History and systems History and systems of psychologyof psychology

IntroductionIntroduction

““Psychology is a very old Psychology is a very old science…”science…”

Titchener, A Primer of Psychology Titchener, A Primer of Psychology (1914)(1914)

In full “Psychology is a very old science; we have a complete treatise from the hand of Aristotle.Psychology is a very old science; we have a complete treatise from the hand of Aristotle.But the experimental method has only recently been adopted by psychologists.”But the experimental method has only recently been adopted by psychologists.”

Key questions as we Key questions as we begin…begin… What are looking for in a What are looking for in a historyhistory

of psychology?of psychology? What exactly is psychology? What exactly is psychology? What is science and is psychology What is science and is psychology

a science?a science?– What does it mean for psychology to What does it mean for psychology to

be a science if so?be a science if so?

The Idea of HistoryThe Idea of History

History as simple chronology?History as simple chronology?– Is history primarily the ordering of events, with causal Is history primarily the ordering of events, with causal

links determined by where an event falls on the timeline?links determined by where an event falls on the timeline? History has to be moreHistory has to be more

– Facts occur in a context as well as an orderFacts occur in a context as well as an order It involves interpretation to determine the It involves interpretation to determine the why why (if (if

even possible), and critical inquiry to determine that even possible), and critical inquiry to determine that one theory is more viable than anotherone theory is more viable than another

History cannot be a science, but it History cannot be a science, but it is is scientificscientific– Gather information, determine what’s relevant, weed out Gather information, determine what’s relevant, weed out

inappropriate models, avoid biasinappropriate models, avoid bias– End results are theories to explain the facts of historyEnd results are theories to explain the facts of history

Compare with science’s theories to explain the facts of Compare with science’s theories to explain the facts of experienceexperience

The Idea of ScienceThe Idea of Science

If psychology is considered a If psychology is considered a science, its history will reflect science, its history will reflect that.that.

What are the Objectives of What are the Objectives of Science?Science?– Description Description – PredictionPrediction– ExplanationExplanation

What are the What are the Techniques of Science?Techniques of Science? Observation yields Description. Observation yields Description. Correlation and Experimentation Correlation and Experimentation

yield Predictionyield Prediction– Attempt to identify cause and effect. Attempt to identify cause and effect.

Explanations (theories) are Explanations (theories) are statements about cause and statements about cause and effect relationships.effect relationships.

What can be known?What can be known?

Differing ideas about what constitutes Differing ideas about what constitutes science and what can be knownscience and what can be known

PositivistsPositivists– VerificationVerification

PopperPopper– FalsifiabilityFalsifiability

Kuhn’sKuhn’s– paradigmsparadigms

Lakatos’Lakatos’– research programresearch program

FeyerabendFeyerabend– Anything goesAnything goes

Logical PositivismLogical Positivism

Asserts that statements are meaningful only Asserts that statements are meaningful only insofar as they are verifiable, and that insofar as they are verifiable, and that statements can be verified only in two statements can be verified only in two (exclusive) ways: empirical statements, (exclusive) ways: empirical statements, including scientific theories, which are verified including scientific theories, which are verified by experiment and evidence; and analytic by experiment and evidence; and analytic truth, statements which are true or false by truth, statements which are true or false by definition, and so are also meaningful. definition, and so are also meaningful.

The verifiability theory of meaningThe verifiability theory of meaning– Statements are true in as far as they are empirically verifiableStatements are true in as far as they are empirically verifiable

The correspondence theory of truthThe correspondence theory of truth– The meaningfulness of a statement is determined only by how it The meaningfulness of a statement is determined only by how it

relates to the world, and whether it accurately describes (i.e., relates to the world, and whether it accurately describes (i.e., corresponds with) that worldcorresponds with) that world

PopperPopper

Science starts with recognition of a problem, problem Science starts with recognition of a problem, problem determines what observations are to be made.determines what observations are to be made.

Propose solutions, find fault with solutions, refutations.Propose solutions, find fault with solutions, refutations. Thus science involves problems, theories (proposed Thus science involves problems, theories (proposed

solutions), and criticism.solutions), and criticism. ScientificScientific theory must be refutable – principle of theory must be refutable – principle of

falsifiability.falsifiability. All theories will eventually be replaced by more adequate All theories will eventually be replaced by more adequate

theories.theories. Science is unending search for better solutions to Science is unending search for better solutions to

problems or better explanations of phenomena.problems or better explanations of phenomena.

Note that Popper’s view is that a scientific theory is one Note that Popper’s view is that a scientific theory is one that is falsifiable, but that non-falsifiable theories have the that is falsifiable, but that non-falsifiable theories have the capacity to be both meaningful and possibly evolve into capacity to be both meaningful and possibly evolve into falsifiable onesfalsifiable ones

KuhnKuhn

Brings the psychology to scienceBrings the psychology to science ParadigmParadigm

– ””the entire constellation of beliefs, values, the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques,and so on shared by the members of a techniques,and so on shared by the members of a given scientific community.”given scientific community.”

Normal science is likened to puzzle solving and is Normal science is likened to puzzle solving and is guided by the restrictions of the paradigmguided by the restrictions of the paradigm

– E.g. Cold fusion research ‘not allowed’E.g. Cold fusion research ‘not allowed’ Researchers become emotionally involved with the Researchers become emotionally involved with the

paradigm and science becomes a subjective paradigm and science becomes a subjective enterprise.enterprise.

Paradigms change (shift) as observations cannot be Paradigms change (shift) as observations cannot be explained by the current paradigm.explained by the current paradigm.

Science progresses as scientists are forced to Science progresses as scientists are forced to change their paradigms.change their paradigms.

KuhnKuhn

Stages of scientific developmentStages of scientific development Prescientific stage – many rival schools Prescientific stage – many rival schools

of explanation with random fact of explanation with random fact gathering.gathering.

– Eventually one school succeeds and becomes Eventually one school succeeds and becomes a paradigm and science continues.a paradigm and science continues.

Paradigmatic stage - science occurs until Paradigmatic stage - science occurs until a new paradigm displaces the old one.a new paradigm displaces the old one.

Revolutionary stage – a new paradigm Revolutionary stage – a new paradigm displaces another one.displaces another one.

Kuhn vs. PopperKuhn vs. Popper

Different versions of the same science?Different versions of the same science?

Kuhn: what science has been historicallyKuhn: what science has been historically– Science is scientists which are psychological Science is scientists which are psychological

entities as well as logical onesentities as well as logical ones– Science as a psychological ventureScience as a psychological venture– Note that Kuhn did not go pomo here and Note that Kuhn did not go pomo here and

claim ‘everything is relative’ or assume there claim ‘everything is relative’ or assume there is no is no TTruth, others after him did, mostly non-ruth, others after him did, mostly non-scientistsscientists

Popper: what science Popper: what science ought ought to beto be

Imre LakatosImre Lakatos

‘‘Contrary to naive falsificationism, no Contrary to naive falsificationism, no experiment, experimental report or experiment, experimental report or well-corroborated low-level falsifying well-corroborated low-level falsifying hypothesis alone can lead to hypothesis alone can lead to falsification.’falsification.’– Even Popper’s more sophisticated Even Popper’s more sophisticated

falsificationism doesn’t seem to really falsificationism doesn’t seem to really portray the way science actually worksportray the way science actually works

Kuhn’s ‘mystical conversion’ from one Kuhn’s ‘mystical conversion’ from one dominant paradigm also lackingdominant paradigm also lacking

Lakatos took on a viewpoint somewhat Lakatos took on a viewpoint somewhat between Kuhn and Popperbetween Kuhn and Popper

Imre LakatosImre Lakatos

Typical unit of science is not an isolated hypothesis, Typical unit of science is not an isolated hypothesis, but rather a but rather a research program.research program. Contains: Contains:– Hard coreHard core

Required components (tenets) of the research program not Required components (tenets) of the research program not subject to falsification i.e. must not change if program is to be subject to falsification i.e. must not change if program is to be maintainedmaintained

– Protective beltProtective belt Auxilliary hypotheses that can be shown false w/o destroying Auxilliary hypotheses that can be shown false w/o destroying

the research programthe research program Unlike Kuhn’s normal science, research programs Unlike Kuhn’s normal science, research programs

rarely hold dominant sway and are usually in rarely hold dominant sway and are usually in competition until degeneration sets in when the hard competition until degeneration sets in when the hard core is compromisedcore is compromised– A program without progress diesA program without progress dies

““It is not that we propose a theory and Nature may It is not that we propose a theory and Nature may shout NO; rather, we propose a maze of theories and shout NO; rather, we propose a maze of theories and nature may shout INCONSISTENT.”nature may shout INCONSISTENT.”

Paul FeyerabendPaul Feyerabend

‘‘Anarchist’ philosopherAnarchist’ philosopher– ““Anything goes”Anything goes”

Science not objective, disinterested or Science not objective, disinterested or detacheddetached

Not superior to other types of Not superior to other types of knowledge, which also achieve reliable knowledge, which also achieve reliable resultsresults– No prescribed method to which all scientists No prescribed method to which all scientists

adhereadhere No need for (or real means of) No need for (or real means of)

demarcating between science and demarcating between science and pseudosciencepseudoscience

What is psychology?What is psychology?

No single definition of psychology No single definition of psychology

Historically defined as the study Historically defined as the study of:of:

– Psyche or the mindPsyche or the mind– The spiritThe spirit– ConsciousnessConsciousness– BehaviorBehavior

What is psychology?What is psychology?

If no single definition, maybe we can get a sense of psych by If no single definition, maybe we can get a sense of psych by what psychologists dowhat psychologists do

– Biological correlates of mental events, including sensation, perception, Biological correlates of mental events, including sensation, perception, memory, and ideation.memory, and ideation.

– Principles that govern learning and memoryPrinciples that govern learning and memory– Problem solving strategies and models of human thought processesProblem solving strategies and models of human thought processes– Language developmentLanguage development– Human development across the lifespanHuman development across the lifespan– Many moreMany more

Some attempt to improve the human situation through Some attempt to improve the human situation through application of psychological principlesapplication of psychological principles

Some attempt to explain human behavior in terms of evolutionary Some attempt to explain human behavior in terms of evolutionary theory theory

Some attempt to improve therapeutic toolsSome attempt to improve therapeutic tools So in coming to terms with a history of psychology, we can So in coming to terms with a history of psychology, we can

examine the progression of thought and people that led to the examine the progression of thought and people that led to the myriad activities conducted by psychology todaymyriad activities conducted by psychology today

Problems in the study of the history Problems in the study of the history of psychologyof psychology

Where to start?Where to start?– Ancient man’s explanationsAncient man’s explanations– Early Greek philosophersEarly Greek philosophers

Theories of cognitive processesTheories of cognitive processes

– When psychology became a separate When psychology became a separate sciencescience

19th century19th century Wundt’s labWundt’s lab

What are some difficulties with these What are some difficulties with these approaches?approaches?

Problems in the study of the history Problems in the study of the history of psychologyof psychology

What to include?What to include? HistoricismHistoricism

– study of the past without addressing the study of the past without addressing the relationship between past and presentrelationship between past and present

PresentismPresentism– Attempt to understand the past in terms of Attempt to understand the past in terms of

present knowledge and standardspresent knowledge and standards What are the problems of either method?What are the problems of either method? How much detail is necessary to get a clear How much detail is necessary to get a clear

understanding of the evolution of concepts understanding of the evolution of concepts and ideas?and ideas?

Problems in the study of the history Problems in the study of the history of psychologyof psychology

Choice of approachChoice of approach Zeitgeist (spirit of the times) approach Zeitgeist (spirit of the times) approach

emphasizes the influences of nonpsychological emphasizes the influences of nonpsychological factors such as political climate, technological factors such as political climate, technological advancements, and economic conditions on advancements, and economic conditions on the development of psychologythe development of psychology

Great-person approach emphasizes the works Great-person approach emphasizes the works of individualsof individuals

Historical development approach illustrates Historical development approach illustrates how individuals and/or events contributed to how individuals and/or events contributed to changes and development of ideas and changes and development of ideas and conceptsconcepts

Problems in the study of the history Problems in the study of the history of psychologyof psychology

The big question is why bother?The big question is why bother? PerspectivePerspective

– historical perspective allows people to view current historical perspective allows people to view current psychological ideas in terms of contributions of historical roots psychological ideas in terms of contributions of historical roots through past philosophers/scientists. through past philosophers/scientists.

– Allows a more full appreciation for contemporary psychologyAllows a more full appreciation for contemporary psychology Deeper understandingDeeper understanding

– allows one to have a greater awareness of where psychology’s allows one to have a greater awareness of where psychology’s subject matter came from and why it is considered importantsubject matter came from and why it is considered important

Recognition of fads or fashions in psychology Recognition of fads or fashions in psychology – the ability to recognize that a current avenue of research or the ability to recognize that a current avenue of research or

body of knowledge may be affected by subjective and body of knowledge may be affected by subjective and arbitrary factors of societyarbitrary factors of society

– ““It is simply a sad fact that in soft It is simply a sad fact that in soft psychologypsychology theories rise and decline, come theories rise and decline, come and go, more as a function of and go, more as a function of baffled boredombaffled boredom than anything else; and the than anything else; and the enterprise shows a disturbing absence of that enterprise shows a disturbing absence of that cumulativecumulative character that is so character that is so impressive in disciplines like astronomy, molecular biology and geneticsimpressive in disciplines like astronomy, molecular biology and genetics “ “

Paul MeehlPaul Meehl

Why bother?Why bother?

Avoiding repetition of mistakes Avoiding repetition of mistakes – Just like any other history, being familiar with the Just like any other history, being familiar with the

history of psychology helps to avoid repeating the history of psychology helps to avoid repeating the mistakes of previous researchers and practitionersmistakes of previous researchers and practitioners

A source of valuable ideas A source of valuable ideas – individuals can become familiar with earlier ideas individuals can become familiar with earlier ideas

which may have remained dormant for various which may have remained dormant for various reasonsreasons

CuriosityCuriosity– to become familiar with the history of psychology to become familiar with the history of psychology

for personal interestfor personal interest

Psychology as SciencePsychology as Science

Many in psychology are clearly engaged in the Many in psychology are clearly engaged in the scientific endeavor to understand more about scientific endeavor to understand more about ourselves and the world we experienceourselves and the world we experience

Many (most?) perhaps are notMany (most?) perhaps are not Science assumes a deterministic perspective to Science assumes a deterministic perspective to

account for the way things areaccount for the way things are Behavior has specific causes which may or may not be Behavior has specific causes which may or may not be

known precisely, but whatever behavior is exhibited it known precisely, but whatever behavior is exhibited it has an has an theoreticallytheoretically identifiable root identifiable root– Biological, social etc.Biological, social etc.

Whether or not all psychologists engage in science, Whether or not all psychologists engage in science, the discipline of psychology (and its history) can not the discipline of psychology (and its history) can not be discussed without reference to its own scientific be discussed without reference to its own scientific pursuits and those which influenced itpursuits and those which influenced it

The problems of The problems of psychologypsychology Determining human natureDetermining human nature How are mind and body related? How are mind and body related? What are the roles of nature and What are the roles of nature and

nurture?nurture? Determinism vs. Free willDeterminism vs. Free will How are we related to other How are we related to other

species?species? Objectivism vs. relativism- what is Objectivism vs. relativism- what is

true?true?

Determining human Determining human naturenature What is universally true about What is universally true about

humans?humans? Many Greek philosophers we will Many Greek philosophers we will

discuss offer differing views of discuss offer differing views of human naturehuman nature

How are mind and How are mind and body related? body related? MonistsMonists

– believe in only one view, either believe in only one view, either materialist or idealistmaterialist or idealist

DualistDualist– believe that there is both physical believe that there is both physical

events and mental eventsevents and mental events– the question then is, how are they the question then is, how are they

related?related?

How are mind and How are mind and body related?body related? MonismMonism MaterialistsMaterialists

– matter is only realitymatter is only reality– Most scientistsMost scientists

IdealistsIdealists– everything consists of ideas, the everything consists of ideas, the

nonphysical mind.nonphysical mind.– E.g. BerkeleyE.g. Berkeley

How are mind and How are mind and body related?body related? Types of dualismTypes of dualism InteractionismInteractionism

– mind and body interact.mind and body interact. EpiphenomenalismEpiphenomenalism

– mental processes are by-products of brain processes.mental processes are by-products of brain processes. Psychophysical parallelismPsychophysical parallelism

– environmental events cause both mental events and environmental events cause both mental events and behavior simultaneously, but they are independent of behavior simultaneously, but they are independent of each other.each other.

Double aspectismDouble aspectism– humans cannot be divided into mind and body, a unity humans cannot be divided into mind and body, a unity

of experience. Two aspects of the same person.of experience. Two aspects of the same person. OccasionalismOccasionalism

– suggests that when a desire occurs in the mind, God suggests that when a desire occurs in the mind, God causes the body to act, when events happen to the causes the body to act, when events happen to the body, God causes the corresponding mental body, God causes the corresponding mental experience.experience.

Free will vs. Free will vs. determinismdeterminism DeterminismDeterminism

– all behavior has causal explanations.all behavior has causal explanations.– Biological determinismBiological determinism

emphasizes importance of physiological and/or genetic emphasizes importance of physiological and/or genetic predispositions in explanation of behavior.predispositions in explanation of behavior.

– Environmental determinismEnvironmental determinism emphasizes importance of environmental stimuli as emphasizes importance of environmental stimuli as

determinants of behavior.determinants of behavior.– Sociocultural determinismSociocultural determinism

emphasizes cultural or societal rules, regulations, customs, emphasizes cultural or societal rules, regulations, customs, and beliefs in explanations of behavior. and beliefs in explanations of behavior.

Some determinists explain behavior as an interaction Some determinists explain behavior as an interaction of biological, environmental, and sociocultural of biological, environmental, and sociocultural factors.factors.

Common characteristic of these three determinisms Common characteristic of these three determinisms is that the determinants are measurable – physical is that the determinants are measurable – physical determinism.determinism.

Indeterminism vs. Indeterminism vs. nondeterminismnondeterminism IndeterminsmIndeterminsm

– human behavior may be determined but human behavior may be determined but the causes cannot (ever) be accurately the causes cannot (ever) be accurately measured.measured.

NondeterminismNondeterminism– some researchers reject science as a way some researchers reject science as a way

of studying humans of studying humans – Human behavior is freely chosen, self-Human behavior is freely chosen, self-

generated generated – Humans have free willHumans have free will

The problem of the The problem of the selfself Who are we?Who are we? How is this notion constructed?How is this notion constructed? How does it maintain continuity?How does it maintain continuity? How is it impacted by the outside How is it impacted by the outside

world?world?

Universalism vs. Universalism vs. relativismrelativism

UniversalismUniversalism– goal is to describe general laws and goal is to describe general laws and

principles that govern the world and principles that govern the world and human behavior, universal truths to be human behavior, universal truths to be discovered.discovered.

RelativismRelativism– universal truths either do not exist or, if universal truths either do not exist or, if

they do, they cannot be knownthey do, they cannot be known– Humans influence what they observe, Humans influence what they observe,

thus, the search for universal truths thus, the search for universal truths independent of human existence is in vainindependent of human existence is in vain

– Truth is relative to the individual’s Truth is relative to the individual’s perspectives, no ultimate truth just truthsperspectives, no ultimate truth just truths

SummarySummary

As we will see, these themes and As we will see, these themes and problems, some of which have existed problems, some of which have existed thousands of years, will surface time thousands of years, will surface time and againand again– Sometimes with little change, though maybe Sometimes with little change, though maybe

new ‘versions’new ‘versions’ Your goal is to solve all these problems Your goal is to solve all these problems

by the end of the semesterby the end of the semester– A if you doA if you do– F if you don’tF if you don’t