Human Performance Revision Slides 2011

8/17/2019 Human Performance Revision Slides 2011

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Diploma in Aviation Medicine:Human Performance

Revision June 11


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Objectives of Aviation Psycholoy

! to enhance fliht safety

! to improve effectiveness


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"hy is #here $nterest in Human Performance in Aviation%

! Aviation is a safety&critical operation! Aircre' are subjected to many sources of stress! Hih levels of human performance must be achieved (e))* fast jet pilots+! Human error is heavily implicated in aviation accidents

Main fatal accident causes in 1994

Accident cause Accidents (%) Fatalities (%)

Air crew error

Controlled Flight into Terrain

Weather Loss of Control

Engine FailureFire

!tructural!"ste# Failure

$

&'

& 14

1$

11

$

4&

*4 &4

'

1&


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,-uipment. tas/s

,nvironment

Other personnel

Humanoperator

#he Human in the Aviation 0ystem


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ontent of Human Performance Module

General Principles

! $ntroduction to Human Performance Module

! 2undamentals of Human Performance

! $ndividual Differences

! 0ocial Psycholoy and Aviation

! A small amount of basic theory to help you to

interpret the practical studies


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New this year!

! An early session on human error

! 3to provide a conte4t for the module


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Personal & Environmental Factors

0tress . "or/load in Aviation $0tress . "or/load in Aviation $$

Perceptual $ssues in Aviation

0ituation A'areness

0election of Aviation Personnel


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Training and Simulation

0imulation and #rainin

2undamentals of RM #rainin

Practical Aspects of RM . 5O2#


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Systems Factors

Aviation ,ronomics $

Aviation ,ronomics $$


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#he Human 2actor in Aviation Accidents

0eminar: 2liht 0afety

6 Prof Peter Jorna* former head of division at 75R

Amsterdam

Also an accident module at Henlo'* providin a conte4t

for this module0ee also lectures on 0leep* 2atiue and 0hift&"or/in


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,-uipment. tas/s

,nvironment

Other personnel

Humanoperator

#he Human in the Aviation 0ystem: Relevance of Module #opics

0election$ndividual

Differences


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,-uipment. tas/s

,nvironment

Other personnel

Humanoperator


,ronomics

"or/load

#echnical

#rainin


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,-uipment. tas/s

,nvironment

Other personnel

Humanoperator


0tressPerception


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,-uipment. tas/s

,nvironment

Other personnel

Humanoperator


RM #rainin


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,-uipment. tas/s

,nvironment

Other personnel

Humanoperator


80ituation

A'areness9and 8Human

,rror9 encompass

all these interactions


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Human $nformation Processin


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Cognition

Processes involved in the input* storae* transformation* andoutput of information by humans

Main topics

! Memory

! ttention

! S"ills


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Memory

#hree major memory systems:

! 0ensory memory

! 0hort&term memory

! 5on&term memory


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0ummary of properties of memory systems (inferred from classice4periments on memory+ learn this

0ensory 0hort&term 5on&term

apacity Hih ;±< chun/s no /no'nlimit

Duration 1 sec 1=&1> sec permanent%

#ype of storae Physical acoustic semanticcharacteristics

7ature of retrieval parallel serial hierarchy%

7ature of forettin decay?mas/ininterference failure of retrieval


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Attention

Selective attention attend to one of several competin sources ofinformation

#ivided attention attempt to attend to more than one information sourceor tas/ at the same time


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Shadowing tas"an detect physical chanes on the unattended channel* but not semantic content

#ichotic listening tas"

Performance very poor 0ubjects tended to oranise their recall by ear* not by recency of presentation

5ed @roadbent to propose Filter Theory) @ut* later sho'n that! subjects tend to hear their o'n name on the unattended channel! subjects tend to follo' the messae* even if it s'itches ears! hence* there is semantic processin on the unattended channel

Ho'ever* 'e can assume that reconition of unattended information isless li/ely than reconition of attended material

Ma/e sure that you understand this


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Divided attention

ey -uestion:

Does man have a sinle information&processin channel(all tas/s compete for the same 8resources9 or 8capacity9+

or

specialised resources for particular types of activity% (tas/s performed concurrently compete only if they dra' upon

the same resources+


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0ome support for the multiple resource theory: often* the deree of tas/ interference depends upon the similarity of the tas/s

@ut: sometimes tas/s that are dissimilar are found to interfere

@addeley9s 'or/in memory modelis a compromise bet'een e4tremesinle&channel and multiple&resourcevie's

entral ,4ecutive

Bisuo&spatialscratchpad

Articulatory loop


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0/ills (obviously relevant to trainin lectures+haracteristics! typically a se-uence of activities

! oal&directed behaviour ! use of feedbac/

0/ill ac-uisition

#hree phases are sometimes distinuished:

! ,arly or conitive phase! $ntermediate or associative phase! 2inal or autonomous phase

$n the final phase* behaviour becomes automaticC deleated to thecontrol of 8motor prorams9 that do not re-uire conscious attention

and do not place heavy demands for mental resources

Many everyday errors (actions not as planned+ are associated 'ithoverlearned behaviour #hese errors involve 'ell&practised behaviour* but are inappropriate0ome aircre' errors are of this type


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$ssues in s/ill ac-uisition

! "hole versus part learnin

! Massed versus spaced learnin

! #ransfer of trainin very important aspect of simulator&based trainin


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$ndividual #i%%erences


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#'o major types of individual difference covered:

$ntellience?ability?aptitude

Personality

2actor Analysis:ma/e sure that you have a ood intuitive

rasp of this: you don9t need to /no' the underlyin

mathematics

@asic psychometric criteria


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$ntellience?ability?aptitude #hese are the /ey issues

$ntellience: $nnate or learned%

$ntellience: Ho' many abilities%

! #here is evidence for a eneral ability factor ! Ho'ever* specific abilities also appear to e4ist

$ntellience: #he $ntellience uotient ($+

Aptitudes

#est 2airness

$ntellience: Are $ tests valid%


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Personality /ey issues

#ypes of personality test: $ntervie' (not reliable+ Projective tests Personality -uestionnaires

(discussed e4amples of each+

$s there a 8pilot personality9%

Does personality influence success in flyin trainin%

$s there an 8accident&prone9 personality9%


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Social Psychology


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#ypes of social influence (can use this info for RM -uestions+

Compliance: behaviour consistent 'ith direct re-uest! foot&in&the&door phenomenon! door&in&the&face phenomenon Con%ormity: behaviour consistent 'ith roup norms! siEe of roup (up to about four+! attractiveness and status of roup members! $nformational influence (trustin others9 judements+ and normative

influence (see/in roup acceptance+ 'edience to authority ! Milram e4periment! FG of the = subjects administered shoc/s to the hihest level! factors affectin obedience* such as status of e4perimenter*

pro4imity to 8student9

#hin/ about ho' this applies to small roups of interest to us*such as fliht cre' or teams of maintenance enineers


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Group #ecision Ma"ing Polarisation

! "as thouht that roup decision ma/in 'as more ris/y

than individual DM (8ris/y shift9+ I but became apparent

that there is a shift in the direction of the pole that* on

averae* the roup favours as individuals (polarisation+

! 0toner9s e4periments

! 7ormative and informational influences produce roup

polarisation


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Group #ecision Ma"ing Groupthin"! "or/ of Janis) @ased on real&life e4amples such as @ay of Pis (or* more

recently* MPs9 e4penses+! Desire for consensus overrides roup members9 motivation to assess ris/

and consider alternative courses of action

! Kroupthin/ occurs under the follo'in conditions:! Hih cohesiveness of the roup! ncertainty of approval! $nsulation of the roup! Directive leadership! Hih stress situations

! 0ymptoms include! $llusion of invulnerability! 0tereotypes of out&roup! 8Minduards9! Direct pressure on dissenters! ollective rationalisation

! ,ffects on decision ma/in:! $ncomplete survey of alternatives! $ncomplete survey of objectives! $ncomplete analysis of ris/s associated 'ith course of action! 7o continency plans


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eronautical #ecision Ma"ing (#M)! "or/ of Jensen: decision error is cause of most fatal aviation accidentsC

arued that decision ma/in can be improved throuh trainin

! Decisions have t'o components:! Rational judement (8Head'or/9+! Motivational judement (8Attitudes9+

! HaEardous attitudes:! Anti&authority! Resination! $mpulsivity! $nvulnerability! Macho

! ADM courses aim to provide:! Ability to reconise haEardous attitudes

! no'lede of effects of these attitudes! 0/ills to overcome the effects

! Methods! 0elf assessment tools! ,4amination of case studies! Practical ,4ercises


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Perceptual $ssues in Aviation


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Perception is the process o% ac*uiring+ selecting+ and organising

sensory in%ormation

#he most important perceptual processes for aviation are those associated

'ith vision and hearin

1 #he ear and the auditory system

6 balance and the vestibular system

6 localisation of sound and identification of source

< #he visual system

6 bottom&up processin

6 top&do'n processin

6 cues to depth perception


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#he ear and the auditory system

@alance) #he vestibular system of the inner eardetects anular and linear accelerations of the head

Hearin) #o detect sounds* to determine the location

of their sources and to recognise the identity of thesesources

#he ear serves t'o main functions:


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Practical implications

@alance and the vestibular system

Accelerating aircraft

#he situation is aravated if the pilot attempts to compensate for an

incorrect percept) Althouh feedbac/ from the vestibular system can

be compellin* a pilot needs to learn to trust instrumentation)

"ith reard to the otolith* the 'eiht force in a climbin aircraftoperates similarly to the resultant force in an acceleratin aircraft)

"ithout visual feedbac/* pilots can mista/e acceleration for pitch)

Ascending

aircraft

Weight force

+nertia force

,esultant

θ

θ


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5ocalisation of soundAuditory perception

$nteraural differences:

!Intensity. Most suited to localisin

hih fre-uencies

!Time/phase) Most suited to

localisin lo' fre-uencies)

0ounds emanatin from directly in front and behind

the head produce the same interaural differences)


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Practical implicationsCoc"pit design

6 #he coc/pit relies heavily on the presentation of

visual information) Adoption of auditory sinals may

reduce the 'or/load e4perienced by pilots in the

visual domain)

,ocalisation o% auditory warnings

6 0imilar soundin 'arnins emanatin from similar

areas may cause confusion

6 Adoption of 'hite noise bursts 'ithin ambulance

sirens

Auditory perception


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"hat you see is 'hat you et%Bisual modality is obviously e4tremely important in aviation) @ut can 'e al'ays trustour eyes%

#he visual scene is captured by the eye as a poor -uality* t'o&dimensional

representation

"hat is perceived is determined by:

8@ottom&up9 processes) #he percept of a stimulus is determined by features of the

stimulus as processed by the visual corte4

8#op&do'n9 processes) #he interpretation (consciously or not+ of a stimulus can be

determined by our e4perience and /no'lede

$mportant distinction

Bisual perception


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$% the percept is generated

deterministically ('ottom-up

processing) %rom the visual

corte. / / /

/ / / how can one distal (realworld) stimulus produce two

percepts0

1y a mental model ur owne.perience and e.pectations

help to determine what we see

(top-down processing)

Old or young women?

Thirteen or ‘B’?Necker cube

incoln or women?

#op&do'n processesBisual perception


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onverence 6 o% the eyes/

0tereopsis

6 disparity 'etween the

two images/

Accommodation 6 o% the lens/

Retinal versus actual siEe

6 %or "nown o'2ects/

Overlap

6 a near o'2ect willocclude the view o% a

%ar o'2ect/

Position in visual field 6 o'2ects nearer the hori3on

are %arther away/

Aerial Perspective

6 clarity o% o'2ects is reduced

at distance/ Relative motion

6 angular velocity greater %or

near o'2ects/

All re-uire both bottom&up . top&do'n

processin)

Depth perception: learn thisBisual perception


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! Position in visual %ield

! objects nearer the horiEon are farther

a'ay

! Te.tual Gradient

! 0urfaces 'ill have a finer te4ture 'ith

distance

! Stereopsis

! @inocular disparity bet'een the t'o

imaes

! Convergence

! of the eyes

! cclusion! a near object 'ill occlude the vie' of a

far object

! Perceptual constancy

! Retinal versus actual siEe

!4elative motion

! anular velocity reater for near objects

! All re-uire both bottom&up . top&do'n

processin)

Ho' 'e perceive depth

-now this


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Featureless sur%aces+ or those with te.tures o% un"nownsi3es+ can produce inaccurate 2udgements o% si3e/

6 Sea/

6 1eehives %or caravans/

Can produce an inaccurate mental model o% the situation

which overrides the correct perception o% the instruments/

6 Top-down in%luences/

6 E.acer'ated 'y %atigue and wor"load/

0ome perceptual problemsBisual perception


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Pilots may have to visually 2udge the glide slope without

any cues other than those %rom the sur%ace o% the world/

The 5aspect6 (retinal shape) o% the runway is not very use%ul/

7owever+ the !isual touchdown point is a constant and

unchanging cue+ relative to the hori3on/

$% the hori3on cannot 'e seen+ its location must 'e implied+

6 The runway6s sides meet at the hori3on/

6 The terrain6s te.ture gradients/ 6 The relative position o% the aircra%t6s canopy/

Practical implications: visual approach

Bisual perception: /no' the practical implications (ne4t fe' slides+


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Visualtouchdownpoint

HORIZON

A

B

Angle of Approach A = B

Practical implications: visual approach (


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θ = angle of

approach

Visualimpactpoint

Α

Actualtouchdownpoint

Β

Practical implications: visual approach (L+

Bisual perception


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$denti%ication o% a colliding aircra%t is con%ounded 'y8 6 Constant relative 'earing/

! "ni#ue characteristic.

! $eriphery o% retina detects sensiti!e to mo!ement.

6 Non-linear increase in retinal si3e/

! &etinal image doubles with each hal!ing o% closure

distance.

6 9neven visual acuity across the retina/

! 'a(imal acuity at the %o!ea.

! )etection only i% pilot is looking directly at it.! Implications %or !isual scanning to ac#uire pro(imal

image on the %o!ea.

Practical implications: mid&air collisions

Bisual perception


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θ

Aircraft A

Impact

θ Aircraft B R e l a

t i v e B e a r

i n g

Practical implications: mid&air collisions (


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secs ! "#$ degree

%#$ secs ! % degree

"#% secs ! V&R' BI(

Practical implications: mid&air collisions (L+

Bisual perception


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@ottom&up (information from our senses+ and top&do'n (e4pectationsand e4periences+ processes affect the 'ay 'e perceive the 'orld)

#he resultant perception is often not a true reflection of the e4ternal

'orld)

#his can be advantaeous 'hen it is in our interest for differencesbet'een features in the e4ternal 'orld to be e4aerated but potentially

catastrophic 'hen perceptual illusions lead us to ta/e inappropriate

behaviour)

0ummaryPerception


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Ergonomics

:hy 5Ergonomics60 ; Murrell


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#he H0$ 2rame'or/ 6 seven domains 6 Manpo'er

6 Personnel

6 #rainin 6 Human 2actors ,nineerin (a/a ,ronomics+

! "or/place desin

! Anthropometry

! ritical Dimensions

6 0ystem 0afety

6 Health HaEards 6 0ocial . Oranisational

H0$ often called Human 2actors $nteration (H2$+ 6 H2$ is reallythe process by 'hich H0$ is applied to e-uipment procurement

0ome people adopt a strict

definition of eronomicsC

others treat all of H0$ asbein 'ithin the scope of

eronomics) ou 'ould not

be penalised for adoptin

the latter definition


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#raic conse-uences

-egworth.!! /incennes

0erald of Free Enterrise

Cherno2"l

Three Mile +sland


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7S$ #omains


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7uman Factors Engineering

(a"a Ergonomics)

focused on the interation of human characteristics into system

definition* desin* development* and evaluation to optimise

human machine performance under operational conditions)


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"or/places . interfaces

oc/pits"or/stations

ontrol rooms

Offices

#ransport systems

2actories

ontrolsDisplays

omputer hard'are

omputer soft'are

Protective clothin

Other people


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Physical 'or/place desin

$nputs re*uired %rom

6 E7F

6 Tas" analysis

6 ,in" analysis

6 llocation o% %unction

Consider

6 perational and environmental conte.t 6 7uman dimensions

6 1iomechanics and physiology


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2unctional factors

Tas" issues 6 Procedures 6 Critical elements

4esponsi'ilities o% organisation and individuals Communications

6 >er'al 6 Non-ver'al

>isual issues+ such as sight lines Flows o% materials and personnel ccess and clearance

6 Normal 6 Emergency 6 Maintenance

Protection 6 Protective clothing & e*uipment 6 1arriers & guards


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Anthropometry Physical human dimensions

Population specific

5inear dimensions* for e4ample:

6 0tature

6 2unctional reach

6 0ittin heiht Kirth dimensions* for e4ample:

6 "aist

6 Head circumference

,ach dimension is e4pressed in terms of percentile


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@e careful 'ith percentiles 'hen applyin

anthropometry

4e*uirements o%ten state ?must accommodate

the @th percentile and the A@th percentile

human?

1ut+ these people do NT e.ist!


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ritical dimensions

hoose dimensions relevant to the 'or/station*

posture* and tas/

6 0ittin* standin* reach* fit* 'al/in* crouchin

>th percentile (smaller+ dimensions considered for:

6 0eat adjustment* reach* vision* control movement* foot

rests

N>th percentile (larer+ dimensions considered for:

6 0eat adjustment* inress* fit* access* clearance


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lothin

lothin increases most dimensions throuh the

addition of bul/

6 e)) stature* sittin heiht* chest depth* shoulder

breadth

@ut

Decreases the reach dimensions due to restriction of

movement

6 e)) functional reach* vertical functional reach


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"hen to interate Human 2actors

(Eurocontrol3 1999)


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H0$ Desined to 2it MoD9s Ac-uisition Operatin

2rame'or/ (AO2+ Policy and Kood Practice

C#M$# cycle

System 4eadiness ,evels(#EF STN BB-@B/ May BBD8 http==www/ao%/mod/u" 8 www/h%idtc/com )

Mo# SP to 'e introduced later this year

Concet Assess#ent e#onstration Manufacture +n ser5ice isosal

+nitial 6ate Main 6ate !"ste# Accetance

0as now haened

http://www.aof.mod.uk/http://www.hfidtc.com/http://www.hfidtc.com/http://www.aof.mod.uk/


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0ummary

H0$ covers all aspects of applied human factors

Human 2actors ,nineerin is just one element that

needs to be interated

H0$ comprises tools and processes that fit 'ith

systems enineerin

H0$ is 'idely applicable

,arly inclusion is so much better than late

intervention


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0tress and "or/load


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#ypes of stress

! 5ife stress less important than the others in this conte4t* but be a'are of it

! ,nvironmental stress

! onitive stress


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5ife stress

#ypically measured by -uestionnaire

0ome correlation bet'een -uestionnaire scores and illness

0ome evidence that life stress is associated 'ith accidents

er/es&Dodson la': no' this


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5evel of arousal

Performance

er/es&Dodson la': no' this

$nverted relation bet'een arousal and performance

Performance declines as arousal increases or decreasesfrom the optimal level

#he optimal arousal level is inversely related to tas/difficulty

Difficult

tas/

,asy

tas/

,nvironmentalstress

-now this


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2ear ! disruption of manual de4terity! disruption of secondary tas/ performance

7oise! reater effect on difficult tas/s! effect on error ! increased attentional selectivity! effect on arousal (increases initially* then returns to normal+

0leep loss! periodic lapses! decreased attentional selectivity! reater decrement on 8easy9 tas/s! decreased arousal

Hypo4ia! performance affected at over 1=*=== ft! some evidence that tas/ learnin is affected at only Q*=== ft

ombined stressors0leep loss and noise each impair performance in isolationHo'ever* noise improves the performance of sleep&deprived individuals


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Patterns of effects of stressors (from Hoc/ey+

0tressor Arousal 0electivity 0peed Accuracy 0#M

7oise = & & An4iety = & &$ncentive 0timulants = &Heat = & = Alcohol & & & &0leep loss & & & & =2atiue& & & =Depressants & & & & &

increase

& decrease= no effect

no need to memorise all this* but /no' that each stressor has its ownpattern o% e%%ects (cannot be e4plained by er/es&Dodson la'+


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Personality and stressno' this

#'o major dimensionsof personality are:neuroticism (trait an.iety)introversion-e.traversion

$ntroverts are chronically over&aroused,4traverts are chronically under&aroused

An arousin stressor (caffeine+ has different effects on these individuals

#rait an4iety comprises 'orry and emotionality

"orry appears to interfere 'ith tas/ performancePerformance of hih&an4iety subjects impaired under hih 'or/load

,vidence that personality influences success in flyin trainin


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$s the er/es&Dodson la' ade-uate% no' this

2or:

! an e4plain effects of combined stressors

! an e4plain some effects of personality

! an e4plain some effects of tas/ difficulty (e)) reater effect of sleep

loss on easy tas/s+

Aainst:

! Does not e4plain specific patterns of effects of individual stressors

! Does not e4plain effects on attention

! #oo fle4ible: does not lead to firm predictions


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2actors influencin the effects of stressors /no' this

! #as/ difficulty

! #as/ duration

! Personality

! $ntensity of the stressor

! Motivation

! $mportance of the tas/ component

! Presence of other stressors


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:or"load (cognitive stress) "now this

#ypes of 'or/load measure

Su'2ective,4ample: 7A0A #as/ 5oad $nde4! easy to obtain! face valid! unobtrusive! subjects can readily -uantify their

e4perience

Physiological,4ample: heart rate variability! do not disrupt performance! often provide continuous record

Per%ormance-'asedPrimary tas/ or secondary tas/(e)) time estimation+! provide direct measure of operator

performance

! difficult to establish 'hich -uestions toas/ (dimensions of 'or/load+

! difficult to compare different types of tas/! ratins may not be correlated 'ith tas/

performance

! e-uipment may be physically intrusive! only indirect indication of performance

! operator may invest more effort tomaintain primary&tas/ performance

! choice of secondary tas/ is important


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,ffects of hih 'or/load

! operator is prone to actions not as planned: unable to monitor activity fully! increased attentional selectivity! may respond -uic/ly but inaccurately! may shed some sub&tas/s completely


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0trateies for 'or/load reduction S/no' thisT

hane the tas/:apply sound eronomic principlesautomate some functionsuse ne' technoloies

hane the operator provide e4tensive trainin* to producemotor prorams (overlearnin+

Personnel selection

for e4ample* lo' trait an4iety may confer better ability to cope 'ith hih tas/ demands


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0election


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Aims:

Decidin! "hat to measure! Ho' to measure! ,ffectiveness of measures

0 0 0


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0taes in 0election 0ystem

0pecify selection criteria

0pecify assessmentmethods

,valuate

(After Hunter . @ur/e 1NN>+

#he *ystems +pproach to developin selectionprocesses)

1) Job ? ompetency analysis I

$dentify no'lede* 0/ills and

Attitudes (0As+ re-uired


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7o2 Anal"sis

8erson

,euire#ents

Atitudes

8redictors

8erson

!ecification

7o2

,euire#ents

Tas:

Co#etencies

Criteria

7o2

escrition

8rediction

(After 0unter ;


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Job Analysis

! Aim I $dentify critical competencies re-uired for successful jobperformance

! Outputs = "hat does the job holder do%! $nputs = 'hat s/ills* /no'lede* abilities does the job holder need%

! Result is a competency frame'or/ identifyin critical success factors

associated 'ith successful performance

! "hy%

1) #o achieve the best possible prediction of job performance (put the

riht people in the job+


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#ypes of Job Analysis

1) Hierarchical tas/ analysis (Annett* Duncan et al 1N;1+

U+

! $dentify /ey roles and functions of job! $dentify critical behaviours (related to success or failure+! lassify into similar behaviours

! 0ummarise! Balidate usin other 0M,

Other techni-ues include Repertory rid

lassifyin Aptitudes


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lassifyin Aptitudes

2leishman9s #a4onomy of 0/ills

Abilities 'ere classified into:! onitive: $nformation processin and problem solvin! Perceptual?spatial: Attention and spatial orientation! Physical: 2le4ibility* strenth and stamina

! Psychomotor: oordination and reaction time

7A#O 0tudy: Aptitude dimensions for military fast&jet pilots (@ydorf 1NNL+! 0ituational a'areness: Perceptual closure reaction time! 0patial orientation! #ime sharin

! Aressiveness! Divided attention! Psychomotor coordination! Perceptual speed! 0elective attention! Bisualisation

"eihtin Aptitudes


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"eihtin Aptitudes

Determinin priorities

! 7eed to identify relative importance of aptitudes in job performance

! D$2 Analysis) Ratins of:

! Difficulty! $mportance! 2re-uency

Choice of Measure


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Life

E>eriences

A2ilit" Moti5ation Te#era#ent

8erfor#ance

C/?


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#ypes of aptitude measure Paper . pencil measures

! omputer&based testin: @AR@ (@ritish Army+C OA0 (RA2+C MicroPat

(AA* R7* @A* athay+C #A0OMA# (ommercial+C @A# (0A2+! ,ase of administration! ,4perimental testin! Dynamic measures possible! Measure processin capacity! Multi&tas/s

! 0ophisticated measures such as response latency

! "or/ sample! RA2 2lyin Kradin

! 0imulation based! Advantaes of @# . 'or/ sample

! 5o'er costs,4ample: anadian Automated Pilot 0election 0ystem

! @iodata

! Personality measures see other lectures


92/148

,ffectiveness of measures

,valuatin 0election: Reliability and Balidity


93/148

,valuatin 0election: Reliability and Balidity

Reliability Accuracy and stability of the test! $nternal consistency reliability! 0plit&half reliability! Parallel forms! #est&retest reliability

! $nter&rater reliability

Balidity Does the test really measure 'hat it claims to measure%! onstruct validity! ontent validity! Predictive validity

0ee other lectures as 'ell

E i ll i


94/148

8redictor score

8 e r f o r # a n c e s c o r e

False8ositi5esTrue

egati5es

True

8ositi5esFalse

egati5es

CutDoff score

8ass Mar:

Error in allocation


95/148

8redictor score


T8

F8

F

T

0igher Correlation reduces error


96/148

8redictor score


CutDoff score

1

8ass Mar:

CutDoff score

*

Effect of setting CutDoff scores


97/148

Averae orrelation bet'een competency ratins and job performance

$nterpretin scores! 7orm referenced I most conitive?ability tests

! 0elf referenced I Attitude?Personality measures! riterion&referenced I job s/ills

Balidity of Different Methods


98/148

0election Method

Mean Balidity o&efficient

$ntervie' & "nstructured ,

$ntervie' & *tructured -

)1

)L>

@iodata 1 )L;

References L?1 )1; to )L

Personality testin 1?>

"or/&sample tests 1

#rainability tests F

)1= to )LL

)>

)F

,4ample: RA2 Aircre' 0election


99/148

READY TO CHANGE

YOUR LIFE? 'our visit to OA)* will ta+e several days andincludes,

! an initial -rie.ng/! aptitude tests/! an aptitude test review/! the e0ercise phase/

! an interview/! an occupational medical/ and! .tness assessments# 1from OA)*-rochure2


ADPO1=LFN


100/148

ADPO1=LFN

,BO5#$O7 O2 AP#$#D, #,0#$7K $7 #H, RA2

M) @ailey* RA2 ran'ell

@efore 1N=: main method 'as

unstructured intervie'

About >=G pilot trainin failure rate at start of ""$$

2irst set of Aircre' 0election @oard tests included! ,ssay 'ritin! ,lementary maths! Keneral intellience

! ,arly developments

! need reconised for separate tests of s/ills and personality! shift to testin for specific roles (e)) electromechanical coordination+! 1N: "ith help from 0AA2* series of objectives measures (e))


101/148

1N6Q

Many more tests created 6 but at the end of this period tests 'ere not mar/edly different

Preliminary 2lyin 0chool closed 1N; 6 selection then relied purely on aptitude tests) 2or

various reasons validities droppedC for e4ample* to )1 for trainin results

0econd eneration selection tests:! e4ploited increased computin capability:

! at first* computerised versions of e4istin tests! later* ne' tests (based on abilities re-uired* usin 2leishman9s system+ 6 Air

#raffic and 2ihter ontroller #est @attery produced! 7ine 'eihted test scores used! Kood predictive validity

$ssues! 7o formal job analysis! #ests driven by theory and test availability

Hence 1NN=s:! 0hift to domain&centred frame'or/



102/148

:


103/148

0imulation and #rainin


104/148

$nformation from

! s/ill lecture

! simulation and trainin lecture (technical s/ills+

! RM lecture (non&technical s/ills+

! Human error lecture

! etc


105/148

ey $ssues

! #rainin needs analysis (oranisational* occupational* individual+ I

focus on no'lede* 0/ills* Abilities? Attitudes (0As+

Desin of trainin proramme

! Develop $nstruction by Objective! 0elect $nstructional 0tratey

! 0elect? oranise element to be trained! $dentify trainin aids! Oranise materials?resources! Apply learnin principles! Develop ,valuation $nstruments

! $mplementation ('ho* 'here* 'hen+

! ,valuation (Reaction* 5earnin* @ehaviour* Results+

! 7ote D$2 analysis (difficulty* importance* fre-uency+ I helps to decide 'hether not to train*

to train* or to over&train


106/148

#rainin issues (see also Human $nformation Processin lecture+:

! Massed versus distributed practice

! "hole& versus part&tas/ approach

! Phases of learnin

! 2eedbac/

Media and technoloy

! 0imulation I very important in aviation* 'here the objective is to ma4imise the transfer of

learnin from simulator to aircraftC fidelity is a /ey issue: do not need physical fidelity

(simulator does not need to resemble the aircraft+* but functional fidelity is important

! $nternet&based I increasinly importantC can be accessed even in the field

! #raditional I still some role for classroom&based instruction


107/148

0ituation A'areness


108/148

#opics

#e%initions

Models

Theory

Metrics

pplications

,imitations

"hy is 0tudyin 0ituation A'areness

$ t t%


109/148

3eading causal factor in a review of %4$ aviationmishaps

7artel+ Smith

and Prince

(AA)

5a6or causal factor in 778 of accidentsassociated with human error in a review of ma6oraircraft carrier accidents 1%979:%99;2

Endsley(1994)

*ontrolled


110/148

S popularised to descri'e the psychological

processes o%

6 ttention

6 Memory

6 Perception

6 Prediction

6 Pattern Matching

Historical Oriins of 0A

55Mental Model6Mental Model6

o% the situationo% the situation

Definitions of 0A1


111/148

/ / / no'lede of current and near&term disposition of bothfriendly and enemy forces 'ithin a volume of airspace) McMillanMcMillan(1NN+(1NN+

) ) ) One9s ability to remain a'are of everythin that is happenin atthe same time and to interate that sense of a'areness into 'hatone is doin at that moment) Haines . 2lateau (1NN


112/148

Situation wareness is / / /

6 #he perception of the elements in the environment 'ithin a

volume of time and space* the comprehension of their

meanin* and the projection of their status in the near

future ,ndsley (1NQQ+,ndsley (1NQQ+

6 $t is derived from the aircraft instrumentation* the out&the&

'indo' vie'* and his or her senses

6 #he -uality of an operator9s 0A is moderated by individual

capabilities* trainin* e4perience* objectives* and the ability

to respond to tas/ 'or/load

6 #he term 80A9 should only ever be applied to dynamic

environments

0ummary /no' this P4ECT$N FP4ECT$N FF9T94E STT9SF9T94E STT9S


113/148

:hen all is said and done we "now that Situation

wareness re%ers to an operator6s "nowledge and

9nderstanding o% the dynamic environment in

which he=she is operating $t is "nowledge o% the 51ig Picture6

S provides the 'asis %or su'se*uent decision

ma"ing and per%ormance in the operation o%

comple.+ dynamic systems

PE4CEPT$N FPE4CEPT$N F

EN>$4NMENTEN>$4NMENT

CMP4E7ENS$NCMP4E7ENS$N

F C944ENT S$T9T$NF C944ENT S$T9T$N

A Model of 0A


114/148

5evel L5evel L

5evel +,ndsley (1NN>+

PE4CEPT$N FPE4CEPT$N F

EN>$4NMENTEN>$4NMENT

88PerceivePerceive

relevantrelevant

information9information9

CMP4E7ENS$NCMP4E7ENS$N

F C944ENT S$T9T$NF C944ENT S$T9T$N

88$nterate 'ith$nterate 'ith

tas/ oals9tas/ oals9

P4ECT$N FP4ECT$N F

F9T94E STT9SF9T94E STT9S

88Predict futurePredict future

events ? statesevents ? states

based onbased on

understandin9understandin9

• System Capability• Interface Design

• Stress & Worloa!

• Complexity

• A"tomation,ndsley9s Model


115/148

SITUATION AWARENESS

• Abilities

• Experience

• Training

Information #rocessing

$ec%anisms

ong'term $emory

Stores

A"tomaticity

• (oals & Ob)ecti*es• #reconceptions

+Ex ectations,

-ee!bac

State of t%e

En*ironmentDecision #erformance of

Actions

Tas.System -actors

In!i*i!"al -actors

Compre%ension

of C"rrent

Sit"ation

e*el /

#erception

of Elements

in C"rrent

Sit"ation

e*el 0

#ro)ection

of -"t"re

Stat"s

e*el 1

ybe a'are of main elements

Model of !A in d"na#ic decision

#a:ing (fro# Endsle"3 *)

EGgG Te#erature

Ti 8

EGgG +@

Cogniti5e A2ilities

Conscientiousness

ineti9s Model of #he 0A Process


116/148

SA

En5iron#ental

!tate

Ti#e 8ressures

a"night

oise

Lethalit"

Berator Traits

E>erience

8ersonalit"

Training

,is: Ta:ing

,eal World!"ste#

+nfor#ation

!alience of info

A5aila2ilit" of info

+nfo co#le>it"

+nfo uantit"

Auto#ation

@ualit" of 0M+

Berator !tate

E2g2 -rig%tene!Conf"se!

3ig% Worloa!

-atig"e!

Aggressi*e

6oals

Mission 6oals

!"ste# 6oals

8ersonal 6oals

#he 0A Process


117/148

#he 0A 8P4CESS6

#he 0A Process

A series of comple4 conitive

processes* includin: Perception*

"or/in Memory* Pattern Matchin*

Attention and 5on #erm Memory

7O# 8tas/9 or 8individual9 specific Also referred to as 0ituation

Assessment (0A0+

"ill be influenced by a multitude of

80A 2actors9

2actors Affectin the 0A Process


118/148

#hese factors "$55 @,8tas/9 A7D 8individual9specific

,ach factor 'ill havedifferent 'eihtins or

importance attached to itfor differin militarydomains

#he number of suchfactors is vast

Berator Traits

EGgG +@

Cogniti5e A2ilities

Conscientiousness

E>erience8ersonalit"

Training

,is: Ta:ing

En5iron#ental

!tate

EGgG Te#erature

Ti#e 8ressures

a"night

oiseLethalit"

6oalsoctrine

!B8s

Mission 6oals

!"ste# 6oals

8ersonal 6oals

irecti5es

,BE

Co##ander +ntent

-nowledge

+nfor#ation

!alience of info

A5aila2ilit" of info

+nfo co#le>it"

+nfo uantit"

Auto#ation

@ualit" of 0M+

-now the #ain headingsH

0A as a Product


119/148

#he output of the 0A

PRO,00 'ill be a number of

80ituation Models9 (or dynamicmental models+

#hese situation models are

essentially /no'lede and

understandin

#he -uality of a person9s 0A is

defined by the match bet'een

these situation models and

reality !ituation Model

,eal World

#he difference bet'een

these represents the

-uality of one9s 0A

Th ill h

Geographical S!o'n aircraft

0A ,lements


120/148

The person will have a

situation model %or

each o% the relevant 50A$nformation Domains6

associated with a

speci%ic tas" or 2o'

Each S in%ormationdomain will comprise a

num'er o% 50A ,lements6

E.ample Endsley

(BB) illustrates this%or the tas"=2o' o%

piloting a civil aviation

aircra%t

!other aircraft!terrain features!airports

!cities!'aypoints!naviation fi4es!position relative to

desinated features!path to desired location!run'ay and ta4i'ay assinments!climb?descent points

System S!system status!functionin and settins

!radio!altimeter !transponders!fliht modes and automation

!deviations from correct settins

! A# communications present!fuel!impact of derades and settins

!on performance!time and distance available on fuel

Spatial=Temporal S!attitude!altitude!headin

!velocity!vertical velocity!Ks!fliht path!actual values relative to assined!projected fliht path!projected landin time

Environmental S!'eather formations and movement!temperature!icin!ceilins!fo!#urbulence* 'inds!sun

!visibility!$2R?B2R conditions!areas to avoid!fliht safety!projected 'eather conditions

$n 0ummary


121/148

y #he development and

maintenance of 0A occurs

'ithin an individual9s head #he 0A process (or 0A0+ is a

eneric continuous

process?cycle that is impacted

upon by many factors

#hese factors 'ill vary in their

importance and influence

dependin upon the specific

tas/ and the individual

underta/in that tas/

An individual 'ill continuously

cycle throuh the 0A process

for each 0A $nformationDomain* developin a situation

model for each

#hese situation models 'ill be

tas/&specific

All situation models 'ill be

continually updated and

revised as ne' information

becomes available or as the

factors affectin the 0A

process chane in importanceor in state

#eam 0A


122/148

0A can be applied to teams as

'ell as to indi!iduals

aution needed here* as 0A

cannot be shared (it resides

inside the individual9s head+* but

information can be shared

"e could be tal/in about: 6 1+ #he overlap in 0A for the team

6


123/148

0A has become a major desin driver

6 Developin operator interfaces to enhance 0A 6 Developin automated systems 'ithout resultin in a loss of

0A

6 #rainin techni-ues are desined to develop better 0A

Development of 0A metrics for evaluation purposes

6 Development of metrics since the late 1NQ=s

6 Baryin derees of maturity ? validation

6 Barious forms of metrics

! 0ubjective Bs Objective

! 0elf&report Bs #hird&Party ratin

! 0imulator&based Bs #est fliht

0A Metrics


124/148

re' 0A0A Klobal Assessment techni-ue (0AKA#+

0napshots

0A 2liht #rainin ,valuator (0A2#,+

hina 5a/e 0A 0cale (50A+0A Ratin #echni-ue (0AR#+

0A 0upervisory Ratin 2orm (0A0R2+

Physioloical Measures: ,ye Activity

0A Metrics–Summary


125/148

S!

,evel

1re'0A

0AKA# 0nap0hots

0A2#, 150A 0AR# 0A0R2 ,yePOK

Perceive,nvironment

1omprehend1urrent0ituation

Project2uture0tatus

S!

,evel

1re'0A

0AKA# 0nap0hots

0A2#, 150A 0AR# 0A0R2 ,yePOK

Perceive

,nvironment

1omprehend1urrent0ituation

Project2uture0tatus

no' at least 0AKA#?0AR# in a little detail* plus names of a fe' others

0A Metrics–Summary


126/148

Most 0A measures have been desined usin aparticular 0A definition* and 'ith a specific application

in mind

6 eep this in mind 'hen selectin an 0A measure

$n practice* < of the 0A measures outlined previouslyare used far more than the others: 6 0AR# (subjective+

6 0AKA# (objective+

#his is probably due to the e4tensive validity data that

accompanies these measures ('e 8/no'9 they are

measurin 0A+

0o* of "hat se is 0A Research%


127/148

#here are three main military applications for 0Aresearch:

6 1+ 0ystem?interface desin* development* assessment and

evaluation

! Operator interfaces desined to enhance 0A! Automated systems must s'itch 'ithout losin operator

0A

6


128/148

0A is a theoretical construct

6 Practical difficulties in measurin and predictin 0A

6 2or those 'ho do not understand the theoretical basics of 'hat 0A is all about* there can

be an element of perceived circularity

88"hy did the aircraft"hy did the aircraft

crash%9crash%9

@ecause of lac/@ecause of lac/

of pilot 0Aof pilot 0A

88Ho' do 'e /no' thereHo' do 'e /no' there

'as a lac/ of pilot 0A%9'as a lac/ of pilot 0A%9

@ecause he@ecause he

crashedcrashed

$mmature concept

6 0till much debate over definitions and measures


129/148

re' Resource Manaement (RM+

RM #rainin


130/148

$ntroduction

Need %or e%%ective interaction viation accidents most have human error component

RM ,volution Evolution o% C4M to %i%th-generation

RM #rainin

RM #rainin


131/148

Objectives of RM


132/148

#ypes of RM course

Foundation Course 6 :ide range o% topics covered 6 Focus on discussion and video

Continuation Courses

6 $n depth coverage o% topic areas 6 S"ills practice (low %idelity)

,FT=MST 6 S"ills practice (high %idelity) 6 Crew-centred de'rie%

RM #rainin

RM #rainin


133/148

#opics in typical RM courses

6 7uman in%ormation processing 6 Personality and attitudes 6 Communications 6 Teamwor" structures 6 Teamwor" 'ehaviours 6 ,eadership style

6 #ecision ma"ing 6 Stress management 6 7uman error 6 Situation awareness 6 utomation on the %light dec" 6 Fatigue and wor"load 6 Case studies & research %indings 6 1e a'le to list the main topics

RM #rainin

RM #rainin


134/148

5eadership issues

E%%ects o% captain6s attitudes

uthority Gradient

RM #rainin

RM #rainin


135/148

ommunication

6 9S S4S most accidents involved %ailure o% in%ormation trans%er 6 ,ow-error crews demonstrate di%%erent patterns o% comms

ommunication s/ills /no' them 6 $n*uiry 6 dvocacy 6 ,istening 6 Con%lict resolution 6 Criti*ue 6 Feed'ac"

@arriers to communication 6 Physical8 word usage8 interpersonal8 mental

6 Cultural and language 'arriers 6 Su'ordination pro'lems 6 5Power-distance6 'arriers

RM #rainin

RM #rainin


136/148

ore team'or/ behaviours

6 Monitoring

6 Feed'ac"

6 1ac"ing up

RM #rainin

RM #rainin


137/148

+d hoc teams 6 Fre*uently arise in airline ops 6 HIJ o% accidents occur on %irst day crew %lying together

0ituation a'areness 6 $mportant topic in C4M 6 See lecture on S!

RM #rainin

RM #rainin


138/148

RM trainin resources

6 Sel%-study 6 Classroom awareness training 6 Modelling 6 Classroom s"ills training 6 S"ills practice in simulators 6 Practice=coaching during %lying

RM #rainin

RM #rainin


139/148

5O2#

6 4un in a high %idelity simulator 6 4ealistic sortie=real time 6 Crew and %acilitator 5in role6 6 Few %ailures 6 Non-technical %ocus 6 Focus on choice dilemmas

6 Non 2eopardy 6 Crew-centred de'rie% using video

RM #rainin

RM #rainin


140/148

RM $ssues 6 :hat is 5'est practice60 6 #oes it wor"0 6 Those needing most help %rom C4M most resistant to

change 6 May change attitudes 'ut not 'ehaviour

6 Needs management commitment 6 C4M s"ill %ade occurs over time 6 Cultural issues should 'e considered

RM #rainin


141/148

&rror and Accidents(0ee Accident module+

#he follo'in may help you structure your no'lede of this topic 6 dra'n from 'or/of John happelo'

Disru!i"e #$%!&rs

ENVIRONMENT


142/148

@erception

Intention

Action

as+

En$'lin #$%!&rs

redis&si!i

&ns

SYSTE

M

OPERATOR

personalitytalent

fatiguealcoholoverarousal

underarousal

ergonomics

training

-rie.ngsocial conte0t

noiseheat

coldvi-ration

threattas+ demand

Be a-le to list!

descri-e themain factors

Error type Disr"pti*efactors

Enablingfactors

#re!isposingfactors

#erception Stressors #%ysical Trait


143/148

errors

4is"al ill"sion #%ysiological Ergonomics #ersonality

Disorientation Noise 3an!ling

c%aracteristics

ac of talent

Un!etecte! t%reat Time press"re System logic Inexperience

$isinterpretation Operational

press"re

Excess 5eal

3ig% tas !eman! ac of airmans%ip

Intention errors o6 tas !eman! Sensory limitations

R"le *iolation T%reat Cogniti*e

limitations

Inappropriate

mo!el

Distraction $otor limitations

Action errors Organisational State

Cogniti*e fail"re Training Alco%ol

Slo6 response 7riefing -atig"e

#recipitate response A!ministrati*e

s"pport

3ypoglycaemia

Disorganise!

response

Social context ife stress

$is%an!ling o6 morale

Un!eraro"sal

O*eraro"sal

Social factors

Error type Disr"pti*efactors

Enablingfactors

#re!isposingfactors

#erception Stressors #%ysical Trait

)ummary, ma6or factors


144/148

errors

4is"al ill"sion #%ysiological Ergonomics #ersonality

Disorientation Noise 3an!ling

c%aracteristics

ac of talent

Un!etecte! t%reat Time press"re System logic Inexperience

$isinterpretation Operational

press"re

Excess 5eal

3ig% tas !eman! ac of airmans%ip

Intention errors o6 tas !eman! Sensory limitations

R"le *iolation T%reat Cogniti*e

limitations

Inappropriate

mo!el

Distraction $otor limitations

Action errors Organisational State

Cogniti*e fail"re Training Alco%ol

Slo6 response 7riefing -atig"e

#recipitate response A!ministrati*e

s"pport

3ypoglycaemia

Disorganise!

response

Social context ife stress

$is%an!ling o6 morale

Un!eraro"sal

O*eraro"sal

Social factors

*&%i$l %&n!e+!98

*&%i$l %%8

ers&n$li!y;%8

C&ni!i"e #$ilure%48

Dis&r$nisedres&nse

;8

Er&n&,i%s

Tr$inin-rie.nAd,in/su&r!

>"8

Ine+erien%e

;8

Neur&!i%

Anxious Impulsive

Kou6ve seen this 'e%ore///


145/148

In!r&"er!ed

E+!r$"er!ed

*!$'le

Anxious Impulsive

0$&r %$us$l #$%!&rs2 Hu,$n #$%!&


146/148

&0panded data set

= > 1= 1>

,ronomics

5ac/ of airmanship

Personality

0ens ory l im itat ions

0oc ial factors

Distraction

Overarousal

A dm in is tra tive s upport

Hih tas/ dem and

$ne4perience

Num'e r o% mishaps

*ensi!i"i!y2 Hu,$n #$%!&rsSocial %actors


147/148

&0panded data set

-@ -B -@ B @ B @

Social conte.t

Sensory limitations

Supervision

,ac" o% airmanship

1rie%ing

dministrative support

$ne.perience

7igh tas" demand

#istraction

This graph shows'ene%it o% eliminatingthe %actor+ and costo% an increase in itsseverity

Social %actors areseen to 'e moreimportant when weconduct sensitivity

analysis these pro'lemsare solu'le

,rror: ,4amples of Possible Remedies /no' this

0ocial factors


148/148

$ne4perience! More (or improved+ trainin

Hih tas/ demand

! 0election (e))* some personality types cope better 'ith hih 'or/load+! #rainin creates more 8spare capacity9! #he system can be modified to reduce 'or/load (automation* better

eronomics etc+

Distraction! May be able to select individuals less prone to distraction

0ocial factors! Personnel selection

! RM trainin

Documents

Human Performance Revision Slides 2011