HISTORICAL COMPUTING · 2019. 8. 8. · HISTORICAL COMPUTING: FROM THE ABACUS TO THE PC / 9 SALUTATION BY THE PRIOR DEAN OF THE FIB The Barcelona School of Informatics (FIB) of the

Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología

HISTORICAL COMPUTINGFROM THE ABACUS TO THE PCTo inFIBity and beyond!


ORGANIZED BY

WITH DE SUPPORT OF

COLLABORATED

Cover photographs: Margaret Hamilton, SAGE Project, 1962.Margaret Hamilton, ICSE, 2018

© Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 2018 Facultat d’Informàtica de Catalunya© Iniciativa Digital Politècnica, 2018OficinadePublicacionsAcadèmiquesDigitalsdelaUPCJordiGirona31,EdificiTorreGirona,Planta1,08034BarcelonaTel.:934015885/www.upc.edu/idp/E-mail:[email protected]

Print: QPPrintMiquelTorellóiPagès,4-6MolinsdeRei08750Barcelona

ISBN:978-84-9880-725-7 DL:B25209-2018

Servei de Llengües i Terminologia

Servei de Biblioteques, Publicacions i Arxius


CONTENTS

SalutationbytheDeanoftheFIB ................................................................................. 7SalutationbythepriorDeanoftheFIB .........................................................................9IntroductionbytheExhibitionCurator ....................................................................... 11Thanks FIB! ................................................................................................................14I / Counting ................................................................................................................. 17II / Adding ................................................................................................................... 23III / Calculating ........................................................................................................... 31IV / Accounting ........................................................................................................... 37V / Computing ............................................................................................................43VI / Computerising ..................................................................................................... 51VII / Communicating .................................................................................................. 57VIII / Popularising ...................................................................................................... 61

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................69

HISTORICAL COMPUTING: FROM THE ABACUS TO THE PC / 7

SALUTATION BY THE DEAN OF THE FIB

As the dean of the Barcelona School of Informatics (FIB) of the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya(UPC),Iamveryhonoredtowriteyouthesegreetingwordsontheoccasionoftheimportanteventsorganizedtoconcludethecelebrationofour40thanniversary.Acelebrationthathasspannedovertwoacademiccourses,co-organizedwiththepriordeanNúriaCastell.Youmayviewthecompleteprogramofactivitiesforour40thanni-versarybyclickingon:http://www.fib.upc.edu/ca/40e

Fromthevery inceptionof this40thanniversary,when initialproposalsaroused,onesuchideaappearedthatlookedratherdifficulttoaccomplishatthattime,butforwhomtheeffortwasworthtrying:Presentingourhighesthonor,thatofDoctorHonorisCausaofUPC,toMs.MargaretH.Hamilton,oneofthosefemale“hiddenfigures”thatsocietyandevenourcomputingdisciplineshavere-discoverednotsolongago.

ThankstotheworkofmanyatFIBandUPC,andtothesupportofotherschoolsanddepartments,aproposalwasformallysubmittedandapprovedbyUPC.OnbehalfofFIBandUPC,IwanttosincerelythankMs.Hamiltonforaccepting,andallthoseinvolvedinthepreparationsfortheireffortsandsupport.

Tomakeitbigger,aconsequenceofMs.Hamilton’sattractionpowerasahistoricalcha-racter,twoadditionaleventswereproposedtoFIBandhavebeenorganizedforOctober18thand19th,bothofthemstartingwithMs.Hamilton’sawardingceremony:The1stBarcelonaGradCohortWorkshop(BGCW),with50+girlsstudyingcomputingmeetingwithseniorprofessionalwomen,fromindustryandacademia;andthegeneralassemblyof the spanish Conference of Deans and Directors of Informatics Engineering (CODDII), whichwillgather60+colleaguesfromallspanishuniversitiesprovidinghighercompu-tingprograms.IwanttowelcomeyoualltoFIBandUPC,andwishyouaveryfineandprofitablestayamongus.

8 / HISTORICAL COMPUTING: FROM THE ABACUS TO THE PC

Toconclude,letmerecallthemanyanddiverseactivitiesmarkingour40thanniversary.WehavelearnedaboutouroriginsasFIB,andpubliclycelebratedthecreationofthefirstfacultadesof informatics inSpainwithCODDII.Wehavehonoredthosepioneersthatprecededus,andrememberedthosebelovedcolleaguesthat recentlypastaway.Welooked at the past, present and future of some of our computing technologies. We par-tiedatFIB,withourstudents,withFIBAlumniandwithourlocalindustry.Amongthoseactivities,aquitevisibleonehasbeentheexhibitionComputation:FromtheAbacustothePC,heldbothoutsideandwithinUPC.Letmepresentyouthisspecialeditionofitscatalog,inEnglish,asawarmgiftforMs.MargaretHamiltonandfortherestofyoutorememberFIBandUPC,andthehappyeventsthathavegatheredustogether.

JOSEP FERNÁNDEZ RUZAFADean of the Barcelona School of Informatics, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya

Barcelona,October2018


SALUTATION BY THE PRIOR DEAN OF THE FIB

The Barcelona School of Informatics (FIB) of the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC)celebratesits40thanniversaryin2017-2018.We’veorganisedaseriesofactivitiesthatwewishtosharewitheveryone,andparticularlywiththegreatcommunitythatsu-rroundsourSchoolandouruniversity,students,professors,managementstaff,gradua-tes and friends in general. The FIB had the pleasure of presenting one of these activities, thehistoricalexhibitionComputation: From the Abacus to the PC,whichwasheldfrom8 to 27 May 2017 in the Illa Diagonal shopping centre and from 29 May to 29 June at the UPC’sRectorGabrielFerratéLibrary.Withtheselocations,weseektobringtheFIBandtheexhibitionclosertoboththegeneralpublicandourcommunity.

InadditiontotheuniversityteachingandresearchthatwecarryoutattheFIB,inrecentyearswehavesoughttosharewithCatalansocietytheadvancesandchangesthatareastapleofinformationtechnologiesandourthoughtsonahistoricalviewofourdisci-pline.Tothisendwe’veorganisedtalks, roundtables,severalexhibitionsandtheFIBMuseum,whichhasbeenvisitedbythousandsofstudentsoverthelastfewyears.Thehistoricalexhibitionthatwe’renowpresentingbuildsonthecontentofpastFIBexhibi-tions,butitfocusesonexamplesofdevicesandobjectsthatpredatemoderncomputertechnologyandthatconditionedthedesignofthefirstcomputers.

Thisexhibitionwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithout theworkofa largenumberofpeopleandseveral institutionsthathavewishedtocontributetoitspreparation.Pre-viousversionsoftheexhibitionwereorganisedinconjunctionwiththeUniversityofLaRiojaandtheOpenUniversityofCatalonia,andwehavebeenabletotakeadvantageofmuchoftheworkcarriedoutandtheinfrastructureneeded.AttheUPC,inadditiontotheFIB’sstaff,theLibraries,PublicationsandArchivesService,withthesupportoftheLanguageandTerminologyService,andIniciativaDigitalPolitècnica,havebeenparticu-larlyinvolvedintheexhibition.Wearesincerelygratefultoallthoseinvolved.


Toconclude,Iwishtothanktheexhibition’scurator,ourprofessorJoanAntoniPastorCollado,forhiswork.Heclassifiedanddocumentedthematerialsexhibitedandcom-binedpiecesselectedfromtheFIBMuseumwithhisownandthoseofothercollectors.

NÚRIA CASTELL ARIÑOPrior Dean of the Barcelona School of Informatics, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya



INTRODUCTION BY THE EXHIBITION CURATOR

Informatics, or computing, is one of the youngest academic and professional disciplines. Ifwecountfromtheappearanceofthefirstelectroniccomputers,itshistoryspansjusteightyyears.Comparedtothecenturiesormillenniaofexperienceaccumulatedinmostsciencesandfieldsofengineering,thishistoryisveryshort,thoughcertainlyveryintense.

Infact,sinceitsinception,aswellasbeingayoungdiscipline,computinghasdevelopedinawaythatreflectsitsyouthfulspirit.Itsevolutionhasbeencharacterisedbyconstantinvention,innovationandrenewalinproducts,systems,methods,servicesandcompu-tingparadigms.Nowwehavesocialphenomena likesmartphones, tablets,apps, thecloud,virtual reality, socialmedia,onlinegamingand3-Dprinting.And itwasnotsolongago that theemergentphenomenawere theweb,e-businessande-commerce,dot-coms,laptops,gamingconsoles,andsoon–advancesthatthemselvessucceededthe advent of the internet, PCs, arcade games, and other developments.

Fordecades,it’sbeencommontohearpeoplesaythingslike“Computingistheprofes-sionofthefuture”,oreven“Computingisthefuture!”Andourdisciplinehasundenia-blyhadafar-reachingandhighlyvisibleimpactoncontemporarylifeateverylevel.Ourworld is increasinglydigital,globalandautomated thanksmainly to informationandcommunication technology. We’re moving ahead so fast and so far that it’s not surpri-singwesometimesexperienceakindofsocialvertigowhenwecontemplatethepossi-bleconsequencesofthisprogress.

Westart todoubt thedesirabilityandsustainabilityofautomatingcertainprocesses,orfeeluneasy,evenfearful,aboutcertainelectronicmonitoringandcontrolpracticesthatwenowknowsomegovernmentsandmultinationalsengagein.Asgoodcompu-tingprofessionals,wewanttocontributetobuildingafuturethat’smoredemocratic,equitableandjust.Wealsohaveadutytofightagainstother,moredystopianfutures–toensurethatourtechnologiesareusedforthecommongoodratherthanthebenefitofafewpowerfulindividuals.


Inthemiddleofthisshortbutfast-pacedhistory,fromtimetotimeit’sworthpausingtolookback.Learningaboutandunderstandingthecircumstances,vicissitudesandte-chnologiesthatshapedtheexperienceofourpredecessorshelpsustakeadvantageofopportunitiesandavoidpitfallsaswebuildabetterfutureforeveryone.Thisiswhyinrecentyears,aloneorincollaborationwithotherinstitutions,theBarcelonaSchoolofInformatics(FIB)hassoughttocelebratethepassingoftime,ourowntimeandhistory,andreflectonthisjourney.

We’vedonethisbymarkingtheanniversariesofsomesignificantevents,ofwhichtherehavebeenquiteafewlately.Somehavebeenlinkedtoindividualswerecogniseasvi-sionariesinourfield:thecentenaryofthebirthofAlanTuringin2012,thebicentenaryofthebirthofAdaLovelacein2015,andtheseptcentenaryofthedeathofourpatron,RamonLlull,in2016.Tomarktheseoccasions,weorganisedandparticipatedinvarioustalksandexhibitions,includingaseriesofeightroundtablesin2013-14ontopicsrelatedto the history of computing in Catalonia and Spain.

Particularlynoteworthyfortheengagementandvisibilitytheygenerateareaseriesofexhibitionsonretrocomputertechnology,presentedinCatalanshoppingcentresandtownhalls,andourcollaborationswithCosmoCaixa.Finally,havingseenhowcuriouspeopleareaboutthehistoryofcomputertechnology,in2010wedecidedtoestablishtheFIBMuseum,whichhasattractedthousandsofstudents,professorsandothervisi-tors since it opened.

In2017-2018,theBarcelonaSchoolofInformaticsisturning40andwewantedtocele-bratethisoccasiontoo.We’veorganisedarangeofactivitiesthatwewanttosharewithourstudents,professors,managementstaff,graduates,friendsoftheSchool,andan-yoneelsewhowantstojoinus.InadditiontotakingadvantageofannualeventssuchastheFIBpartyandFestibity(anICTprofessionalfestival)tohighlightthefactthatwe’venowbeen“CreatingTalent”forfourdecades,we’veorganisedafilmforumon“Compu-terScienceandScienceFiction”andaseriesoftalksonthe“Present,PastandFutureof…”variouscomputertechnologies,includingprogramminglanguages,computerar-chitectures,databases,andmore.

We’vealsoupdatedaspecialFIBwebsitedevotedtoaselectgroupofpioneeringwo-menwhomadeasignificantcontributiontotheadvancementofcomputingandtele-communications.Thesitenowincludestwonewentries,forBarbaraLiskov,awardedanhonorarydoctoraldegreebytheUPCin2012attheproposaloftheFIB,andforMarga-


retHamilton,towhomwepaythesametributeinthesedates.Thefullprogrammeofactivitiestomarkthe40thanniversaryoftheFIBcanbeviewedbyclickingonthelinkbelow:http://www.fib.upc.edu/ca/40e

Weloveexhibitions,andthespecialeventsweorganisedincludeoneentitledComputa-tion:FromtheAbacustothePC.Theshow,whichisthefocusofthiscatalogueandwebspace,waspresentedattheIllaDiagonalshoppingcentreinMay2017andattheRec-torGabrielFerratéLibraryinJune2017.ThishistoricalexhibitionseekstobuildonandcomplementthecontentofpreviousFIBexhibitions. It revolvesaroundtechnologies,devicesandobjects thatpredatemoderncomputer technology,but thatconditionedthedesignofthefirstcomputers.Inmanycases,theseoldertechnologieswereinuseformuchlongerperiodsthanthe80-yearperiodinwhich“modern”computertechno-logyhasbeenaround,andwereultimatelyabsorbedintomorerecentdevelopments.Inadditiontotheseprecursortechnologies,whichshowhowpeoplecounted,addedup,calculated,didaccounting,andsoonuntiljustafewdecadesago,we’veincludedsomeobjectsrelatedtothefirstgiantcomputers,sometimesdescribedas“electronicbrains”,andtheearliestPCs,whichpopularisedcomputertechnology.

Manypeoplefromvariousinstitutionshaveofferedtheirassistanceandcontributedtopreparingthisshow.Asthecuratoroftheexhibition,I’dliketosincerelythankthemforallthey’vedone:attheUPC,mycolleaguesattheFIB,inLabFIB,theLibraries,Publica-tions and Archives Service, Iniciativa Digital Politècnica, and the Language and Termino-logyService;andoutsidetheUPC,colleaguesandfriendsattheUniversityofLaRiojaandtheOpenUniversityofCatalonia(UOC),whoworkedonearlierversionsoftheshow.Therearesomanyofyou,andyou’veallbeensogenerouswithyoursupport.Soyoucer-tainlydeservetobenamedinthelengthyacknowledgementssectionthataccompaniesthisexhibition.Thankyouverymuchforyourcontributions!

JOAN ANTONI PASTOR COLLADO Barcelona School of Informatics, UPC Vicedean for Institucional and International Relations



Thank you, FIB!

TheUPClibrariesareprivilegedservicesthankstotheBarcelonaSchoolofInformatics(FIB),whichisnowcelebratingitsfortiethanniversary.Whyisthisso?

TheUPClibraries,likethoseofothertechnicaluniversitiesinSpainandEurope,donothavelargecollectionsofbooks.Thisisbecause,unlikeinotherfields,thesupportthatlibrariesprovidetoeducationintechnologyisnotmainlybasedonbooks.Instead,itfollowsaninnovativelearningmodelbasedonparticulartypesofdocuments,suchasreports,standards,plans,formulas,problems,solutionsandstudies.Theyalsoofferservices related to technology, especially information and communications techno-logy (ICT).

ThankstoICT,theUPClibrarieshavepioneereddozensof innovativelibraryprojects.TheywerethefirstSpanishlibrariestohaveautomatedbibliographiccatalogues;theycreatedanddesignedCD-ROMtowersforconsultingscientificandtechnicaldatabases;theywerepioneersinimplementingintegrallibraryinformationmanagementsystems(withtheVTLSproductbyVirginiaTech);andtheyfoundedtheConsortiumofCatalanUniversityLibraries inorder to createa singleautomated collective catalogueof thebibliographicrecordsofalllibrariesintheCatalanuniversitysystem.Whentheinternetappeared,theywerethefirsttopublishdigitalbooksandwerepioneersinofferingopenaccesstoscientificandtechnicaldocumentsforresearchersandprofessorsthroughon-linerepositories/serverssuchasUPCommons,nowwidelyconsideredoneoftheworld’sbestrepositoriesofitskind.Theyalsoledthechangefromprintjournalstodigitaljour-nalsforconsultingscientificinformation.Morerecently,theyearnedtheadmirationofotheruniversitieswiththeFuturresearchportal,andhavejustput intooperationtheGeoCommonsprojectofgeo-locationofthethesesandprojectsofourstudents,pro-fessorsandresearchers,allowinganyonetolocatethemonGoogleMapsandseehowthey are related to the territory.


Inour libraries, studentsuse their smartphones to check theonline resourcesand toreservegroupstudy rooms.Weare thefirst libraries inSpain to introduce the laptoploanservice,andwecreatedtheUPCDigitalVideoLibrary,theUPCOpenCoursewareproject,andrepositoriesofexaminationpapers,doctoraltheses,bachelor’sthesesanddissertations. The list is endless. All these projects are related to the digital transforma-tionofthelibraryandtheuseofICT.

WhyamIsayingallthis?BecausewithouttheFIBitwouldhavebeenimpossibletoca-rryoutallthesechangesinourlibraries.Theprofessors,researchers,researchgroups,studentsandadministrationandservicestaffoftheFIBhavealwayshelpedandadvisedus.InternsfromtheFIBhavecarriedouttheirbachelor’sthesesinfieldsrelatedtolibra-riesandmanagementofdocumentsandscientificinformation.Also,studentsoftheFIBhaveplannedandcarriedout innovativeprojects forour libraries,andmanyof themhaveendedupworkingfortheLibraries,PublicationsandArchivesService.

TheFIBhashelpeduspositionourselvesandwillcontinuetodrivethedigitaltransfor-mationoftheUPClibraries,andIthinkthisisbecauseitisoneofthebestinformaticsschoolsinEurope.That’swhytheUPClibrariesareprivilegedservices!

Thank you, FIB, on your fortieth anniversary!

DÍDAC MARTÍNEZDirectoroftheLibraries,PublicationsandArchivesServiceoftheUPCBarcelona,October2018


I-1-1 / Counter or counting table


I / COUNTING

Countingmustbeoneof thefirstandmostbasicnumerical taskshumans learnedtoperform.Tocount,orreckon,peopleundoubtedlyusedoneofthemostversatiletoolsattheirdisposal:theirownhandsandfeet,withtheirrespectivefingers,toesandpha-langes.Thisexplainstheoriginandpersistenceofthedecimalnumeralsystemwestilluse today.

Inhunting,harvests,landdealings,bartering–inexchangesofallkinds–peoplehadtolearn to share their calculations so they could trust each other and record their transac-tions.Theycoulddothisbymakingnotchesonastick,copyingthemontwopartsthatwouldbeseparatedbybreakingthesticktoformacontractofsorts,apracticethatistheoriginofsuchseeminglymodernexpressionsas“stakeholder”and“stockmarket”,or“statistics”.Alternatively,theycouldshowtheirreckoningandcountusingsmallpeb-bles(calculiinLatin)–placedonthesand,atableoracounter–orbymakinglinesonpaper(I-1).

Overtime,thepebbleswentfromthesandortabletobeingthreadedonstrings,sticksorwiresinaportableframe:theabacus.Therehavebeenmanyversionsofthedevice,fromtheRomanabacustothemainChinese,JapaneseandRussianvariants(I-2),andthisage-oldtoolisstillwithustoday:millionsofAsianschoolchildrencontinuetouseabacusestolearntocountandtoperformvariouscalculations.

Meanwhile,intheWesttheinventivenessoftheIndustrialRevolutionbegantogenerateandpopularisevariousdevicesthatwereusedtocountandavoidlosingcount(I-3,I-4).Withtheappearanceofmachinesofallkinds–fullofwheels,sprockets,axlesandbeltsthathadtobekeptinsync–therewasagreatneedfortoolsthatcouldbeusedtocounttheirturns,rotationsandrevolutions(I-5).Whennoteveryoneknewhowtocountandperformcalculations,somecouldrelyonbookswithpredefinedmathematicaltables,whichanticipatedthecomingofanumericalrevolution(I-5-3).


I-2-1 / Chinese abacus or Souanpan

I-2-2 / Japanese abacus or Soroban


I-2-3 / Russian abacus or Stchoty

I-2-4 / Pocket abacus


I-3-1 / Circular thread counter, to remember

I-3-2 / Rectangular thread counter, to don’t forget


I-4-1 / Comptator... the portable manual accumulator

I-5-1 / Analogic revolution counter


I-5-2 / Digital revolution counter

I-5-3 / Ready reckoner table book, to count and much more...


II / ADDING

Bookscontainingprecalculatedresults,knownas“readyreckoners”,appearedaftertheinventionoftheprintingpressandwerewidelyusedfromthesixteenthuntilwellintothetwentieth century.They included all kinds of precalculated values: sums, subtractions,multiplicationsanddivisions–allorganisedindouble-entrytables–aswellastablesofpercentages,interestfigures,andspecialcalculationsforparticularguildsortasks.

Duringthisperiod,someofthefirstdevicesinventedwiththeaimofmechanisingthemostbasicarithmeticoperations(atleastpartially)werealsopopularised.Addition,themostbasicoperationandthebasisofall theothers,was thefirstchallengetowhichtheearlyinventorsandbuildersofdevices,machinesorengines–thefirstengineers–applied their learning and ingenuity.

AmongtheseearlydeviceswastheAddiator,alsocalledtheTroncetTypeafteritsinven-tor.Thispopularportabledevicecameinbothpocketanddesktopmodelsforallkindsofbusinessuses(II-2),andcalculatorsofthiskindwereevengivenoutaspromotionalgifts(II-1).Whenthesumoftwodigitswasgreaterthanten,usershadtoperformthe“ca-rryone”operationthemselveswithasimplestylusmovement.Otheraddingmachineswereoperatingusingslidersorkeys(II-3).ButitwasthemathematicianandphilosopherBlaisePascalwhoin1642cameupwithamechanicalsolutiontotheproblemofcarryingone,creatingadevicethatbecameknownasthePascaline.Thedesignofthiscalculatorwasthebasisofmostmechanicaladdingmachinesuntilwellintothetwentiethcentury.Alldevicesofthiskindwereoperatedusingastylusinsertedatpointswheredigitsweremarkedontheirwheels(II-4).

Yearsearlier,anothergreatmathematician,JohnNapier–bestknownasthedeveloperoflogarithms(adiscoveryhepublishedin1614),oneoftheconceptualtoolsthatmostdramaticallyrevolutionisedscientificcalculation–alsoinventedasmallinstrumentforperformingbasiccalculations,knownas“Napier’sbones”(II-5).


II-1-1 / Merchandising tronzet, from the Barcelona 1929 International Fair

II-1-2 / Merchandising booklet from the Barcelona 1929 International Fair


II-2-1 / Tronzet brand Business, never ever sold

II-2-2 / Tronzet brand Record, white ones add and red ones substract


II-2-3 / Tronzet brand Tasco, the most brilliant one

II-2-4 / Tronzet set brand Addiator, desktop type


II-3-1 / Personal chain adder brand Goldem Gem, for select offices and pockets

II-3-2 / Key-based adder brand Certa, the open mechanism that’s always sure


II-4-1 / Desktop adder brand Lightning, faster than lightning

II-4-2 / Desktop adder brand Addometer, the most popular one


II-4-3 / Pocked adder brand Shop’n’Add, to not overbuy

II-5-1 / Neper bones... Sticks to add, and much more


III-1-1 / Consul, the educated monkey, to play to learn to multiply


III / CALCULATING

Countingandaddingarethesimplestoperations,buttheyarethebasisofalltheotherarithmeticoperations.Youcansubtractbyaddingtheadditiveinversetoanumber,mul-tiplyusingrepeatedaddition,anddivideusingrepeatedsubtraction.Inschool,welearnthemultiplicationtable,procedures(or“algorithms”)foraddingandsubtracting(ifyouknowhowtocarry),andmethodsformultiplyinganddividing.Sometimeschildrenhaveevenbeenabletopractiseusingtoysdesignedtomakelearningfun(III-1).

Historically,whatwasnotsoeasywasdesigningandbuildingmechanicalinstrumentsthat could automate all these arithmetic operations (partially or completely). The ear-liestsuchdevice,whichdisappearedforcenturies,wasacalculatorconstructedattheendoftheseventeenthcenturybythemathematicalgeniusGottfriedLeibniz,whoalsolaidthefoundationsofmoderncalculus,ormathematicalanalysis.Somewhatearlier,in1673,hehadinventedthebasicmechanismofhiscalculator,theLeibnizsteppeddrum,whichservedasamodelforlatercalculators,includingthehandcrafteddevicesoftheeighteenth century and the industrially produced calculators of the nineteenth and the firsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.

FollowingthecommercialsuccessoftheArithmometer(inventedbytheFrenchmanCharlesX.ThomasdeColmar)anditsmanysuccessors,inthemid-twentiethcentury,the limitsofmechanical calculationwere reachedwith theastonishingCurta (III-2).Thedevice,whichmarkstheapogeeofminiaturisationinpre-electroniccalculators,waspopularlyknownasthepepper grinder due to its appearance. After addition had beenautomated, thenamesofdevicesbegantocall tomindotherarithmeticope-rations (III-3),and theirphysical formsbecamemorevaried (III-4).Eventually,devi-cesthatcouldbeusedtoprintoperandsandresultsappeared(III-4-3).Forindividualuses of a more demanding and professional character, some manufacturers developed morerobustportablecalculators(III-5).


III-1-2 /Arithmetic Quiz, to learn the four numeracy rules

III-2-1 / The amazing Curta... or the “pepper grinder”


III-3-1 / Multator, pin wheel calculator

III-3-2 / Denominator, for adding payments and change returns


III-3-3 / Multor, pocked multiplying wheel

III-4-2 / Optima circular calculator

III-4-1 / Figure-8-Adder, the eight fitted for the hand


IV / COMPTABILITZAR

ApartirdelsegleXVI,desprésdeldescobrimentd’Amèrica,elmónesvaanarunintambelcreixementdelanavegaciómarítimaielpilotatgeapartirdelsegleXVIII,gràciesenbonamesuraalscàlculsmésprecisosenelposicionament(surveying)quevanpermetreelslogaritmesapartirdelXVII,il’edició,publicacióiactualitzaciócontínuadellibresambtaulesdelogaritmesperpartdematemàticsnotables.

Elcreixementdelapoblació,delaindústriaidelcomerçtambévagenerarlanecessitatdecomptar,decalcularideregistrartoteslesactivitatsimplicades(naixements,morts,compres,vendes,cobraments,pagaments,impostos…).Totaixò,enunitatsienvaloreconòmic,s’haviademantenirenelsanomenatsllibres de comptabilitat,queesvanini-ciarenl’administracióimperialespanyoladelsegleXVI.Aixívanéixeridesprésvaevolu-cionarlacomptabilitat,tambéanomenadatenidoria de llibres (bookkeeping),perlaqualcosaesvanecessitarl’ajudademàquinesdecalcularidecomptabilitzarespecialitzades(accounting machines)itaneficientscomfospossible.

Vanaparèixercalculadorescomlesdel’empresaTIM,deTimeIsMoney(IV-1),basadesenelcilindredeLeibniz, lamidadelqualnomésesvapoderreduirambnovesinven-cions,comhovaserlarodadedenticióvariable,inventadaalhoraperBaldwinalsEUAiOdhneraEuropa(IV-3),oelComptometerd’actuaciósimultània,deFelt-Tarrant,totunèxitcomercial(IV-5).

Amésdecalcular,lesempresesilesadministracionsvolienregistraricodificarlessevesdades,classificar-les,analitzar-lesitabular-les,inecessitavenferaquestesaccionsdelamaneraméseficientpossible.Peraconseguir-hocaliennous invents,aquestavegadainspiratsenunaltreinventdeprincipisdelaRevolucióIndustrial,eltelerdeJacquard,elmovimentdelqualestavaprogramatmitjançantunaseqüènciadetargetesperforades(IV-2-4).Enaixòesva inspirarCharlesBabbageperdissenyar lesentradesde la sevaACCOUNTING

III-4-3 / Scribola adder-lister, the adder than prints


III-5-1 / Todd, portable blade adder, the one for professionals


IV / ACCOUNTING

Fromthesixteenthcentury,followingthediscoveryofAmerica,theworldgraduallybe-camemoreinterconnected.Maritimenavigationandpilotinggrewfromtheeighteenthcentury,thanksinlargemeasuretomoreprecisesurveyingcalculations,facilitatedbylogarithmsdevelopedintheseventeenthcenturyandbooksoflogarithmictables,whichwerepublishedandcontinuouslyupdatedbynotablemathematicians.

Thegrowthofthepopulation,industryandtradealsogaverisetoaneedtocount,cal-culateandrecordalltheeventsandactivitiesthesephenomenaentailed(births,deaths,purchases,sales,collections,payments,taxes,etc.).Inthecaseoffinancialtransactions,recordsexpressedinbothunitsandeconomictermshadtobekeptinaccountbooks,whichwerefirstusedintheadministrationoftheSpanishEmpireofthesixteenthcen-tury.Thiswastheoriginofaccounting,orbookkeeping,whichcontinuedtoevolvefromthatpointon.Theworkofkeepingaccurateaccountsrequiredspecialisedcalculationandaccountingmachinesthatneededtoworkasefficientlyaspossible.

CalculatorslikethosemadebythecompanyTIM(TimeIsMoney;IV-1)werebasedontheLeibnizsteppeddrum.Theycouldonlybemadesmallerthroughnewinnovations,suchasthepinwheelcalculator,inventedsimultaneouslybyBaldwinintheUSAandOd-hner inEurope (IV-3), and theComptometer, adevicemadebyFelt&Tarrant–withkeys that couldbepressed simultaneously for fasteroperation– that achievedgreatcommercialsuccess(IV-5).

Inadditiontocalculating,companiesandpublicauthoritieswantedtorecord,encode,classify,analyseandtabulatetheirdata,andtheyneededtoperformtheseactionsinthemostefficientwaypossible.Newinventionswereneeded.Thistimetheywereins-piredbyanother innovation thatdated to theearlydaysof the IndustrialRevolution– theJacquard loom–whosemovementwasprogrammedusingaseriesofpunchedcards(IV-2-4).ThisapproachinspiredCharlesBabbagetodesigntheinputsystemforhisAnalyticalEngine,thefirstmechanicalforerunnerofpresent-daycomputers,andforwhichAdaLovelacethoughtupwaystoprogramandusethedevice.


Half a century later, in the late 1800s, Hermann Hollerith developed an accounting sys-temforthe1890UScensusthatusedpunchedcards(IV-2).Thenewsystemrevolutio-nisedpublicstatisticsandmarkedthedawnof thedataprocessingage.His initiativeeventuallyledtothefoundingofIBM,whichgrewquicklyasasupplierofdataproces-singequipmentandendeduptakingtheleadinbusinesscomputingfordecades.

Inthecontextofadriveforrationalisationandbusinessefficiency,theTaylorismthatprevailedinearlytwentieth-centuryindustrialenterprisesledmanagersandownerstoseek approaches and mechanisms for measuring and monitoring the time spent on all operations.This led to thedevelopmentof thecomputusclocks,whichwereused tomeasurethedurationofoperationsandsynchronisetasks(IV-4).

IV-1-1 / Cursor calculator TIM-1, from Time Is Money (Leibnitz stepped reckoner mechanism)


IV-2-1 / Keypunch, first automatic punchcard perforator, by Hollerith

IV-2-2 / Punchcards of type Hollerith-IBM, with 80 columns


IV-2-3 / IBM type punchcard press cylinder

IV-2-4 / For Jacquard looms, punchcard based weaving program


IV-3-1 / Key based FACIT calculator (Baldwin-Odhner pin wheel mechanism)

IV-4-1 / Calculagraph... to account for modern times


IV-4-2 / Watch-computus for night watchmen, segurity registered at puched disks

IV-5-1 / Comptometer from Felt-Tarrant... the revolutionary accounting efficiency


V / COMPUTING

ItseemsthatitwasIBM,inthecontextofitsinitiativestoencouragecomputer-relateduniversitytrainingandresearch,thatcameupwiththeterm“computerscience”,thoughthisisjustoneofthenamesappliedtothedisciplineoverits70-yearlife.Othertermsthathavebeenusedwithasimilarmeaninginformatics,includecybernetics,automa-tion,electronicbrains,computersandelectronicdataprocessors,amongmanyothers.

However, beforemodern computersweredeveloped,peoplewerealreadyusing ins-truments with pre-computed calculations.Usually these were analogue (non-digital)devices.Theslide rule isundoubtedly themostsuccessfulanaloguecomputer.BasedonNapier’slogarithmiccalculationmethod,theinstrumentwasdevelopedbyWilliamOughtred, among others, in the seventeenth century. Up until the 1970s, scientists and engineersenjoyedshowingofftheirsliderulesandusedthemwithpride:itwasaskillthatnoteverybodyhadtheintellectualabilitytomaster(V-1).

Manyslideruleswereusedtodocalculationsofallkinds,butsomeweredesignedforspecialpurposes.Ofthesespecialisedsliderules,perhapsoneoftheleastknownisthesector,inventedbythegreatscientistGalileoforuseintheconstructionofmilitaryfor-tificationsandcitadels,andinnavigation(V-2).Astheuseofsliderulesgrew,somecal-culations,becauseoftheirlengthorthedegreeofprecisiontheyentailed,couldnotbeperformedonasimplepocketsliderule;theyrequiredtheuseofhighlysophisticatedvariantswith scalesarranged in spiral formtomakeoptimaluseof the spaceon thedevice(V-3).

In the twentieth century, longafter thedaysofGalileo’s sector, theneed fordevicesthat could perform special calculations arose once again. The instruments developed in response included planimeters – instruments for automatically calculating surfaceareasthatautomatedthemathematicalintegrationoftwovariables–andvariousins-truments designed for other specialised tasks, such as telemetry in automotive racing, andairnavigation(V-5).


V-1-1 /Nestler sliderule for logarithmic computations

V-1-3 / Aero circular sliderule

V-1-2 / Faber sliderule for logarithmic computations


V-3-1 / Fuller desktop spiral rule, for logarithmic supercomputing

V-2-2 / User manual for Galileo’s sector (contemporary facsimile edition)

V-2-1 / Galileo’s compas or sector, computing rule for construction and navigation


V-3-2 / Tröger circular rule

V-3-3 / Otis Kings portable rule, for logarithmic precision computations


V-4-1 / Planimeter, for the automatic computation of areas

V-4-2 / Morin planimeter, mechanizing mathematical integration


V-5-1 / NASCAR Computer Pack, for special purpose racing computations

V-5-2 /SkyKing Computer, for flying navigational computing


V-5-3 a / Electronic calculators do arrive

V-5-3 b / Electronic calculators stay for long


VI-1-1 / Original UNIVAC tape reel, with metal magnetizable suport

VI-1-2 / Original UNIVAC portfolio, for executive operating system routine libraries

VI-2-1 /Security patch, with an antique IBM logo


VI / COMPUTERISING

Onewayoranother,allthesedevelopmentsbringustotheearlydaysofmoderncom-puting.TheaccumulatorregisterofLeibniz’scalculator,Jacquard’sloom,Babbage’sen-gines,Hollerith’smachines,therulesofBooleanlogic–allthisandmuchmore,inanageofautomationandimpelledbythepressuresoftheSecondWorldWar,pavedthewayforthebirthofmoderncomputers.

Allthatwasleftwastoovercomethephysicallimitationsofmechanicaltechnologies.And inventorsandscientistsbegantoachievethis,firstwithelectromechanical tech-nologies(relays),thenwithelectricalsystems(vacuumtubes),andfinallybyelectronicmeans (transistors, integrated circuits, miniaturised integration, integration on a large scale, integration on a very large scale, etc.).After the first experimental computers(ABC,ASCC,etc.)andthefirstcomputersforwar-relateduses(ENIAC,Colossus,ACE,etc.), thefirstmachines for scientific computing (EDSAC)appeared.Almostall theseearlycomputersaspiredtobegeneral-purposedevices–“universalmachines”.

Twoofthefirstcomputerscientists,J.PresperEckertandJohnMauchly(bothENIACengineers),soondecidedtomaketheleaptothebusinessworld.In1950,theydesig-nedthefirstgeneral-purposecommercialcomputer:theUNIVACI(UniversalAutomaticComputerI).UNIVACwasknown,amongstotherthings,foritsinnovativeapproachtosecondarystorage,onmagnetictapesandinprogramlibrarieswithpredefinedroutines(VI-1).ThankstotheworkoftheengineerGraceHopper,UNIVACwasalsothestartingpointforthedefinitionofprogramminglanguagesandforinnovationinthisarea.

Afterrestingonitslaurelsforsometime,IBM,thecompanythatdominatedthebusinessdataprocessingmarketatthetime,finallydecidedtostartmanufacturingcomputers.Thecompanybeganbyequippingsomeofitspunchedcardprocessingsystemswithproces-singpowerandlaterdesignedcompletelynewcomputersusingcircuitsimplementedwithvacuumtubes(VI-2).Injustafewyears,theracetoinnovatewasunderway.Corestoragewasoneofthemajoradvances(VI-3),andprogrammingbasedonphysicalarrangementofwiresandhardwiredroutines(VI-4)wasaforerunnertopresent-daysoftware.


Thefirstbigelectroniccomputersofthe1940sand1950scausedbothamazementandwidespreadfear.Peoplewereastonishedbythelightningspeedatwhichthese“giantelectronicbrains”,asthemediacalledthem,wereabletosolvecomplexproblems,andfrightenedbythepossibilitythattheymightbeusedtocontrolallaspectsofouractivity(VI-5).

VI-2-2 / Pluggable bits (3 bits) from an IBM 704


VI-2-3 / Pluggable board for a byte (8 bits) from the IBM 650

VI-3-1 / Big core memory board from Empsa


VI-4-1 / IBM cable based programming board

VI-4-2 / Burroughs functional pluggable board by hardware


VI-5-1 / Electronic Brains from E.C.Berkeley, the first book of computer divulgation

VI-5-2 / TIME magazine cover page, ¿the super-brain that will control everything?


VI-5-3 / The Computer Revolution, de E.C.Berkeley, the revolution that is comming


VII / COMMUNICATING

Itiscurioushowtoday,80yearsaftertheappearanceofthefirstautomaticcomputers,millionsofinternet-connectedcomputerdevicesthatarethedescendantsofthosedigitaldinosaurscontinuetoastonishuswitheachnewgenerationofproducts(laptops,tablets,smartphones,digitalwatches,etc.),andhowwecontinuetofearthecontrolwemayendupbeingsubjecttoasusersofthesetools.

Thetelecommunications,radioandtelevisionsystemsthatprecededthefirstcomputersandcontributedtotheiremergencearenowfullydigitisedandoperatebasedoncompu-tersystems.Traditionalanaloguetelephones(VII-1)andtelephoneexchangesoperatedbylongrowsofyoungwomen(VII-4)arenowobjectsofnostalgiathathavebeensupersededbydigitisedsystems.Thesecuritysystemscompaniesusefortheirtransactionshavealsoevolved,withtheprogressivedigitisationofwhatwereoncerudimentarycommercialpro-tectionsystems(VII-2).Morerecently,weputawayourfilm-basedstillandmoviecameras(VII-3)infavouroftheirdigitaldescendants.Andthesamefatehasbefallentheanaloguedevicesweonceusedtoplaymusicorcopyandprintinformation(VII-5).

Inaveryshorttime,alltheseanaloguetechnologieshavebeendigitised,miniaturisedandintegrated.Inotherwords,theyhavebeenturnedintoindividualcomputerisedsystems(phones,televisions,watches,computers,etc.)thatareconnectedandsynchronisedbymeansofother,large-scalecomputerisedsystemsthatremainoutofsight(servers,ser-verfarms,thecloud,supercomputers,etc.)–alloperatingandcommunicatingwitheachotheratunimaginablespeeds.

Whatisparadoxicalandatthesametimeromanticaboutalltheseinterconnectedcompu-ter systems operating at light speed is that deep inside, in their processors and memories, they continue to translate all the data they handle into long strings of zeros and ones, lists thattheyultimatelysubjecttoinnumerablebinarysums.

Inthislight,ifwelookbeyondspeedsandinterfaces,sizesandforms,perhapscomputinghasnotchangedthatmuchsincetheemergenceofthefirstmoderncomputerseightde-cades ago, or travelled so far from the earliest inventions and concepts related to mecha-nicalcalculation-atleastnotinitsessence.


VII-1-1 / Analogical telephony, and its cables, arrive everywhere, homes and companies

VII-2-1 / Protectograph... mechanism to ensure security to banking transactions


VII-3-1 / Kodak photographic camera, the power of images... in black and white

VII-3-2 / Brownie mechanical filming camcorder, from Kodak... color in movementt


VII-4-1 / Headphones

VII-4-1 / Phone central switching board... where everything can be known


VIII / POPULARISING

Today,thankstotheso-called“digitalrevolution”,weliveinaglobalised,automatedandinterconnectedworldunderpinnedbythousandsofcomputerandtelematicsystems,aworld thatoffersusgreatcollectiveand individualpower.Forexample, smartphonesandsocialmedia,amongmanyotherservicesbasedondigitaltechnologies,arerapidlytransformingourhabits.Thesenewtoolshaveevenfacilitatedsocialuprisingsandtheemergenceofnewgovernmentsandparties,newwaysofcollaborating,learning,pla-yingandinteracting–newwaysofliving.

Butitwasnotuntilthelate1970s–andespeciallythe1980sand1990s–thattheuseofcom-putertoolsbegantospreadbeyondlargecompaniesandgovernmentagenciesastheybe-camemoreaffordable,firstforsmallerorganisations,andthenfortherestofthepopulation.

Afterthefirstexperimentalcomputersofthe1950s,1960sand1970s,largemainframesystems,madebycompanieslikeUNIVACandIBM,appearedandbegantodominatethecorporatemarket.Thiswasalso theperiodwhen thefirstoperatingsystemsandhigh-levelprogramminglanguages–Fortran,COBOLandALGOL,amongmanyothers–cameintouse.Atthesametime,anewgenerationofminicomputers,developedinuniversity researchenvironmentsandmadebymanufacturers likeDEC,HPandDataGeneral, put computers within reach of medium-sized companies and governmentagencies,anduniversityinstitutions.Thisdevelopmentalsobroughtnewlanguagesandoperatingsystems,includingLisp,CandUnix.

Buttherealexplosionwouldnotcomeuntilthelate1970sandthe1980s,whenasmallgroupofrestlessyoungcomputerscientists,imbuedwiththefreespiritthatcharacte-rised the hippy movement and the student protests of 1968, came to see computer te-chnologyasatoolforexperimentingandachievingthefreedomtheylongedfor.Theseyoungmenandwomen,whowereknowledgeableaboutandcriticalofcorporatecom-puting,setouttoexperimentandcreatenewcomputersystemsforindividualandgroupuse–toolsthatwouldbeaffordableandaccessibletomanymoreusers.

Whatstartedinthe1970swithagroupofhobbyistswhotookahome-brewapproachto building computers – sharing problems and solutions at get-togetherswith otherenthusiasts–wascarried forwardbythefirstentrepreneurial initiatives.Someof themostpowerfulcompanies in thecontemporaryworld, includingAppleandMicrosoft,gottheirstartduringthoseyearsingaragesandotherbare-bonespremises.AlthoughthismovementwasstrongestinCalifornia,similarthingswerehappeninginotherpla-cesaroundtheworld.

InJanuary1975,theMITSAltair8800,nowregardedasthefirstcomputerforpersonaluse,wasfeaturedonthecoverofPopular Electronicsmagazine.TheAltair8800wasalimitedmicrocomputerandhighlytechnical,butitwasembracedbyhobbyistsbecauseofitsrelativeaffordability.Othersystemssoonfollowed,includingRadioShack’sTRS-80(VIII-1),whichbeganfindingitswayintoAmericanhomesin1977,andAtari’sspecia-lisedgamingsystems(VIII-2).Thatsameyear,AppleComputer,ayoungcompanysetupbytwofriends,SteveJobsandSteveWozniak,launcheditsAppleIIcomputer(VIII-3),whichisconsideredthefirsttrulypersonalcomputer,orPC.ThenewAppleproductwasmarketed toawidespectrumofusersand featured itsownoperatingsystem,whichdiffered fromthoseofotherproducts.Soonafterwards,microcomputersdestined tobecomecommercialhitswereputonthemarket,includingtheCommodore64in1982(VIII-4),whichbeatitsrivalsonmemoryandperipherals,andthedynastyofSpectrumcomputers(VIII-5).

Surprisedbythegrowingpopularityofsuchsmallsystems,andhavinggainedafairlysecurepositioninitsbusinessmarkets,themultinationalIBM,whichwasthedominantmanufacturer of computer systems, finally decided to invest in the new category ofpersonalcomputers.Thisledtotheappearancein1981ofthedazzlingIBMPC(VIII-6),which, thanksmoreto the reputationof the IBMbrandthanto its technological fea-tures,immediatelybecamethepreferredpersonalcomputerforcompaniesandmanyusers and the de facto standard in the category.

Intheearly1980s,therunawaysuccessoftheIBMPCledtotheemergenceofmanycompanies,suchasAmstradandOlivetti(VIII-7),whichmanufacturedIBMPCclonesthatsoldatsignificantlylowerprices.Ancillarybusinessesalsogrew.Theyincludedmakersofelectroniccomponents–producersofchipsandprocessors,suchasIntel,MotorolaandAMD–andsoftwaremanufacturers,suchasBillGates’Microsoft,whichbroughtoutitsfirstDOSoperatingsystemsandprogramminglanguagesforPCs.Thefirstportablecomputersalsoappeared,amongthemtheOsborne1in1981andtheCompaqPortable


in1982.Bythatyear,abitmorethanfiveyearsafterthefirstpersonalcomputershadcomeonthemarket,over5millionPCshadbeensoldworldwide.Theimpactofthisphe-nomenonwassosignificantthatTimemagazinenamedthePCthe“ManoftheYear”in1983.Itwasthefirsttimeinthemagazine’shistorythatthedesignationdidnotgotoapublichumanfigure.

AndjustwhenitlookedliketheIBMPCwassettoremainthemarketleaderandsecurethe largest share of the market in the category for IBM, accompanied on this occasion byMicrosoft,anothersurprisingdevelopmentchangedthedirectionofpersonalcom-putingonceagain.AftersomefalsestartsandanintenseeffortonthepartofahighlycreativeteamofcomputerscientistsledbySteveJobs,AppleComputer,thecompanythathadcreatedthecategory,launcheditsfirstMacintosh,orMac(VIII-8),in1984.ThisnewkindofpersonalcomputerwaspresentedtothepublicasadevicecreatedtofreeusersfromtheyokeofsystemsmadebyBigBrother,IBM.

ThefactisthatincreatingtheMac,Applehaddrawninspirationfromsystemsandsolu-tionsproposedinpreviousresearch,mainlybytheXeroxPARCteam–AdeleGoldberg,LynnConway,AlanKayandRobertMetcalfe,amongothers–whohadinturnbuiltonideasdevelopedbypioneerslikeDouglasEngelbartofStanfordUniversity.Westillbe-nefittodayfromthedesignfeaturesthattheMacintoshbegantopopularise:operatingsystemsbasedon icons and the desktopmetaphor, themouse, object-orientedpro-gramminglanguages,computernetworks,andalongetcetera.PCspavedthewayforthedevelopmentoftheinternetandthewebjustafewyearslater,whichinturnmadepossiblethe“digitalrevolution”wearestilllivingthrough35yearslater.


VIII-1 / Radio Shack TRS-80, invaged US homes for “war games”

VIII-2 / Atari... the most multi-purpose home microcomputer


VIII-3 / Apple II... the first marketed computer which was truly personal

VIII-4 / Commodore 64... the best domestic micro computer ever sold


VIII-5 / Spectrum micro computers... the british saga from Lord Sinclair

VIII-6 / IBM Personal Computer... the answer from the giant Big Blue which filled companies


VIII-7 / Olivetti Quaderno... the most compact portable PC clone

VIII-8 / Apple Macintosh... the PC with principles which revolutionized the future


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya

Servei de Biblioteques, Publicacions i ArxiusMontseAragüés,MiquelCodina,RaquelLorca,DídacMartínez,MontseMoragas,AndrésPérez

Servei de Llengües i Terminologia

Iniciativa Digital PolitècnicaAna Latorre, Jordi Prats

Facultat d’Informàtica de BarcelonaRosa Anglès, Christine Brenot, Albert Campano, Núria Castell, Josep Fernández,MontseJándula,AleixLladó,EnricX.Martín,CarmeMurillo,RaúlParra,LluïsaRomeu.

inLabFIBRosaM.Martín,ElviraPallàs

Universidad de La Rioja

Facultad de Ciencia y TecnologíaLuísEspañol,ÁngelL.Rubio,JulioRubio

Servicio de ComunicaciónSergioPérez,NachoTorra


Universitat Oberta de Catalunya

Estudis d’Informàtica, Multimèdia i TelecomunicacióCésarCórcoles,MariaA.Huertas,JosepM.Marco,AntoniMarín,MartaMolins,PepiPedrero, Josep Prieto, Dani Riera

Operacions i Sistemes d’InformacióRafaelMacau,EmiliRubió

Other collaborations

Centre comercial L’illa Diagonal Ainhoa Izuel

JosepBalsach,AntonioPérez(UniversidadPúblicadeNavarra),CarlosUsón

La Moto ClàssicaJosepBarba,AlbertHernández,AntoniSabatés

Joan A. Pastor, the Exhibition Curator

Exhibition website available in catalan: http://expo40.fib.upc.edu/ca

Exhibition website available in spanish: http://expo40.fib.upc.edu/es

Exhibition website available in english: http://expo40.fib.upc.edu/en



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HISTORICAL COMPUTING · 2019. 8. 8. · HISTORICAL COMPUTING: FROM THE ABACUS TO THE PC / 9 SALUTATION BY THE PRIOR DEAN OF THE FIB The Barcelona School of Informatics (FIB) of the