapeake was generally miserable. Virginia and Maryland remained a col-lection of tiny villages made up of numerous small farms worked by indentured servants. Three quarters of those who came over were young males, and most died during their seasoning period. Families were unstable: Marriages were fragile, childbirth a risky undertaking, and growing up with both parents a rarity. In this atmosphere, the population was slow to establish churches and schools. Most homes were

House of BurgessesAssembly of landholders chosen by other landholders, with which the royal gover-nors were forced to work.

proprietary colonyColony overseen by a pro-prietor who was allowed to control and distribute the land as he wished.

Toleration Act of 1649Act granting freedom of wor-ship to anyone who accepted the divinity of Jesus Christ. This meant that neither Catholics nor Protestants could be imprisoned for their faith.


>> At the age of twenty-one, Pocahontas visited London, where she was presented to King James I and the court. In March 1617, she and her husband, John Rolfe, departed for home, but it soon became clear that Pocahontas would not survive the voyage. She died of pneumo-nia or tuberculosis and was taken ashore and buried far from her home.

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assembly was called the House of Burgesses. Although the King maintained control, the colony enjoyed self-government and had its own political body within which it could air grievances. America’s struggle for political liberty had begun.

Introduction of African slavery. The third major result of Jamestown’s growth was the introduction of African slavery into the colonies that would become the United States. Throughout the 1600s, indentured servi-tude remained the preferred source of labor, but slaves were a small, significant part of the labor force as early as 1619. However, slavery did not become legally defined or a dominant source of labor until late in the seventeenth century.

MarylandFounding

Following Virginia’s success, in 1632, the king of England granted the region that we now call Maryland to George Calvert, a lord whose royal name was Lord Baltimore. Lord Baltimore created the first of the

Read the Toleration Act.



crudely built, with few parti-tions, and the quality of life could adequately be described as bleakly rustic.

LO 4 Founding the New England Colonies, 1620–1660

Why more colonies?Despite the harsh reality of life in the colonies, the prom-ise of wealth and freedom fueled England’s desire for more colonies.

Financial Impulses

Financially, the English had seen the wealth that suc-cessful cultivation of a cash crop like tobacco could generate, and this furthered investors’ interest in colonial development.

Religious Impulses

In 1559, Queen Elizabeth reestablished the Church of England as a body distinct from the Catholic Church. Nevertheless, several groups in England felt she had not gone far enough in freeing Christianity from the yoke of the Catholics. One of these groups was the Puritans, who wished to reform, or purify, the Church of England by removing its hierarchy, its emphasis on work as payment to God, its allowance of prayers for communal salvation, and its promotion of missions. Another dissenting group was the Separatists, who wished to separate completely from the Church of England because they believed it was irrevocably cor-rupted. Both these groups were buttressed by England’s social problems, which created a large number of poor people who feared the power of an overarching institu-tion such as the Church of England.

MassachusettsThe Accidental Landing

In order to escape the Church of England and worship according to their understanding of the Christian faith, a group of Separatists departed from England. First, they went to Holland, then after receiving a land grant from the Virginia Company of London, they sailed on the ship Mayflower in 1620, destined for Virginia. The winter

PuritansGroup of believers who wished to reform or purify the Church of England by removing its hierarchy, its emphasis on work as pay-ment to God, its allowance of prayers for communal salvation, and its promotion of missions.

SeparatistsGroup of believers who wished to separate com-pletely from the Church of England because they believed it was irrevocably corrupted.

MayflowerShip containing Separatists who sailed from Holland and landed in Plymouth, in present-day Massachusetts, in 1620.

. . . life on the Chesapeake

was generally miserable.

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winds caught them, and they were blown off course, landing in present-day Massachusetts, in a town they called Plymouth. Weakened by the crossing and fearful of storms, they decided to establish their pure Christian community there. The Plymouth colony was born.

These Separatists had no title to land this far north, however, and they knew this would be a problem if other settlers arrived with a proper patent. To remedy this problem, and to establish ground rules for govern-ing once they landed, they signed an agreement that bound each member to obey majority rule and to prom-ise to defend one another from potential eviction. This was the Mayflower Compact, an agreement that set a precedent, in rhetoric if not always in reality, for demo-cratic rule in Massachusetts. It was also grounded in the notion of Christian unity, lending a messianic fervor to

the mission: In their minds, they were there because God wanted them to be there. One year later, in 1621, they secured a patent to the land from the Crown.

Settling

After a difficult first winter in 1620, during which half of them died or returned to England, the Separatists established farms and developed a fur trade in today’s Maine. The local Wampanoag Indians viewed their presence—and all European presence—as a short time to enjoy trading with the Europeans, after which the Indians would expel the Europeans. By 1621, how-ever, the Wampanoags had been ravaged by disease

and needed help fending off their rivals in the interior. The Wampanoag leader thus made a decisive deal: They would allow the European visitors to stay if they would agree to ally with the Wampanoags. Once the agreement was settled, a harvest festival enjoyed by the two peoples in 1621 became the symbol for the event we today know as Thanksgiving. The settlers were bound to be permanent residents.

In 1623, the settlers divided their land among the people, which rewarded those who were willing to work hard. The ingenuity and drive of these early

settlers, in addition to some help from London bene-factors, helped them pay off their debts to the Virginia

Company by 1627, a remarkably quick repayment that encouraged others to migrate to Massachusetts. They also had stable governmental self-rule, as one of the new settlers, William Bradford, ruled with a strong, level hand and consulted numerous colonists before mak-ing decisions.

Expansion

Encouraged by the developments at Plymouth, English Puritans (not Separatists) sought to formalize Massachusetts as a royal colony. This was done in 1629 under the name of the Massachusetts Bay Company. Its charter was special, however, in that it did not stipu-late that decisions about the colony had to be made in England, thus implying that those who lived under the charter would enjoy self-rule. This encouraged a larger group of Puritans, who were under increasing assault in England for their religious beliefs, to migrate.

Led by John Winthrop, 1,000 Puritans set out for their religious haven of Massachusetts; between 1630 and 1640, 25,000 more followed. Their success, sup-ported by the cultivation of cereals and livestock, made the Puritans believe that “God hath sifted a nation”—that God had wished the Puritans to settle the Americas as the world’s Promised Land. As John Winthrop told them before they arrived, “We shall be as a city upon a hill [and] the eyes of all people are upon us.” Their so-called “errand into the wilderness,” as it was described in a 1670 sermon, was an attempt to form an exemplary religious community, one that would inspire reform in Old England.

Politics

Politically, the Puritans were not democrats but theocrats, believing in a state that forced all of its

Replica of the Mayflower

Participate in asimulation of

the founding of a new colony.

Learn more about Plymouth.

Founding the New England Colonies, 1620–1660 17

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yMayflower CompactAn agreement that bound each member of the Separatist group in Plymouth to obey majority rule and to promise to defend one another from potential evic-tion. This agreement set a precedent for democratic rule in Massachusetts.



inhabitants to hold a specific religious orthodoxy within an established church. This unity of belief, combined with the fact that most of the immi-grants came as families, allowed the development of tightly knit communities based on a less rigid hierarchy of labor exploitation than that found in the Chesapeake.

By 1634, the people of Massachusetts began to reject the absolutism of the Puritan theocracy (it had not lasted long), although the colonists did not reject the religious nature of the colony. They also demanded a legislature, which had been approved in the royal charter. The legislature was composed of two separate houses: one an elite board of directors, the other a larger house made up of popularly elected deputies. This was a less-than-representative form of representative government, though: Only selected church members were allowed to vote for the depu-ties who represented them.

Society

As Massachusetts prospered through the cultiva-tion of grains and cereals, small towns appeared throughout present-day Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island (see Map 2.3). Small villages composed of several families were the central institution of Massachusetts. They dotted the New England coast and the central New England rivers. Large farmlands surrounded the villages, and the villagers would trudge each morning from their homes to work the outlying lands, then return to the central village at nightfall.

The town’s land was parceled out to families depending on each family’s size and needs. Successful families were expected to give back to their com-munity by helping out the poor or the unlucky. Importantly, the tightly knit nature of these sparse communities and the priority placed on families meant that diseases were much less likely to rav-age their population than those of the Virginia and Maryland colonies. Infant mortality in Massachusetts fell below that of Europe, resulting in a remarkable population boom during which the population dou-bled every twenty-seven years.

Even the most successful of the colonists often remained less powerful than the town’s minister, however, as biblical orthodoxy was demanded of all settlers. Single men and women were required to live with a family so as not to appear promiscu-ous. In response to a need for religious education, the Puritans founded Harvard College in 1636. New England also was fertile ground for famous writers and poets during this period.

Rhode IslandBeginnings

In Massachusetts, the persistent demands of religious orthodoxy rankled some settlers, and one of the big-gest troublemakers was Roger Williams, the minister of Salem, Massachusetts, who hoped for a “purer” form of religion than even the Puritan founders had institutionalized. Most importantly, he suggested that there should be a clear division between the prac-tice of religion and the politics of state. He believed that politics necessarily impeded the soul’s progress toward perfection. Williams’s teachings obviously contradicted the Puritan notion of a commonwealth based on devotion to God, and Williams was expelled from Massachusetts. He left Massachusetts with a small band of followers, walking to what is today Rhode Island and founding the town of Providence.

A second group of dissenters was also destined for Rhode Island. The leader of this second group was a charismatic woman named Anne Hutchinson. Hutchinson, a married woman who worked as a midwife, defied the orthodoxy of Massachusetts by stressing that only God determined who merited

Anne Hutchinson’s trial

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grace, not ministers or pow-erful men. More importantly, she disputed the notion of a single orthodox scrip-ture, suggesting instead that humankind’s relationship with God was a continual process of divine revelation, rather than based solely on a fixed scripture from thou-sands of years ago. This theo-logical turn came to be called Antinomianism. Hutchinson was also an able leader and a persuasive preacher who won over many followers, and Boston’s clergy saw her and her Antinomianism as a threat

to their community and their leadership atop it. To silence her, they put her on trial, found her guilty of sedition and contempt, and banished her. She and her followers left Massachusetts and founded Portsmouth, Rhode Island, just southeast of Providence.

Settlement

In Providence, Roger Williams promised religious and civil freedom to all settlers. Hutchinson’s town of Portsmouth was less tolerant, although it continued to attract those unwilling to follow Massachusetts’s orthodoxy. This encouraged other religious “heretics” to found towns in Rhode Island, such as Newport and Warwick. A preliminary charter founding Rhode Island as a colony independent of Massachusetts was granted in 1644. It was followed by another in 1663, granting political and religious freedoms to the settlers, which attracted a wide range of dissenters from other colonies and Europe.

Continued Expansion and Indian ConfrontationExpansion

Puritan dissenters continued to expand outward from Massachusetts, and by the 1630s they had founded towns in what are now Connecticut, Maine, and New Hampshire. The combination of these dissenters and the remarkable growth of New England meant that the ideal of puritanically pious communities was untenable. What grew instead was a dynamic agri-cultural society fueled by a seemingly insatiable land hunger. Almost as soon as it had started to proliferate, the Puritans’ hope of a “pure” society was beginning to fade.

Indian Battles and the Pequot War

As had happened in Virginia, New England’s growth led to confrontation with the land’s inhabitants, the tribes of Indians. Although the Puritans had sev-eral Indian allies, John Winthrop had prepared New Englanders quite early for the possibility of conflict, agreeing to train all male colonists to use firearms, forbidding Indians’ entering Puritan towns, and for-bidding Puritans’ selling firearms to Indians.

During the first years of settlement, conflict was sporadic and light, no doubt in part because European diseases had killed off as much as three quarters of the Indian population before the colonists arrived at Plymouth. In fact, the Puritans viewed this dying as the work of God, who, they felt, divinely wished to transform New England’s wilderness into a shining work of the Lord. One tribe remained strong, however, and by the 1630s conflict between the New Englanders and the Pequots became inevitable. The result was a series of bloody battles collectively called the Pequot War, in which the supposedly pious New Englanders effectively exterminated the tribe, gruesomely kill-ing men, women, children, and the elderly. With the Pequots now removed from power, the colonists were assured control over all the southern tribes of New England. The blood shed during the Pequot War foreshadowed the dark nature of Indian–colonist relations that was just over the horizon.

AntinomianismTheological philosophy stressing that only God, not ministers, determined who merited grace. Instead of a single orthodox scripture, this belief suggests that humankind’s relationship with God was a continual process of divine revela-tion. Anne Hutchinson led this group of dissenters and was banished from Massachusetts for these beliefs.

Pequot WarBloody battles of the 1630s between New England colo-nists and the Pequot tribe of Indians.

>> New Englanders effectively exterminated the Pequot tribe in the bloodbaths of the 1630s.

Learn more aboutwhat life was like

in 1628 New England.

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And in the end …Historians still debate the legacy that modern America inherited from this initial phase of colonial develop-ment, but some parallels are clearly visible. For instance, the freedom to worship as one pleased had its origins in both Maryland and Rhode Island during a time when that level of tolerance was unknown elsewhere in the world. There was a considerable expansion of political freedoms and self-rule that one would never have encountered in England. And economically, it was plausible and possible that one

could work one’s way out of one’s class and become a landholding farmer. This sense of economic mobility also transcended any similar experience one might encounter in Europe.

On the other hand, each of these democratic impulses had considerable limitations. In religion, by 1660, every colony besides Maryland and Rhode Island had restrictions on what faith one could hold; the two exceptions existed because minority sects had begun them in order to find freedom from harshly restric-tive colonial magistrates or the dangers of popular opinion. In politics, the right to participate in political life was limited to landholding farmers or orthodox religious adherents (depending on whether one lived in the South or the North). Economically, although there was some mobility, one had to endure tremen-dous hardships in order to realize it. Most who came seeking great wealth were promptly disappointed. Nevertheless, with the Chesapeake in the South and New England in the North, these were America’s colo-nial beginnings. They would only grow, as we will see in the next chapter.

What else was happening . . .1492 The Spanish peso is first put into circulation.

1498 The first toothbrush is made from hog bristles.

1501 The first flush toilet is invented.

1540 The first horses arrive in North America, when Spanish

explorer Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, traveling through

Kansas, lets about 260 of them escape.



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Line of Demarcation Line drawn by Pope Alexander IV

through a map of the Western Hemisphere. He granted the eastern half to Portugal and the western half to Spain, in what could be considered the first act of modern European colonialism.

conquistadorOne of the Spanish noblemen who sailed to the New World with small armies to vanquish kingdoms there.


viceroyRepresentative of the Spanish crown who gov-erned conquered Indian villages.

price revolution Inflationary event, such as the huge influx of silver to Spain in the mid-1500s, that causes the price of goods to surpass the wages paid to laborers and landless agricultural workers.

Columbian ExchangeThe biological crossover of agricultural prod-ucts, domesticated animals, and microbial diseases from Europe to the New World and vice versa.

RoanokeEnglish settlement established by Sir Walter Raleigh on the outer banks of present-day North Carolina.


lost colony of RoanokeThe second settlement by English colonists at Roanoke; deserted sometime before 1590.

joint stock companyCompany that sold stock to numerous inves-tors in order to raise large sums of money.

2CONTACT AND SETTLEMENT, 1492–1660

LO 1

LO 2

Line of DemarcationLine drawn by Pope Alexander IV through a map of the Western

Hemisphere. He granted the eastern half to Portugal and the western half to Spain, in what could be considered the first act of mod-ern European colonialism.

conquistador One of the Spanish noblemen who sailed to the New World with small armies to vanquish kingdoms there.


viceroyRepresentative of the Spanish crown who governed conquered Indian villages.

price revolutionInflationary event, such as the huge influx of silver to Spain in the mid-1500s, that causes the price of goods to surpass the wages paid to laborers and landless agricultural workers.

Columbian ExchangeBiological crossover of agricultural products, domesticated animals, and microbial diseases from Europe to the New World and vice versa.


lost colony of RoanokeSecond settlement by English colonists at Roanoke; deserted sometime before 1590.

joint stock companyCompany that sold stock to numerous inves-tors in order to raise large sums of money.

JamestownEnglish settlement of 1607 in present-day Virginia.

starving timeWinter of 1609–1610 in Jamestown, when food supplies were so scarce that at least one colonist resorted to cannibalism.

Powhatan ConfederacyGroup of six Algonquian villages in present-day Virginia, named after its leader.


2CONTACT AND SETTLEMENT, 1492–1660

TIMELINE ca. 1000 Scandinavian expeditions to North America 1440s Portuguese begin trade with Africa 1492 First Spanish voyage of discovery: Christopher Columbus 1493 Pope Alexander VI draws Line of Demarcation 1497 Englishman John Cabot lands in Canada 1498 Vasco da Gama reaches India via Cape of Good Hope 1512 First permanent Spanish settlements in New World 1519–1521 Cortés conquers Mexico 1519–1522 Magellan completes first circumnavigation of world 1532 Pizarro overthrows Incas in Peru 1565 Spanish seize St. Augustine from French 1585 First Roanoke settlement 1607 Jamestown founded by Virginia Company of London 1608 Quebec founded as French trading post 1620 Settlement of Plymouth 1629 Massachusetts becomes royal colony 1632 Founding of Maryland 1630s Pequot War in New England 1644 Rhode Island receives preliminary charter as independent colony

Explain the reasons for Europeans’ exploring

lands outside Europe, and trace the routes they followed. The Portuguese and other Europeans sought to explore lands outside Europe for two principal reasons: to alleviate a trade deficit (and there-fore increase wealth) and to spread the gospel of Christianity.

The search for riches and for lands not already in the hands of Christians drew European explor-ers to several locations around the globe, many of which they encoun-tered quite accidentally. Portuguese sailors traveled down the western coast of Africa searching for the dra-matic left turn that would lead them to India and the Middle East. With Portugal’s success, Spanish sailors began advocating the search for a western route to the Orient. Previously, around the year 1000 C.E., Scandinavian explorers had sailed to Greenland and possibly as far south as Cape Cod, Massachusetts.

LO 2 Describe the founding of

European nation’s first colonies in the New World. Two decades after Columbus first crossed the Atlantic, the Spanish established permanent settlements in Hispaniola, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Panama. In the early sixteenth century, Spanish conquis-tadors led private armies to the New World—Hernán Cortés to Mexico, Francisco Pizarro to Peru, and others to Florida and the American Southwest.

LO 3

LO 2

LO 1

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Cape Bojador

Madagascar

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COAST

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MEDITERRANEAN SEA

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OCEAN

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BLACK SEA

RED

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SOUTH

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

NORTH

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

0

500 1,000 1,500 Kilometers0

500 1,000 1,500 Miles

West African states

Akan states

Central African states

State system boundaries

Portuguese voyages

Colorado

R.

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Arkansas

R.

Missouri R.

Mississippi

R.

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PACIFIC

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Acapulco

Mexico City

Veracruz

Cuba

Jamaica

Hispaniola PuertoRico

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NORTH AMERICA

SOUTH AMERICA0

500 1,000 Kilometers0

500 1,000 Miles

Ponce de LeÛn, 1513

Cabeza de Vaca, 1528ñ1536

De Soto, 1539ñ1543

Coronado and AlarcÛn, 1540ñ1542

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JamestownEnglish settlement of 1607 in present-

day Virginia.

starving timeThe winter of 1609–1610 in Jamestown, when food supplies were so scarce that at least one colonist resorted to cannibalism.Powhatan Confederacy Group of six Algonquian villages in present-day Virginia, named after its leader.


indentured servitude A system of labor whereby Virginia farmers paid the Atlantic passage for English and Irish workers in exchange for four to seven years of their work on farms or plantations.

head right 50 acres of land granted by the Virginia Company to any individual who paid his or her own passage across the Atlantic. This put more property in pri-vate hands.

“seasoning”A period of several years during which inden-tured servants were exposed to the New World’s microbes. Many did not survive.

royal colony An English settlement whose governor was cho-sen by the king.

House of Burgesses An assembly of landholders chosen by other landholders, with which the royal governors were forced to work.

proprietary colony Colony overseen by a proprietor who was allowed to control and distribute the land as he wished.

Toleration Act of 1649 An act granting freedom of worship to anyone who accepted the divinity of Jesus Christ. This meant that neither Catholics nor Protestants could be imprisoned for their faith.

PuritansA group of believers who wished

to reform or purify the Church of England by removing its hierarchy, its emphasis on work as payment to God, its allowance of prayers for com-munal salvation, and its promotion of missions.

SeparatistsA group of believers who wished to separate com-pletely from the Church of England because they believed it was irrevocably corrupted.


Mayflower CompactAn agreement that bound each member of the Separatist group in Plymouth to obey majority rule and to promise to defend one another from potential eviction. This agreement set a precedent for democratic rule in Massachusetts.

Antinomianism Theological philosophy stressing that only God, not ministers, determined who merited grace. Instead of a single orthodox scripture, this belief suggests that humankind’s relationship with God was a continual process of divine revelation. Anne

LO 3

LO 4

indentured servitudeSystem of labor whereby Virginia farmers paid the Atlantic passage for English and Irish work-ers in exchange for four to seven years of their work on farms or plantations.

head right50 acres of land granted by the Virginia Company to any individual who paid his or her own passage across the Atlantic. This put more property in private hands.

“seasoning”Period of several years during which indentured servants were exposed to the New World’s microbes. Many did not survive.

royal colonyEnglish settlement whose governor was chosen by the King.

House of BurgessesAssembly of landholders chosen by other land-holders, with which the royal governors were forced to work.

proprietary colonyColony overseen by a proprietor who was allowed to control and distribute the land as he wished.

Toleration Act of 1649Act granting freedom of worship to anyone who accepted the divinity of Jesus Christ. This meant that neither Catholics nor Protestants could be imprisoned for their faith.

PuritansGroup of believers who wished to reform or purify the Church of England

by removing its hierarchy, its emphasis on work as payment to God, its allowance of prayers for communal salvation, and its promotion of missions.

SeparatistsGroup of believers who wished to separate com-pletely from the Church of England because they believed it was irrevocably corrupted.


Mayflower CompactAn agreement that bound each member of the Separatist group in Plymouth to obey majority rule and to promise to defend one another from potential eviction. This agreement set a prec-edent for democratic rule in Massachusetts.

AntinomianismTheological philosophy stressing that only God, not ministers, determined who merited grace. Instead of a single orthodox scripture, this belief suggests that humankind’s relationship with God was a continual process of divine revela-tion. Anne Hutchinson led this group of dissent-ers and was banished from Massachusetts for these beliefs.

Pequot WarBloody battles of the 1630s between New England colonists and the Pequot tribe of Indians.

The French established several encampments in present-day Canada that served as French trading posts in the New World. The largest was Quebec.

Sir Walter Raleigh was the first Englishman to found a New World colony—Roanoke in 1585.


Between 1600 and 1660, more than 150,000 English people left for the New World. Most went to the West Indies, but perhaps slightly less than a third crossed the Atlantic to settle the eastern coast of North America.

Begun by the Virginia Company of London (a joint stock company), Jamestown was founded in 1607. In the early 1610s, the English settlers there successfully cul-tivated tobacco. Following Virginia’s success, in 1632 the king of England granted the region that we now call Maryland to George Calvert.

Outline the rea-sons for and tim-ing of England’s

founding of colonies in New England. Despite the harsh reality of life in the colonies, the promise of wealth and religious freedom fueled England’s desire for more colonies.

A group of Separatists departed from England, went to Holland, then, after receiving a land grant from the Virginia Company of London, sailed on the ship Mayflower in 1620, destined for Virginia. They were blown off course, landing in present-day Massachusetts, founding a town they called Plymouth. In 1629, Massachusetts was formalized as a royal colony under the name of the Massachusetts Bay Company.

Two groups of Massachusetts dissenters, led by Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, settled in Rhode Island. A preliminary charter founding Rhode Island as a colony independent of Massachusetts was granted in 1644. It was followed by another in 1663 that granted political and religious freedoms to the settlers. Puritan dissenters continued to expand outward from Massachusetts, and by the 1630s they had founded towns in what are now Connecticut, Maine, and New Hampshire.

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Indian village

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PEQUOT WAR, 1636ñ1637

Massachusetts

Plymouth

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Connecticut

Rhode Island

Colonies

0

50 100 Kilometers0

50 100 Miles

LO 4

LO 4

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Learning OutcomesLO 1 Explain the reasons for Europeans’

exploring lands outside Europe, and trace the routes they followed.

LO 2 Describe the founding of European nations’ first colonies in the New World.


LO 4 Outline the reasons for and timing of England’s founding of colonies in New England.

Chapter 2 OutlineContact and Settlement, 1492–1660 2

Exploration and Discovery 3Reasons for exploration 3Routes of exploration 4

Early Settlements and Colonization 6Portuguese 7Spanish 7French 11 English 11


Virginia 13Maryland 15


Why More Colonies? 16Massachusetts 16Rhode Island 18Continued Expansion and Indian Confrontation 20

2eBook Links

Firsthand account of Vasco da Gama’s Travels

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html

Columbus’s 1493 Letter about His Findings

http://wadsworth.com/history_d/special_features/ilrn_legacy/waah1c01c/content/amh1/readings/columbus.html

Descriptions of Cortez’s Contacts with the Aztecs

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/aztecs1.html

Experience the Battle Between the Aztecs and Cortez’s Men

http://www.wadsworth.com/history_d/special_features/ext/hist_sims/

Account of the Capture of St. Augustine

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1565staugustine.html

Description of the Founding of Santa Fe

http://www.common-place.org/vol-03/no-04/santa-fe/

Exploration of the Lost Colony of Roanoke

http://cegh.unt.edu/

Virtual Tour of Jamestown

http://www.virtualjamestown.org/page2.html

John Smith’s Generall Historie of Virginia

http://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/smith/smith.html

John Rolfe’s Account of Conditions at Jamestown after First Decade

http://products.ilrn-support.com/waah1c01c/content/amh1/readings/rolfe.html

The Economic Aspects of Colonial Tobacco Culture

http://www.tobacco.org/History/colonialtobacco.html

Contract of Indenture

http://www.virtualjamestown.org/wbind1.html

Maryland Colony’s Toleration Act

http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/D/1601-1650/maryland/mta.htm

Participate in the Founding of a New Colony

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/colonialhouse/history/voyage.html

Key topics in this chapter: Exploration and Discovery; Early Settlements and Colonization; England Founds the Southern Colonies; Founding the New England ColoniesWhat’s

Inside

CONTACT AND SETTLEMENT, 1492–1660

Prep CardPrep Card

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Terms conquistador 7encomienda 8viceroy 8price revolution 9Columbian Exchange 9plantation 12lost colony of Roanoke 12joint stock company 12starving time 13Powhatan Confederacy 13Group of six 13indentured servitude 14head right 14“seasoning” 14royal colony 15House of Burgesses 15proprietary colony 15Toleration Act of 1649 16Separatists 16Mayflower 16Antinomianism 18Pequot War 20

Terms Line of Demarcation 7conquistador 8encomienda 8viceroy 8price revolution 9Columbian Exchange 9plantation 12lost colony of Roanoke 12joint stock company 12Jamestown 13starving time 13Powhatan Confederacy 13cash crop 13indentured servitude 14head right 14“seasoning” 14royal colony 14House of Burgesses 15proprietary colony 15Toleration Act of 1649 16Puritans 16Separatists 16Mayflower 16Mayflower Compact 17Antinomianism 20Pequot War 20

Plymouth Colony Archive Project

http://etext.virginia.edu/users/deetz/

PBS Interactive History: Life in 1628 New England

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/colonialhouse/history/index.html

Discussion Questions1. Compare and contrast the interests of the French and the English in the New

World, and describe how their respective attitudes influenced their patterns of settlement.

2. Compare the development of England’s colonies in New England to those in the South. What were their similarities? What were their major differences?

3. Describe the early encounters between the Spanish and Portuguese explorers and the Indians of Central and South America, and explain how those con-frontations led to European settlement there.

Group ActivityRe-create the penning of the Mayflower Compact.

TaskEach student should research the event and bring a list of five items of interest concerning the meeting. (Students will, of course, need to be familiar with the document.) In class, all males will participate in making decisions, females only as needed. Females will mostly observe, and they will meet to develop a list of concerns they feel should have been addressed.

GoalTo understand the significance of the ability of people far from home to agree on rules that would help them survive.

Assignments1. Research the Columbian Exchange. Beginning with the most significant

(in your opinion), list the top five items brought to the New World by the Europeans. Do the same for those things introduced into Europe from the New World.

2. Gather photos of three early Spanish missions in the American Southwest, and write a paragraph describing each one.

3. Explore online travel and tourism sites for Maryland. Gather a list of ten places one can visit today to learn about the colonial period. Detail the things you can see and do there.

Beyond the ClassA selection of materials is in the Instructor’s Manual and PowerLecture.

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Documents

HIST T Letter from the Team}4ltrpress.cengage.com/hist/volume2/docs/HIST_PG_Final.pdf · iv CONTENTS HIST SCHULTZ 16 Reconstruction, 1865–1877 17 The Industrial Age 18 Creating