ict in Education

European Journal of Teacher Education mm Carfax Publishing'^ -^ -f ^\\\W Taylor & Francis Group

Vol. 27, No. 1, March 2004

The prospect of integrating ICT into theeducation of young children: the views ofGreek early childhood teachersMelpomeni Tsitouridou* and Konstantinos VryzasAristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Greece has so far seen the introduction of computers into its schools on only a limited scale.Nevertheless, technological reforms are under way to integrate information and communicationtechnology into education at all levels. This research project has studied the views of earlychildhood teachers on the prospect of computer use being integrated into education at thekindergarten level. The project employed a questionnaire which was completed by 278 earlychildhood tieachers. They appear to be favourably disposed, to a greater or lesser degree, whilesome voiced certain reservations. The views of the teachers are shaped by their knowledge andexperience of computers and by the in-service training in computer use which they have received.The results point to in-service training as a crucial issue and also identify a number ofcontradictions in the views of the teachers.

L'introduction de l'ordinateur a l'ecole grecque est limitee. Toutesfois, un changement tech-nologique est en cours ayant comme objectif l'integration de la technologie de l'information et decommunication dans tous les niveaux educatifs. Cette recherche a etudie les points de vue desenseignants de l'ecole maternelle. On a utilise un questionnaire qui a ete complete par 278enseignants. Les resultats ont montre que les enseignants sont plus au moins favorables, toutefois,certains enseignants expriment des reserves. Leurs points de vue sont influences par le savoir,l'experience et leur formation sur l'ordinateur. La formation se releve comme un facteur decisif.A noter, enfin, que le points de vue des enseignants a l'egard de la formation presentent descontradictions.

En Grecia la introduccion de los ordenadores en las escuelas es muy limitada. Sin embargo, seencuentra en marcha con el fin de incorporar la Information Computer Technology a todos losniveles de la education. Este estudio investigo los puntos de vista los educatores de educationpre-escolar en relation a la perspectiva de incorporation de los ordenatores en la educationpre-escolar. Se utilizo una encuesta a la cual respodieron 278 maestros de education pre-escolar.Los maestros parecen ser mas o menos favorables, a pesar de todo expresan algunas reservas. Elpunto de vista de los maestros esta determinado por el conociemento, la experiencia y formationen los ordenadores. La formation se destaca como un tema cnisial mientras que el punto de vistade los maestros presenta limitadas contracciones.

*Corresponding author. Department of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, AristotleUniversity of Thessaloniki, GR-540 06 Thessaloniki, Greece. Email: tsitouri(gnured.auth.gr

ISSN 0261-9768 print; ISSN 1469-5928 online/04/010029-17© 2004 Association for Teacher Education in EuropeDOI: 10.1080/0261976042000211838

30 M. Tsitouridou and K. Vryzas

In Griechenland ist die Einfiihrung des PC in den Schulen noch im Anfangsstadium. Trotzdemist eine technologische Wende abzusehen, welche die Eingliederung der InformationComputer Technology zum Ziel hat. Dieses Forschungsprojekt untersuchte die Meinungendes Lehrpersonals in der Vorschulebene bezuglich der Eingliederungsperspektive der PC Tech-nologie in die Vorschulausbildung. Mit dem angewendeten Fragebogen wurden 278Vorschullehrer befragt. Die Lehrer scheinen dieser Perspektive mehr oder weniger positiventgegenzusehen, bringen jedoch einige Bedenken zum Ausdruck. Die Lehrermeinungen fallenje nach Wissen, Erfahrung und Ausbildungsniveau mit PC aus. Ihre Weiterbildung scheint einkritischer Punkt zu sein, da die Stellungnahmen der Lehrer einige gegensatzliche Punkteaufweisen.

Introduction

There can hardly be a country in the world which is not currently engaged in theprocess of introducing information and communication technology (ICT) into itseducation system. It is a trend which reflects the increasingly important role oftechnology in the contemporary world. The growing use of ICT in the classroomreflects its widespread penetration of all other aspects of our societies.

The use of ICT in the classroom is creating a new educational environment,transforming the educational process and modifying the role of the teacher, who isnow expected to possess a whole range of new skills and abilities. The teachers'attitude to the new technologies, and their readiness to exploit the opportunitiesopened up by these technologies in the attainment of educational objectives, aretherefore an issue of critical importance.

In Greece the attempt to formulate a national strategy for a comprehensiveapproach to the whole question of introducing computers into education dates backto the early 1990s. Informatics is now taught as a separate subject in its own rightin the first years of secondary education, although the use of computers in primaryschools remains extremely limited. Nor is there extensive or systematic training ofteachers in the use of the new technologies (Giannakopoulou, 1994; Raptis & Rapti,1999; Diamantaki et al., 2001).

We must note, however, that new ICT courses are currently being planned forsecondary schools and preparations are under way for the introduction of comput-ers, with Internet access, into all primary schools. Finally, a wide ranging pro-gramme is being prepared to further the objectives laid down by the eEuropeinitiative (Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs Pedagogical Institute, 2001);the programme has been named 'Preparation of Teachers for the InformationSociety/Initial In-service Training for all Teachers in Information and Communi-cation Technologies'.

The purpose of this study is to explore the views of early childhood teachers onthe prospects of introducing computers into the young learners' classroom. Morespecifically, these views are examined on three levels:

i. computers and early childhood education;ii. computers and the young child;iii. computers and the early childhood teacher.

ICT in Greek early childhood education 31

Review of the literature

International experience has shown that teachers play a key role in utilizing theeducational potential of ICT. Teachers' attitudes and beliefs affect the way techno-logical innovation is applied in education. They tend to use technology in waysshaped by their own personal perspectives on the curriculum and on didacticpractice (Cuban, 1986; Cohen, 1987; Czerniak & Lumpe, 1996).

The teachers' attitudes and beliefs also influence what they themselves learn fromeducation and training programmes and what didactic practices they make use of intheir classrooms (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Zeichner et al, 1987; Pajares, 1992;Fang, 1996). Research has shown that many educational reform initiatives havefailed precisely because they did not influence the beliefs or the practices of theteachers (Elmore, 1987; Cohen & Ball, 1990).

Whether computer use in the classroom will be successful depends on theteachers' attitudes to the computer (Lawton & Gerschner, 1982; Violato et al,1989). A positive attitude on the part of the teacher is widely recognized as anecessary condition of the effective use of information technology in the classroom(Woodrow, 1992). The teacher's familiarity with the computer and his/herconfldence in it are key factors in the effective use of the computer at school. Beyondsuch variables as the level of the class and that of the software, it is the teacher whoseinfluence is decisive (Collis et al, 1996).

The teachers' attitudes affect the children's experience of computer use at school(Todman & Dick, 1993). Positive attitudes on the teachers' part and their pos-session of a degree of proficiency in computer use play a significant role in thesuccessful integration of the technology into the school classroom (Hignite &Echtemacht, 1992).

Computer technology per se does not embody any particular pedagogical orien-tation. Of course, the installation of computers in the school is a first step, but moreimportant is that the teachers should assist in relating the use of computers to theirown teaching goals. Although the computer promises much in the way of improvingteaching, at the end of the day it is the teachers themselves who will decide whetherthis promise is fulfilled (Niederhauser & Stoddart, 2001).

Generally speaking, teachers are favourably disposed to the use of computers ineducation, and this may well act positively on the further integration of computersinto the school. On the other hand, it appears that there is a very serious need fortraining, since the lack of relevant knowledge among teachers and the inadequacy ofthe existing training are seen as significant obstacles to the use of computers inschools (Pelgrum & Plomp, 1991). In a study of teachers participating in pro-grammes to introduce computer use into their teaching, Hadley and Sheingold(1993) found that the majority of primary school teachers could be described as'enthusiastic beginners'. Even though their knowledge of the technology was morerudimentary than that of their secondary school colleagues, this group of teachersnevertheless seemed more convinced that the future of improving the quality ofeducation lay with the use of computers.

The degree of the teachers' knowledge of computers has a positive influence on


their attitudes to the technology (Lillard, 1985). Positive attitudes on the part of theteachers can be correlated to the degree of their previous experience. As they growmore familiar with computers, their anxieties and fears tend to diminish, while theirconfidence grows (Loyd & Gressard, 1986), Familiarity reduces fear Qones & Wall,1985; Issa & Lorentz, 1990). The more the teachers used the technology the moreconfident and relaxed they felt about using it in the classroom (Christensen, 1998).

The effective use of computers by teachers depends not only on their attitudes,but also on the training they have received (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Madsen &Sebastiani, 1987). Teachers competence in ICT presupposes: positive attitudes toICT, understanding of the educational potential of ICT, ability to use ICT effec-tively in the curriculum, ability to manage ICT use in the classroom, ability toevaluate ICT use, ability to ensure differentiation and progression and technicalcapability (Beck, 1997). In-service training is a key factor in cultivating positiveattitudes to the computer (Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

How teachers construct and reconstruct their knowledge is a critical issue asteachers' thought processes determine largely what happens in the classroom.Teachers' pedagogical decisions and actions are closely tied up with their pro-fessional growth. Their professional knowledge might be changed by means ofexperience, curriculum directives and in-service training. In-service training of goodquality could support the process of changing teachers' thinking and practice,recognizing that teaching is a difficult, complex and multifaceted process (Wood &Bennett, 2000).

In-service training must address the needs and experiences of the teachers.Research into in-service training has shown that what the training programme has tooffer all too often fails to meet the teachers' real needs (Crook, 1994). A decisivefactor in the effective integration of computer use in the school curriculum is theprovision of appropriate in-service training to the teachers, training which will showthem how to use the new tools in their everyday teaching practice. The IEA studyin 1989 showed that a fair number of teachers had had some experience of in-servicetraining in computer use, but the majority of programmes at that time emphasizedthe technical rather than the pedagogical and didactic aspects of computer use.In-service training needs to focus not on the technical, but on the pedagogical/didac-tic aspects of computer use in the classroom (Pelgrum & Plomp, 1996).

From this perspective, the quality of the educational software plays an importantrole. Research has shown that educational results differ according to the type ofsoftware used by young children (Haugland, 1992; Clements, 1994). The softwareshould not be just an ICT reworking of traditional materials and methods, butinstead should be designed so as to exploit the full potential of the computer fordifferent learning experiences (Spencer & Baskin, 1984) and be adapted to theabilities, needs and interests of young children (Wetzel & McLean, 1997). Childrenconstruct their own meanings and thus require educational environments which willencourage them to participate actively in the learning process (Donaldson, 1978).

Teachers need to develop a critical understanding of ICT. Teacher traininginvolves not only the acquisition of skills but also, and most important, trainingteachers to know when to use ICT and how to exploit the potential of computers in


their daily teaching. Thus the future of ICT in our schools would appear to beinseparably linked with the involvement of teachers, who need to be legitimateparticipants in the construction of their relationship with the use of computers ineducation. In other words, it is the teachers who must negotiate the role to be playedby educational technology in their classrooms (Selwyn et al, 2000).

Method

Subjects

The study was based on a random sample of 278 working early childhood teachersfrom the city of Thessaloniki and the surrounding area. Of the teachers in thesample, 35.3% had between 1 and 11 years experience and 64.7% between 12 and23 years. 26.6% had no knowledge of computers, 42.4% had only a rudimentaryknowledge, 25.9% had some limited knowledge and just 5% had extensive knowl-edge. 48.9% had a computer in their home and of these 51.5% actually used thecomputer themselves. Finally, 46% of the teachers had attended at least onein-service training programme, of between 30 and 40 hours, on the introduction ofcomputers into education.

It should be noted that our classification of the teachers according to theirknowledge of computers was carried out on the basis of the 'Technology InserviceNeeds Assessment 1996-97' evaluation sheet (Christensen, 1998j Davies, 1994).The teachers therefore were classified into the four categories below:

category 1: 'I know nothing about computers' (ignorance)jcategory 2: 'I can turn the computer on or off, I sometimes play with it, draw or

write something' (rudimentary knowledge);category 3: 'I just know the basics of operating a certain programme, like word

processing, and a few other things like saving and loading files' (limitedknowledge);

category 4: 'I know more than the above about certain programmes, I can use amodem, a scanner, I know how to access Internet sources' (extensiveknowledge).

Questionnaire

The research tool was a questionnaire consisting of six questions. More specifically,the questions asked of the early childhood teachers were as follows.

• Do you believe that the introduction of computers into early childhood educationis an urgent priority, a matter of secondary importance or not necessary at all?

• Regarding the prospect of the integration of computers into the kindergartenclassroom, are you enthusiastic, do you have reservations or is your attitudenegative? Give reasons for your answer.

• Which is the most important reason for integrating computers into the kinder-garten curriculum: familiarizing children with the world of the new technologies.


the educational benefits to be derived by the child from the use of computers orthe recreational value to the child?

• The integration of computers into the kindergarten curriculum will assist thedevelopment of the child: in the intellectual field, in the socio-emotional field, inthe psycho-motor field, in the aesthetic field?

• Educational use of the computer in the kindergarten: upgrades the role of the theteacher, downgrades the role of the teacher, takes the place of the teacher, bringsabout no change at all?

• In-service training for teachers in the use of computers in the kindergarten: shouldbe obligatory, should be optional, is not necessary.

Data processing

Processing of the research data involved two stages. In the first stage we employeddescriptive statistics methods (response frequencies), while in the second we used afactorial analysis of correspondences (Analyse Factorielle des Correspondences,AFC). The choice of this method is based on the fact that the research variables arequalitative, discontinuous variables. The AFC permits us to represent the reciprocalinfluences of the variables as they correspond to the characteristics of the teachersand their views concerning the use of computers in early childhood education (Bry,1995). With the assistance of Professor P. Moisiades of the Statistical ResearchDepartment of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, an AFC programme wasdeveloped using the BURT tables method (Benzecri, 1973j Jackson, 1991) for thestatistical software SPLUS 2000.

Results

First stage of processing

Computers and early childhood education. 41.7% of the early childhood teachers statedthat the introduction of computers into pre-school education is an urgent priority,53.2% regarded it as a matter of secondary importance and 5% did not feel that theintroduction of computers was necessary at all. 46% of the teachers replied that theyfelt enthusiasm at the prospect of integrating computers into the kindergartenclassroom, 52.5% had reservations about the prospect, and 1.4% had negativefeelings.

The reasons given by the teachers in support of their enthusiasm were classifiedinto three categories:

i. pedagogical contentsii. social content;iii. vocational content.

The pedagogical reasons focused on the following factors: 'offers new learningopportunities', 'enriches and reforms the educational process', 'offers new ways ofapproaching knowledge', 'enhances educational efficiency', 'stimulates the chil-


dren's interest', 'assists in the holistic development of the child'. The social reasonsfocused on the necessity of the following: 'the child being made aware from an earlyage of the new technologies', 'the children following developments in society as awhole', 'the children having direct contact with and familiarizing themselves with thepotential of the computer in order to be able to respond to future needs'. Thevocational reasons cited were as follows: that computers 'will help the teacher in hiswork', 'will enrich the teacher's creativity', 'will strengthen his or her educationalrole'.

The reasons given by those teachers who felt reservations about the introductionof computers into the kindergarten classroom were also classified into three cate-gories:

i. lack of knowledge about computers;ii. adverse effects on the children of the use of computers;iii. operational problems in the kindergarten.

As to their lack of computer knowledge, the teachers stated that 'they wereintimidated by their lack of suitable experience', 'they were unable to operatecomputers', 'they did not understand the possible ways of using computers' and'they did not know how computers could be used in the educational process'. On thesubject of the adverse impact on children of the use of computers, the teachersbelieved that: 'computers are an alienating force', 'the use of computers will hinderthe socialization of the children', 'computers foster individualism instead of cooper-ation', 'children become addicted to using computers', 'there is a risk of misuse orabuse', 'the curriculum for the kindergarten is already overloaded', 'there are otheractivities to promote the holistic development of the child', 'it is not the right age forthe child' and 'it may lead to catastrophic results'. Regarding operational problems,the teachers had a number of reservations, claiming that: 'the classes are too large','the buildings are not suitable' and 'the material-technical infrastructure is inad-equate'.

Finally, the negative reactions, which were extremely few in number, came fromteachers who expressed fears about the use of computers by young children.

Computers and young children. For 65.5% of teachers the most important reason forintroducing computers into the nursery and infants school curriculum was tofamiliarize children with their use, for 30.2% the educational benefits were the mostimportant reason and for 4.3% the major reason was the recreational value to thechildren.

The teachers' views on whether computers contribute to the skills development ofthe young child are represented in Table 1.

Computers and early childhood teacher. 0.7% of teachers believe that the role of thekindergarten teacher would be supplanted by the use of computers, 3.6% believethat the teacher's role would be downgraded, 82.7% believe that it would beupgraded and 12.9% believe that it would make no difference to the teacher's role.

57.6% believe that in-service training of teachers in the new technologies should


Table 1. Teachers' views on contribution of computer to skills development of young child

YES NO Probably YES Probably NO

intellectual heldsocio-emotional fieldpsycho-motor fieldaesthetic field

70.5%20.1%20.1%51.1%

2.2%12.2%19.4%1.4%

24.5%45.3%36.7%38.1%

2.9%22.3%23.7%9.4%

be mandatory, 41% believe it should be optional and 1.4% claim that there is noneed for such training.

Second stage of processing. From a first reading of the factor levels 1X2 and 1X3(percentage of significance first axis 24.15%, second axis 13.16%, third axis10.18%, total 47.49%) we see that two discrete groups of teachers are clearlydiscerned:

On the one hand (left-hand section of factor levels), there are the teachers whohave and use a computer at home, who have extensive knowledge of computers andwho have received some kind of in-service training in the use of computers ineducation. These teachers:

• regard the introduction of computers into pre-school education as an urgentpriority;

• are enthusiastic about the prospect of computers being integrated into the kinder-garten classroom;

• recognize the educational benefits as the most important reason for integratingcomputers into the curriculum;

• express positive attitudes towards the contribution of computers to the skillsdevelopment of the young child in the intellectual, socio-emotional, psycho-motorand aesthetic fields;

• believe that the educational use of the computer upgrades the role of the teacher;• declare that the in-service training of teachers in computer use should be manda-

tory.

On the other hand (right-hand section of factor levels), there are the teachers whoeither have no computer at home or have a computer but do not use it, who declarethemselves ignorant of computers and who have received no computer training.These teachers:

• regard the introduction of computers into pre-school education as a matter ofsecondary importance or as something for which there is no necessity;

• have reservations, or a wholly negative attitude, about the prospect of integratingcomputers into the kindergarten classroom;

• recognize the need for the children to familiarize themselves with computers as themost important reason for their introduction into the curriculum;

• express quite positive or quite negative views on the contribution of the computer


0.61

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-0.79

35

27 31

10

6 13

30 3437 0.75

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Figure 1. Teachers' views on the integration of ICT in early childhood education (factor level1X2)

to the skills development of the young child in the intellectual, socio-emotional,psycho-motor and aesthetic fields;

• believe that the educational use of computers will downgrade the role of theteacher;

• declare that the in-service training of teachers in computer use should be optional.

Examination of factor levels 1 X 2 and 1 X 3 highlights the following results.

(a) Factor level 1X2 (percentage of interpreted inertia 37.31%). T h o s e teachers who

have and use a computer at home and also have extensive computer knowledgeregard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as an urgentpriority, are enthusiastic at the prospect of integrating computers into the kinder-garten classroom and recognize the educational benefits as the major reason forintegrating computers into the kindergarten curriculum.

Teachers who have received training in the use of computers in education havepositive attitudes to the contribution of the computer to the skills development ofthe young child in the intellectual, socio-emotional, psycho-motor and aestheticfields.

Teachers with a computer which they do not use at home and who professignorance of the workings of computers do not regard the introduction of computersinto early childhood education as necessary, have negative feelings towards theprospect of computers being integrated into the kindergarten classroom, have quitenegative views on the role of the computer in the skills development of the youngchild in the intellectual, socio-emotional, psycho-motor and aesthetic fields and,finally, believe that training in the use of computers in education should be optional.


-I- '

37V

10 17 3;'

i-.30.75

8 *9 ^10 ^11"**12*

Key to Figures 1 & 2

ignorance of computersextensive knowledge of computersin-service training on the introduction of computers into educationnon in-service training on the introduction of computers into educationno home computerpossession and use of home computer: possession and non-use of home computer: the introduction of computer is not necessary at all: the introduction of computer is an urgent priority: the introduction of computer is a matter of secondary importance. enthusiasm at the prospect of integrating computers: reservations about the prospect of integrating computers: negative feelings about the prospect of integrating computers: the most important reason for integrating computers is familiarization: the most important reason for integrating computers is educational benefits: positive views on the contribution of computers in the intellectual field: quite positive views on the contribution of computers in the intellectual field: positive views on the contribution of computers in the socio-emotional field: quite positive views on the contribution of computers in the socio-emotional field: quite negative views on the contribution of computers in the socio-emotional field: positive views on the contribution of computers in the psycho-motor field: quite positive views on the contribution of computers in the psycho-motor field: quite negative views on the contribution of computers in the psycho-motor field: positive views on the contribution of computers in the aesthetic field: quite positive views on the contribution of computers in the aesthetic field: quite negative views on the contribution of computers in the aesthetic field: the educational use of computer downgrades the role of the teacher: the educational use of computer upgrades the role of the teacher: in-service training should be obligatory; in-service training should be optional

17*18"20 '22 '

28°"

31 °̂3 2 '34*

4041

Figure 2. Teachers' views on the integration of ICT in early childhood education (factor level1X3)


Teachers who have received no training in the use of computers in educationregard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as a matter ofsecondary importance, express quite positive attitudes to the contribution of thecomputer in the skills development of the young child in the intellectual, socio-emotional, psycho-motor and aesthetic fields and assert that the computer willdowngrade the role of the teacher.

(b) Factor level 1X3 (percentage of interpreted inertia 34.33%). T h o s e teachers w h o

have and use a computer at home and who have extensive knowledge of computersregard the introduction of computers into pre-school education as a matter of urgentpriority, are enthusiastic about the prospect of computers being integrated into thekindergarten classroom and recognize the educational benefits as the major reasonfor incorporating computers into the kindergarten curriculum. They also expresspositive views on the contribution of the computer to the skills development of theyoung child in the socio-emotional, psycho-motor and aesthetic fields.

Teachers who express positive views regarding the role of the computer in theskills development of the young child in the intellectual field also believe that thecomputer upgrades the role of the teacher and that in-service training in computeruse in education should be mandatory.

Those teachers who have a computer at home but do not use it do not regard theintroduction of computers into early childhood education as a matter of necessity,have quite positive views on the role of the computer in developing the young child'sskills in the intellectual field, but quite negative views on its role in the aestheticfield. They assert that the computer downgrades the role of the teacher and, finally,believe that in-service training in the use of computers should be optional.

Teachers who have no computer at home, are ignorant of computers and havereceived no training in the use of computers in education regard the introduction ofcomputers into early childhood education as a matter of secondary importance,have reservations about the prospect of computers being integrated into thekindergarten classroom and regard familiarization of the child with computers as themost important reason for incorporating computers into the kindergarten curricu-lum.

Analysis of results

Early childhood teachers appear to be favourably disposed to the introduction ofcomputers into pre-school education, a disposition which was highlighted by earlierresearch (Tsitouridou et at, 1997). Where they are divided, however, is in thedegree of urgency they attach to the issue, since they fall into two camps almostequal in size: those who regard the introduction of computers into early childhoodeducation as an urgent priority and those who see it as a matter of secondaryimportance. Similarly, almost half of the teachers appear enthusiastic at the prospectof integrating computers into the kindergarten classroom while the other half havereservations. The former invoke the pedagogical usefulness and social benefits ofICT for the children and the vocational development of the teachers, while the latter


express anxiety and fears about possible adverse consequences for young childrenfrom the use of computers.

It is worth noting that other studies have shown that teachers are favourablydisposed towards computers, acknowledging their educational potential; it wouldseem that most of their objections to the use of computers can be attributed totechnophobia (Gressard & Loyd, 1985; Gardner et al., 1993). We should also bearin mind the attitude prevalent in older people, to whom 'the term "computer"evokes cold, mechanistic images inconsistent with typical perspectives on earlychildhood education' (Clements & Nastasi, 1993, p. 253).

The majority of teachers cite the child's familiarization with the computer as themost important reason for incorporating computers into the kindergarten curricu-lum; only one-third of the teachers identify the educational benefits as the mainreason. Nonetheless, most teachers do recognize the contribution of the computer tothe skills development of the young child, primarily in the intellectual and aestheticfields and secondarily in the socio-emotional and psycho-motor fields.

Claims that computers impede the social and emotional development of the childhave not been corroborated by research. On the contrary, the appropriate use ofcomputer technology under the guidance of teacher or parent can assist the holisticdevelopment of the child. Computers, just like crayons and building bricks 'are toolsfor learning and problem-solving' (Clements & Nastasi, 1993). It is the teacher whowill determine the way in which all such tools are used, facilitating, guiding andsupporting the young child. The computer arouses the interest of young childrenand could be used appropriately as an option in the early childhood classroomwithout supplanting traditional activities (Shade & Watson, 1990; Fatouros, 1995;Haugland, 1995, 2000; Samaras, 1996; Shade, 1996; Doliopoulos, 1998).

Although the vast majority of teachers believe that the use of computers willupgrade their role in the classroom, a much smaller number wish in-service trainingin the new technologies to be compulsory. This apparent contradiction indicatesthat while the teachers acknowledge the importance of ICT in their professionaldevelopment, they are not equally willing to make a commitment to its use. Otherstudies have revealed similar contradictions. Thus, while teachers accept that com-puters are useful in education, they do not show the same acceptance when it is aquestion of using computers in their own classroom (Norris & Lumsden, 1984;Smith, 1987; Bikos, 1995; Sofronova, 1995; US Congress Office of TechnologyAssessment, 1995).

The teachers' views are shaped by their knowledge and use of computers and bythe relevant training they have received, but are not infiuenced by their years ofteaching experience. Those teachers with extensive knowledge of computers, whoare accustomed to using them and have received relevant training tend to expresspositive views, whereas colleagues who are ignorant of computers, do not use themand have received no training have reservations about their use or are actuallynegative in their feelings towards them.

More specifically, teachers with extensive knowledge and experience with comput-ers believe that the introduction of computers into early childhood education is anurgent priority; they view the prospect of their integration into the kindergarten


classroom with enthusiasm, recognizing the educational benefits of their use. Weshould note that those teachers with only rudimentary or very limited knowledge ofcomputers do not appear to have any specific views on the subject. Teachers with noknowledge or experience regard the introduction of computers into early childhoodeducation as a matter of secondary importance or as something quite unnecessaryand have reservations or negative feelings about the prospect of incorporatingcomputers into the classroom. They also believe that in-service training in the use ofcomputers should be optional.

These conclusions are confirmed by other studies, according to which knowledgeand experience generate positive attitudes, reduce fears and open up prospects ofupgrading the teacher's role as a user of this technology Qones & Wall, 1985;Lillard, 1985; Loyd & Gressard, 1986; Issa & Lorentz, 1990; Savenye et al, 1992;Delcourt & Kinzie, 1993; Mclnerney et al, 1994; Liao, 1996).

Finally, teachers who have received training believe that the incorporation ofcomputers into the kindergarten curriculum contributes to the holistic developmentof the child. Those teachers, on the other hand, who have received no trainingregard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as a matter ofsecondary importance and believe that computers in the classroom downgrade therole of the teacher, although they do have quite positive views on the contributionof computers to the skills development of the child. This might mean that althoughteachers fear the effect of computers on their position, they do have expectations, ifonly modest ones, that the computer may have a positive effect on early childhoodeducation.

In-service training is therefore seen to be a decisive factor in technological reformin education. Other studies have reached the same conclusions, emphasizing thattraining is a vital factor in cultivating positive attitudes to the computer (Dupagne& Krendl, 1992; Green et al, 1993). Of course, we cannot point to a direct causallink between training and a change in teachers' attitudes. Such changes are notbrought about easily (Hannafin, 1999). For this reason in-service training has toincorporate the teachers' previous knowledge and experience into the new educa-tional environment (Marcinkiewicz, 1993; Tsitouridou, 1999) and must respond tothe changing conditions of their professional practice (Vivancos, 1997; Wetzel &McLean, 1997).

Concluding remarks

Early childhood teachers have favourable—some more, some less—views on theprospect of the integration of ICT into the teaching of young children; their viewsare grounded in pedagogical, social and professional reasons. However, they dovoice reservations concerning possible adverse effects on young children from theuse of computers. The teachers' views are shaped by their knowledge and experienceof computers and by the relevant training they have received. Their views arecharacterized by contradictions which highlight, once again, the complexity of therelationships between the teachers' expectations, decisions and practices.


Notes on contributors

Melpomeni Tsitouridou is an Assistant Professor of ICT in Education in theDepartment of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, AristotleUniversity of Thessaloniki. Her research interests relate to information tech-nology and children, evaluation of educational software and teacher training innew technologies.

Konstantinos Vryzas is an Associate Professor of Sociology of Mass Media in theDepartment of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, AristotleUniversity of Thessaloniki. His research interests relate to children and mediaand the globalization of communication and cultural identities.

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