Forensic archaeology has evolved over the last 20 years and is now an established field, whichprovides a crucial contribution to criminalinvestigations. Evidence from forensic archaeologicalinvestigation has proved decisive in many trials.Forensic archaeology is only made possible by theapplication of archaeological research methods.

What is forensic archaeology?Forensic archaeology is the application oftechniques and methodologies, originally developedfor the purposes of archaeological research,specifically to aid legal investigations. In the UK,forensic archaeologists are archaeology facultymembers employed to work with a search team tohelp locate and excavate buried evidence at acrime scene. They also play an important role incoordinating and integrating with experts in otherforensic fields, such as forensic entomologists,forensic botanists and forensic pathologists. Thediscipline provides an important service to societyin uncovering and resolving the events of a crimeor disposal site.

Forensic archaeologists will draw on their researchexpertise in order to identify and answer a uniqueset of questions for each target. The circumstancesof each investigation vary considerably and animportant aspect of a forensic archaeologists workrequires asking the right questions to resolve theparticular circumstances of the crime. For example:How was the grave dug? Is there foreign materialin the grave? What is the identity of this person?How long has the body been buried and how canwe tell?

It is important to collect as much evidence aspossible as there is only one opportunity and oftenlimited time to excavate. A forensic archaeologistwill therefore devise and lead a specific strategy to optimise the available evidence, advising onappropriate methods or sequences of methods to apply in searching and in recovery. In this way

archaeological techniques can be used to discernevents prior to or around the time of death of thevictim, gain information about the circumstancesof burial, manner of death and the tools used forinterment, and thus assist in identifying the thirdparty responsible for the crime.

Before the development of forensic archaeology inthe late 1980s, it was common for police to dig upgraves hurriedly in pursuit of evidence. Yet sincethen forensic archaeology has developed into adiscipline in its own right and is widely acceptedinternationally. Recent high profile cases includeinvestigations at the former Childrens Home inJersey, and at the house fire in Shropshire wherearchaeologists were deployed to recover evidence.The subject has developed significant researchagendas, notably in geophysics, in taphonomics,and in GIS and landscape analysis. It also integrateswith behavioural sciences (eg offender profiling).

Forensic archaeology foci The main types of focus for forensic archaeologicalinvestigations are as follows:

Potential gravesites: forensic archaeologists helpto locate gravesites, for example in the case of aclandestine burial

Surface body disposals: such as bodies hidden inwoodland or covered with materials but notproperly buried, or dislocated skeletal remains

Buried items: such as personal effects from anoffence or potential offence, such as firearms,drugs, or contraband

Mass graves: recovered through UN investigationsinto war crimes (e.g. former Yugoslavia or Iraq)

Civil cases: such as identifying markers (e.g. buried walls) in boundary disputes

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How forensic archaeology uncovers the truth about the past

Forensic archaeology methodsand related disciplinesInvestigations: some of the main methods areas follows:

Stratigraphy: sequential uncovering of layers ofearth and the excavation of test sites identifiesmaterial remains in relation to relevant strataand shows the context of each find. This isimportant in drawing conclusions regarding theformation and dating of a buried environmentwhere a person may lie.

Surveying is a method used by fieldarchaeologists to collect information about thelocation and distribution of evidence of pastcultures. It can also be used to record multiplepoints, and can be used to reconstruct graves andtheir contexts in three dimensions.

Aerial photography and satellite imagery,including thermal imaging, can be used to show the changes in vegetation, shadow or soil marks that can indicate a suspect site.These can then be followed up by detailedinvestigation on the ground.

Geophysical prospection: electrical, magnetic andelectro-magnetic methods are used to identifyburied walls and other archaeological features.Methodologies are now being developed toimprove the effectiveness of this for theidentification of both single and mass graves.

Environmental profiling: this can includepalynology which can identify a specificenvironment where an offence occurred,and entymology which can be used to indicate the interval since death.

Osteoarchaeology: the study of human boneswhich can determine features such as the age,sex, stature and ethnicity of remains andindicate states of trauma during life.

Forensic taphonomy: originally developed in the field of palaeontology to explain how and why extinct animals became fossilised andpreserved. This is the study of the process of,and timeframe of, decomposition and examinesthe decay, dispersal and erosion of remains after death according to immediateenvironmental conditions.

Stable isotopes: isotope ratios reflect thechemical make up of food and drink a person has consumed during their lifetime. Thistechnique can be used to determine the likelygeological origins of the individual.

The uses of forensic archaeologyOver the last 20 years forensic archaeology hasplayed a significant role in the criminal justicesystem. Its practitioners have provided evidencethat has supported criminal prosecutions and led tothe conviction of offenders. Archaeological evidencewas first used in a UK Crown Court in 1988 andhas since been recognised in War Crime Tribunalsand at the International Criminal Count (ICC) atThe Hague.

In a number of UK cases, successful prosecutionswould not have been obtained without thesubmission of archaeological evidence, someoffenders would not have been convicted andjustice would not have been achieved. Moreover,the increasing use of DNA evidence now meansthat murder convictions can be achieved withoutthe body being recovered. Archaeologists are alsonow used for social purposes to assist in locatingsuch remains (cold cases) even although there isno legal requirement to do so, in order to repatriatevictims to their families.

The importance of forensic archaeology also lies inthe investigation and recovery of mass grave sitesfrom massacres, genocides and war crimes. ManyNGOs and international organisations employforensic archaeologists in the recovery of missingpersons. These organisations include theInternational Commission on Missing Persons(ICMP), the International Committee of the RedCross (ICRS) and the Inforce Foundation. This typeof work plays an important role in the peaceprocess in post-conflict, transitional societies wherereconciliation is aided by resolving the uncertaintyregarding the fate of the disappeared. The work ofthese organisations includes training people fromthe area in the forensic archaeological methods toundertake their own investigations. This type ofinvestigation is also increasingly developing a rolein disaster victim identification (DVI). Thesemethods are applied to recover the bodies ofvictims of natural disasters such as the tsunami inSouth East Asia in 2004, and hurricane Katrina thatdevastated the US state of Louisiana in 2005.

1972 First use of the termbioarchaeology by theBritish archaeologist, GrahameClarke.

1977 Recognition of the field ofOsteoarchaeology by USarchaeologist, Jane Bukistra.

Late 1980s Increasing police interestin the use of forensicarchaeology.

1988 First evidence from forensicarchaeology used in a crowncourt.

Mid 1990s Regular use of forensicarchaeology in policeinvestigations.

1996 International Commission onMissing Persons set up byPresident Clinton at the G7Summit in Lyon.

1999 Council for the Registration ofForensic Practitioners set up inthe UK to promote publicconfidence in forensic practice,including forensic archaeology.

2001 The NGO Inforce set up in theUK for the scientific location,identification and recovery ofvictims of war crimes.

Forensic archaeology timeline