How Important is Deliberate Practice - Macnamara et al

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How Important is Deliberate Practice? Reply toEricsson (2016)

Article in Perspectives on Psychological Science March 2016

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Brooke N Macnamara

Case Western Reserve University

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David Moreau

University of Auckland

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Perspectives on Psychological Science2016, Vol. 11(3) 355358 The Author(s) 2016Reprints and permissions:sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navDOI: 10.1177/1745691616635614

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We thank Anders Ericsson for his commentary onMacnamara, Moreau, and Hambrick (2016). In this meta-analysis, we found that deliberate practice, though impor-tant, left a large amount of variance in sports performanceunexplained. Thus, we concluded that deliberate practiceis not as important as Ericsson and colleagues haveargued. In his commentary, Ericsson (2016, this issue)

rejects our conclusion, claiming that our methods wereflawed. We credit Ericsson for his influential work; how-ever, as before (see Hambrick et al., 2014), his evaluationof our research is undermined by contradictions andinconsistencies in his arguments.

Most notably, Ericsson (2016) claims we deviated fromhis definition of deliberate practice as training designed bya teacher. Yet, he previously explained that deliberate prac-tice does not need to be designed by a teacher. Ericsson(1998) stated, Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Rmer (1993)proposed the term deliberate practice to refer to thosetraining activities that were designed solely for the purpose

of improving individuals performance by a teacher or theperformers themselves (p. 84, emphasis added; see alsoKeith & Ericsson, 2007). Moreover, in several of his ownstudies, we could find no record that participants wereinstructed to restrict deliberate practice estimates to teacher-designed activities (e.g., Duffy, Baluch, & Ericsson, 2004;Ericsson et al., 1993). Accordingly, we allowed that deliber-ate practice could be designed by a teacher/coach or theperformers themselves.

As another example, Ericsson (2016) criticizes usfor including studies that used categorical expertise

measures (e.g., selection to national team) rather thanobjective measures, as well as studies that measuredgroup activities. Yet, he has repeatedly used someof these very studies to argue for the importance of delib-erate practice (e.g., Helsen, Starkes, & Hodges, 1998;Hodges & Starkes, 1996; see Ericsson, 1998, 2006;Ericsson, Nandagopal, & Roring, 2005; Keith & Ericsson,

2007). Furthermore, compared with the overall averagevariance explained by deliberate practice (18%; Fig. 1a),results were similar for studies that used objective perfor-mance measures (20%; Fig. 1b) and studies that mea-sured individual (non-group) practice (22%; Fig. 1c).

Ericsson (2016) further argues that our approacheswould converge more if we analyzed yearly estimates ofhours (p. 353) of practice. Yet, his major conclusionsabout the importance of deliberate practice are based onaccumulated estimates (e.g., Duffy et al., 2004; Ericssonet al., 1993; Hutchinson, Sachs-Ericsson, & Ericsson,2013). This focus dictated ours.

Finally, defining an expert musician as someonewho had competed in national competitions with goodoutcomes (p. 4), Ericsson (2016) argues that results ofHambrick and Tucker-Drobs (2014) and Mosing,Madison, Pedersen, Kuja-Halkola, and Ullns (2014)

5614PPSXXX10.1177/1745691616635614Macnamara etal.Reply to Ericsson (2016)

Corresponding Author:

Brooke N. Macnamara, Case Western Reserve University, Departmentof Psychological Sciences, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland,

OH 44106-7123

E-mail: [email protected]

How Important Is Deliberate Practice?Reply to Ericsson (2016)

Brooke N. Macnamara1, David Z. Hambrick2, andDavid Moreau31Case Western Reserve University, 2Michigan State University, and 3University of Auckland

AbstractEricsson and colleagues view that individual differences in expertise can largely be accounted for by accumulateddeliberate practice is not supported by the available empirical evidence. Extending earlier work (Macnamara,Hambrick, & Oswald, 2014), we found that deliberate practice accounted for a sizeable amount of variance in sports

performance (18%), but it left a much larger amount unexplained. Ericssons (2016, this issue) evaluation of ourresearch is undercut by contradictions, omissions, and errors. We agree with Ericsson that future longitudinal researchwill deepen understanding of expertise, but our goal was to evaluate the importance of deliberate practice based onexisting evidence.

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356 Macnamara et al.

behavioral-genetic studies cannot be generalized to

expert musicians (p. 352) because the samples includedamateurs. Yet, he refers to the skilled bowlers in Harris(2008) studywho were amateursas experts. More-over, Ericsson and Charness (1994) proposed that some-one need only perform two standard deviations abovethe population mean to be considered an expert. Fora theory to be falsifiable, definitions must be usedconsistently.

Other Issues

Ericssons (2016) evaluation of our research is furtherundermined by omissions and errors. For example, hecriticizes us for including nine effect sizes for compositesthat were not even pure estimates of different types ofpractice, [but] included hours for play and competi-tion (p. 352). He fails, though, to mention our report thatthe deliberate practiceperformance relationship was

Fig. 1. Average proportion of variance in sports performance explained by deliberate practice (light gray region) for (a) all the studies inthe meta-analysis (63 effect sizes), (b) the 10 studies that used an objective measure of performance (15 effect sizes), (c) the 10 studies thatmeasured individual practice (no group practice; 14 effect sizes), and (d) the 26 studies that did not use a composite measure that includedcompetition and/or play-like activities (53 effect sizes; Ericsson, 2016, states that 9 of 52 effect sizes were based on this type of composite;it was 10 of 63, see Open Data at osf.io/r5qjw).

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Reply to Ericsson (2016) 357

virtually unchanged with these effect sizes excluded(18% to 17%; Fig. 1d). (The composites consisted of mul-tiple activities interpretable as deliberate practice; hencetheir inclusion in the main meta-analysis.)

Ericsson (2016) further claims that for one study weonly included the nonsignificant correlation with totalsum of all practice (Young, 1998) and disregarded thesignificant correlations with specialized training activities(Young & Salmela, 2010) (p. 353). Ericsson is mistaken:We included the effect size for the measure Young (1998)labeled as deliberate practicenot the total sum of allpracticeand we excluded Young and Salmelas (2010)study because their sample was a subset of Youngs(1998). We did not, as Ericsson contends, sum up virtu-ally any type of sports-specific activity (p. 351).

Ericsson (2016) also criticizes us for excluding aneffect size from Law, Ct, and Ericsson (2007). However,as we explained, that effect size fell outside the validrange for correlations (r> 1.0); we also reported supple-

mental analyses retaining it, and the results are virtuallyunchanged (Macnamara et al., 2016; Table S2). Finally,Ericsson implies that we did not include an effect size forcoach-led instruction from Baker, Ct, and Abernethy(2003). In fact, we did (d= .99 from Baker et al.s Table3). Our data file is openly available at osf.io/r5qjw, withall effect sizes and descriptions of measures.

Conclusion

The available evidence indicates that deliberate practice,though undeniably important, does not largely accountfor individual differences in expertise. Building onEricssons pioneering work, the task now is to developtheories of expertise that include multiple factors.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared that they had no conflicts of interest withrespect to their authorship or the publication of this article.

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(Masters thesis). Masters Abstracts International. Universityof Ottawa. (URI No. 10393/8607)

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