Identity Politics in Zanzibar and Challenges to Democratic Consolidation in Tanzania

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Identity Politics in Zanzibar andIdentity Politics in Zanzibar and

Challenges to DemocraticChallenges to DemocraticConsolidation in TanzaniaConsolidation in Tanzania

Dr. Bernadeta KillianDr. Bernadeta KillianReagan-Fascell Democracy FellowReagan-Fascell Democracy Fellow

June 28, 2007June 28, 2007

Please note that the views expressed in thisPlease note that the views expressed in this presentation represent the opinions and analysis of presentation represent the opinions and analysis of

the speaker and do not necessarily reflect those of the speaker and do not necessarily reflect those of the National Endowment of Democracy.the National Endowment of Democracy.



United Republic of TanzaniaUnited Republic of Tanzania One unitary republic, two governmentsOne unitary republic, two governments

Composed of two formerly sovereign states: TanganyikaComposed of two formerly sovereign states: Tanganyika

and Zanzibarand Zanzibar 1961: Tanganyika gains independence from the British1961: Tanganyika gains independence from the British

1963: Zanzibar gains independence1963: Zanzibar gains independence

1964: Revolution in Zanzibar1964: Revolution in Zanzibar

April 26, 1964: Union between Tanganyika and ZanzibarApril 26, 1964: Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar Zanzibar enjoys semi-autonomous status, exercises itsZanzibar enjoys semi-autonomous status, exercises its

sovereignty over all domestic and non-union matterssovereignty over all domestic and non-union matters

Zanzibar non-union matters:Zanzibar non-union matters: setting up national andsetting up national andbudgetary policies on such sectors as agriculture, tourism,budgetary policies on such sectors as agriculture, tourism,

health, education, water, communication, industry, etc.health, education, water, communication, industry, etc. Union Matters:Union Matters: Foreign affairs, defense and security, police,Foreign affairs, defense and security, police,

emergency powers, citizenship, external borrowing andemergency powers, citizenship, external borrowing andtrade, mineral oil resources, higher education, court of trade, mineral oil resources, higher education, court of appeal, registration of political parties, etc.appeal, registration of political parties, etc.



Basic DataBasic Data Tanzania:945,087sq. kmTanzania:945,087sq. km Tanzania: per-capita income: US$340Tanzania: per-capita income: US$340

(2006)(2006) Zanzibar: per-capita US$327 (2005)Zanzibar: per-capita US$327 (2005) Tanzania (total pop.): 34,443,603Tanzania (total pop.): 34,443,603 Zanzibar: 981,754 peopleZanzibar: 981,754 people Unguja Island (60%)Unguja Island (60%)

& Pemba Island (40%)& Pemba Island (40%)



I. IntroductionI. Introduction

Tanzania: Unity in DiversityTanzania: Unity in Diversity Tanzania is renowned for its long-established civic peace & Tanzania is renowned for its long-established civic peace &

unity among its diverse ethnic, religion & racial groupsunity among its diverse ethnic, religion & racial groups

It has been a peace-broker & model of national cohesion inIt has been a peace-broker & model of national cohesion in

E. AfricaE. Africa

The use of Swahili language has been a binding threadThe use of Swahili language has been a binding thread

In the case of Zanzibar, a common religion (Islam) and aIn the case of Zanzibar, a common religion (Islam) and a

high rate of intermarriage have unified the state’s diversehigh rate of intermarriage have unified the state’s diverse

ethno-racial groupsethno-racial groups



Why is Zanzibar Different?Why is Zanzibar Different?

Struggle for the control of the state has beenStruggle for the control of the state has been

intense, deadly & zero-sumintense, deadly & zero-sum Unlike in mainland Tanzania, the struggle forUnlike in mainland Tanzania, the struggle for

political power in Zanzibar has largely been shapedpolitical power in Zanzibar has largely been shapedby the politics of identity on the basis of race.by the politics of identity on the basis of race.

Racial labels of ‘Africans’ vs. ‘Arabs’ are widelyRacial labels of ‘Africans’ vs. ‘Arabs’ are widelyused in the context of political contestation forused in the context of political contestation forpower.power.

This presentation seeks to understand why.This presentation seeks to understand why.

Why do political elites in Zanzibar politicizeWhy do political elites in Zanzibar politicizeracial identities, particularly at election time? racial identities, particularly at election time?



Politicized Racial IdentityPoliticized Racial Identity

ExplainedExplained

Control of theState

Identity of theState

(Arab vs. African)

Sovereignty of theState

(Zanzibar vs. Union)



II: Historical ContextII: Historical Context

The Shaping of Political IdentitiesThe Shaping of Political Identities

Over the centuries, Zanzibar attracted severalOver the centuries, Zanzibar attracted severalimmigrant groups, including:immigrant groups, including:

Mainland AfricansMainland Africans (3(3rdrd -4-4thth century)century)

PersiansPersians

(10(10thth

century)century)

ArabsArabs (11(11thth century)century) EuropeansEuropeans (16(16thth century)century) ComoriansComorians (18(18thth Century)Century)

IndiansIndians (19(19thth century)century) Intermarriage between Persians & AfricansIntermarriage between Persians & Africans

led to the emergence of Shirazi Africansled to the emergence of Shirazi Africans



The Shaping of Political IdentitiesThe Shaping of Political Identities

Shirazi Africans = the Hadimu, Tumbatu andShirazi Africans = the Hadimu, Tumbatu andPemba ShiraziPemba Shirazi

Mainland Africans = Africans of recent arrivalMainland Africans = Africans of recent arrival

from the African hinterland (slaves, freedfrom the African hinterland (slaves, freed

slaves and their descendants, and migrantslaves and their descendants, and migrantlaborers) (latecomers)laborers) (latecomers)

1948 census: the Shirazi (55.8%), Mainland African1948 census: the Shirazi (55.8%), Mainland African

(19.8%), Arabs(16.9%), Indians(6.2%), Comorians(19.8%), Arabs(16.9%), Indians(6.2%), Comorians

(1.1%),Europeans (0.1%),Other (0.1%)(1.1%),Europeans (0.1%),Other (0.1%)

Africans

Shirazi

Africans

MainlandAfricans



British

Arabs

Indians

Africans

Colonial Economy and theColonial Economy and the

Shaping of Political IdentitiesShaping of Political Identities



Shaping of Political IdentitiesShaping of Political Identities (cont’d)(cont’d) Politics deeply divided along ethno-racial linesPolitics deeply divided along ethno-racial lines

African Association, Shirazi Association, ArabAfrican Association, Shirazi Association, Arab

Association, Indian AssociationAssociation, Indian Association Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP): Arab-ledZanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP): Arab-led

• Formed in 1955Formed in 1955

• Support base: Arabs, Pemba & Tumbatu ShiraziSupport base: Arabs, Pemba & Tumbatu Shirazi

Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP):Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP):

• Formed 1957Formed 1957

• Support base: Mainland Africans & Unguja ShiraziSupport base: Mainland Africans & Unguja Shirazi

(Hadimu)(Hadimu)

Zanzibar and Pemba People’s Party (ZPPP):Zanzibar and Pemba People’s Party (ZPPP):• Formed in 1959Formed in 1959

• Support base: Pemba ShiraziSupport base: Pemba Shirazi



Arab Rule 1744-1963 (219years)

ZNP/ZPPP government

Dec 10, 1963–Jan 12, 1964 (33days)

Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar

Jan 12, 1964–April 26, 1964 (3 ½months)

E. African Federation?

State Succession &State Succession &

State Identity in Zanzibar State Identity in Zanzibar

Shirazi chieftainships until16th century

British Rule 1890-1963(73 years)

As the state has changed hands, so too has theidentity of the state changed.

III D ti ti d



III: Democratization andIII: Democratization and

& Political Identities& Political Identities Third wave of democratization brings to the foreThird wave of democratization brings to the fore

suppressed competing diversitiessuppressed competing diversities

Resurgence of identity politics: Recurrent featureResurgence of identity politics: Recurrent feature

of new democracies in Latin America, Africa, Asia,of new democracies in Latin America, Africa, Asia,

Eastern Europe and former USSREastern Europe and former USSR Group/ethnic identities: determining criterion forGroup/ethnic identities: determining criterion for

inclusion or exclusion in the polity in deeplyinclusion or exclusion in the polity in deeply

divided societies.divided societies.

‘ ‘Who belongs here?’ has become a buzz word inWho belongs here?’ has become a buzz word indemocratic competition in what Horowitz callsdemocratic competition in what Horowitz calls

‘severely divided societies’ (Horowitz, 1985) ‘severely divided societies’ (Horowitz, 1985)

D ti ti & P liti l Id titi



As opposed to cultural and market-basedAs opposed to cultural and market-based

identities, political identities are those that areidentities, political identities are those that are

legally enforced and institutionally reproduced inlegally enforced and institutionally reproduced inthe process of state formation (Mahmoodthe process of state formation (Mahmood

Mamdani, 2001)Mamdani, 2001)

Plural identities emerge from situations of stress,Plural identities emerge from situations of stress,

in which identity is threatened, and whenin which identity is threatened, and when

consequences of domination by another groupconsequences of domination by another group

are perceived to be enormousare perceived to be enormous

(Horowitz,1985,1999; Rothchild,1997)(Horowitz,1985,1999; Rothchild,1997)

Political identities: instrumental rather thanPolitical identities: instrumental rather than

primordial due to their dynamics, situational andprimordial due to their dynamics, situational and

pragmatic nature.pragmatic nature.

Democratization & Political IdentitiesDemocratization & Political Identities



‘ ‘Election-centric conception’ of ‘consolidation’ phase as Harbeson (1999)Election-centric conception’ of ‘consolidation’ phase as Harbeson (1999)

calls it, is problematiccalls it, is problematic

Even after three consecutive elections, democracy cannot be regarded asEven after three consecutive elections, democracy cannot be regarded as

having been consolidated in Zanzibar.having been consolidated in Zanzibar.

Democratic consolidation should go beyond the ‘democratic process,’ Democratic consolidation should go beyond the ‘democratic process,’

which focuses largely on the holding of multi-party competitive electionswhich focuses largely on the holding of multi-party competitive elections

and focuses on what Dankwart Rustow (1970) calls “habituation” and focuses on what Dankwart Rustow (1970) calls “habituation”

Guillermo O’Donnell (1996) refers to “a close fit between formal rules andGuillermo O’Donnell (1996) refers to “a close fit between formal rules and

behaviour.” behaviour.”



IV: Multi-Party Democracy &IV: Multi-Party Democracy &

Resurgence of Identity PoliticsResurgence of Identity Politics

(1992–present)(1992–present) Old political divisions and memories come to the fore.Old political divisions and memories come to the fore. Two major political parties emerge—Two major political parties emerge—CUFCUF andand CCMCCM

CCM (or Chama cha Mapinduzi)CCM (or Chama cha Mapinduzi)

• is a merger of ASP and Mainland party Tanganyika Africanis a merger of ASP and Mainland party Tanganyika AfricanNational Union (TANU)National Union (TANU)

• fully represents the interests of the old ASPfully represents the interests of the old ASP• Electoral support: the same as in pre-independence electionsElectoral support: the same as in pre-independence elections• CCM stronghold: Unguja and AfricansCCM stronghold: Unguja and Africans

Civic United Front (CUF)Civic United Front (CUF)• appears to replicate the previous ZNP-ZPPP allianceappears to replicate the previous ZNP-ZPPP alliance• Electoral support: the same as in pre-independence electionsElectoral support: the same as in pre-independence elections• CUF stronghold: Pemba and among non-AfricansCUF stronghold: Pemba and among non-Africans



CCM versus CUFCCM versus CUF

19952005

19952005

19952005

19952005

0

20

40

60

80

100

CCM votesin Unguja

CCM votesin Pemba

CUF votes inUnguja

CUF votes inPemba

1995

2005

Votes earned by CCM and CUF presidentialVotes earned by CCM and CUF presidential

candidates in Unguja and Pembacandidates in Unguja and Pemba

(1995–2005)(1995–2005)



Politicization of Racial IdentitiesPoliticization of Racial Identities

The return of multiparty politics has revivedThe return of multiparty politics has revivedunresolved questions concerning control of theunresolved questions concerning control of thestate in Zanzibar, its identity, and itsstate in Zanzibar, its identity, and itssovereignty.sovereignty.

Politicized racial identities during campaigns:Politicized racial identities during campaigns: ‘Africans’ vs. ‘Arabs’ ‘Africans’ vs. ‘Arabs’

For the regime in power, democratization can as wellFor the regime in power, democratization can as welllead to losing control of the state, its African identity,lead to losing control of the state, its African identity,and the possibility of being ruled by what they find asand the possibility of being ruled by what they find as

being the remnants of the Sultanate oligarchy.being the remnants of the Sultanate oligarchy. The state sovereignty is also at stake given the factThe state sovereignty is also at stake given the fact

that the policy of the major opposition party is tothat the policy of the major opposition party is torevisit the Union question (form and content).revisit the Union question (form and content).




CUF Campaign SpeechesCUF Campaign Speeches

Elections would lead to “the end of ablackman’s rule.”—CUF leader, campaignrally at Kibandamaiti, 21 October, 1995

“The African-led Revolutionary governmenthas been far more brutal than the Arabaristocracy…and that people’s livingstandards were better off before the

Revolution than it is today.”—CUFpresidential candidate, campaign rally atMakunduchi, September 17, 2005



CUF Campaign IssuesCUF Campaign Issues (cont’d)(cont’d)

Question legitimacy of the 1964 RevolutionQuestion legitimacy of the 1964 Revolution

Cherish Zanzibar’s 1963 independenceCherish Zanzibar’s 1963 independence

Pay reparations or return confiscated property toPay reparations or return confiscated property to

pre-revolution ownerspre-revolution owners

Convict those engaged in arbitrary killings andConvict those engaged in arbitrary killings andtorture during and after the revolutiontorture during and after the revolution

Advocate for a federal system, 3-governmentAdvocate for a federal system, 3-government

structurestructure

Suspend and review additional Union mattersSuspend and review additional Union matters Promote “equal rights for all,’ including equality inPromote “equal rights for all,’ including equality in

developmentdevelopment

f




CCM Campaign IssuesCCM Campaign Issues

“ “The Zanzibar population is predominantly black; the colour of The Zanzibar population is predominantly black; the colour of indigeneous Africans…There is a need to ensure that the greatindigeneous Africans…There is a need to ensure that the great1964 Revolution remains for ever and that Zanzibar remains1964 Revolution remains for ever and that Zanzibar remainsAfrican. That is the only way Africans as the majority ZanzibarisAfrican. That is the only way Africans as the majority Zanzibariscan determine their own fate and the destiny of Zanzibar” can determine their own fate and the destiny of Zanzibar”

“ “CUF is a party representing Arab interests and voting for it wouldCUF is a party representing Arab interests and voting for it would

lead to the restoration of the Sultanate, and the subsequentlead to the restoration of the Sultanate, and the subsequentbreak-up of the Union.” break-up of the Union.”

CUF is portrayed to be a Muslim party “with an intent of CUF is portrayed to be a Muslim party “with an intent of establishing an Islamic state.” establishing an Islamic state.”

——Omar Mapuri (former CCM deputy chief minister, minister of Omar Mapuri (former CCM deputy chief minister, minister of

education in Zanzibar, and former Union minister),education in Zanzibar, and former Union minister), Zanzibar Zanzibar Revolution: Achievements and Prospects,Revolution: Achievements and Prospects, 19971997



CCM Campaign IssuesCCM Campaign Issues

Praise & protect the 1964 RevolutionPraise & protect the 1964 Revolution ‘Revolution forever’ ‘Revolution forever’

Support the Union and two-governmentSupport the Union and two-government

structure (formal CCM policy)structure (formal CCM policy)

Bring about developmentBring about development

Maintain peace and unityMaintain peace and unity



Consequences of theConsequences of the


Political conflicts, political stand-offs, violence,Political conflicts, political stand-offs, violence,

lack of social and civic peace.lack of social and civic peace.

Three rounds of elections (in 1995, 2000, andThree rounds of elections (in 1995, 2000, and

2005) do not deepen democracy, but rather,2005) do not deepen democracy, but rather,derail it.derail it.

1995 and 2000 elections deemed not free and1995 and 2000 elections deemed not free and

fair, due to voter intimidation, voter fraud, riggingfair, due to voter intimidation, voter fraud, rigging

and partisanship of the electoral body.and partisanship of the electoral body. 2005 elections: anomalies in vote counting2005 elections: anomalies in vote counting



Sporadic violence during election season (2000). MassSporadic violence during election season (2000). Massdemonstrations lead to death of at least 30 peopledemonstrations lead to death of at least 30 people

Freedom of speech constrained by the governmentFreedom of speech constrained by the government

Two Reconciliation Accords between CCM and CUFTwo Reconciliation Accords between CCM and CUF

(1999 & 2001) breached(1999 & 2001) breached ‘ ‘Ethnicization of state apparatus’ Ethnicization of state apparatus’

Consequences of the

Politicization of Racial Identities

: mp ca ons o ompe ng o ca: mp ca ons o ompe ng o ca



: mp ca ons o ompe ng o ca: mp ca ons o ompe ng o caIdentities on DemocraticIdentities on Democratic

ConsolidationConsolidation

I: Elections become an instrument toI: Elections become an instrument to

maintain state powermaintain state power

• Voters are excluded based on theirVoters are excluded based on their

appearance, area of origin, partyappearance, area of origin, party

affiliation (‘Wapemba’ versus ‘Wabara’)affiliation (‘Wapemba’ versus ‘Wabara’)

• Security forces as voters—‘voterSecurity forces as voters—‘voter

importation’ importation’



Registration of Security ForcesRegistration of Security ForcesTurnout in Registration Centers in Central District with MilitaryTurnout in Registration Centers in Central District with Military

Camps NearbyCamps Nearby

Registration center Military Camp Estimated Voters Registered voters % of registeredvoters

Ubago School Ubago TPDF 441 1402 317.91

Machui School Machui JKU &FFU

696 1060 152.3

Posta Kaepwani Unguja Ukuu

Navy (KMKM)

1268 2076 163.72

Tunguu School Tunguu FireBrigades

520 556 106.92

Marumbi School Marumbi KMKM 561 876 156.15

DungabweniSchool

Dunga JKU &TPDF

1520 2106 138.55

Jendele School Jendele JKU 907 1366 152.81

Cheju School Cheju Prison 971 1163 119.77

Bambi Sec.School

Bambi JKU 1336 2125 159.06

Source: TEMCO (2006)Source: TEMCO (2006) The 2005 Presidential and General Elections inThe 2005 Presidential and General Elections in Zanzibar Zanzibar , p. 216, p. 216



II: CUF’s status as the leading opposition party inII: CUF’s status as the leading opposition party in

Tanzania is at riskTanzania is at risk Unlike other opposition parties in Tanzania, CUFUnlike other opposition parties in Tanzania, CUF

has a strong social base in Zanzibar, owing to ahas a strong social base in Zanzibar, owing to a

perceived common history and a collectiveperceived common history and a collective

sense of exclusionsense of exclusion However, politicization of CUF as a “Pemba” However, politicization of CUF as a “Pemba”

party, “Islamic” party, and “Arab” party, makesparty, “Islamic” party, and “Arab” party, makes

it difficult for CUF to expand its social base toit difficult for CUF to expand its social base to

the mainland.the mainland. All other opposition parties are in decline inAll other opposition parties are in decline in

terms of electoral support.terms of electoral support.

Implications of Competing Political Identities (cont’d)



CUF versus Other Parties:CUF versus Other Parties:

Union Parliamentary SeatsUnion Parliamentary Seats



0

10

20

30

4050

60

70

80

90

1995 2000 2005

Election Year

Paliamentary Seats (%)

CCM

Opposition

CCM versus OppositionCCM versus OppositionParliamentary Elections in TanzaniaParliamentary Elections in Tanzania

((1995–2005)1995–2005)



III: Ambivalent popular support forIII: Ambivalent popular support forinstitutions of democracyinstitutions of democracy

• “ “Unquestionable embrace of democraticUnquestionable embrace of democratic

procedures” by a significant segment of procedures” by a significant segment of

the citizenry is a crucial element of the citizenry is a crucial element of consolidation (Diamond et al., 1997)consolidation (Diamond et al., 1997)

• Unlike in mainland Tanzania, citizens’ Unlike in mainland Tanzania, citizens’

support for multi-party democracy insupport for multi-party democracy inZanzibar is comparatively low.Zanzibar is comparatively low.


P l S t f DPopular Support for Democracy



Popular Support for DemocracyPopular Support for Democracy

in Mainland Tanzania vs. Zanzibar (March 1999)in Mainland Tanzania vs. Zanzibar (March 1999)

PARTY SYSTEM TANZANIA MAINLAND ZANZIBAR

Multi-party system 51.5%54.4% 40.9%

(299)(247) (52)

Single-party

system

40.4%

37.4% 51.2%(235)

(170) (65)

No difference 8.1%8.1% 7.9%

(47)(37) (10)

TOTAL 100%100% 100%

(581)

(454) (127)





Mainland Tanzania vs. Zanzibar Mainland Tanzania vs. Zanzibar

PARTY SYSTEM TANZANIA MAINLAND ZANZIBAR

Multi-partysystem

63.3%65.5% 55.3%

(857) (690) (166)

Single-partysystem

27.9% 25.4% 34%

(369) (267) (102)

No difference 9.4% 9.1% 10.7%

(127) (96) (32)

TOTAL 100% 100% 100%

(1353)(1053) (300)

Tanzanians’ Support for Party Systems

(March 2006)




Racial Tolerance Among ZanzibarisRacial Tolerance Among Zanzibaris (1999 Survey)(1999 Survey) Questions Would Agree Somewhat Agree Would Disagree Depends on

his/her decisionTOTAL

Son marry fromdifferent racialgroup

59.8(76)

2.4(3)

21.3(27)

16.5(21)

100(127)

Daughter marryfrom differentracial group

56.7(72)

4.7(6)

22.8(29)

15.8(20)

100(127)

Son marry fromdifferent politicalparty

51.2(65) 4.7(6) 27.6(35) 16.6(21) 100(127)

Daughter marryfrom differentpolitical party

59.1(75)

4.7(6)

25.2(32)

11(14)

100(127)

Son marry from

another religion

11.8

(15)

4.7

(6)

68.5

(87)

15

(19)

100

(127)

If your MP is of differentrace/color

Don’t mind Somewhat mind Would mind Don’t know TOTAL

14.2(18)

7.1(9)

77.2(98)

1.6(2)

100(127)

If your MP is of

different religion

17.3 8.7 71.7 2.4 100

(22) (11) (91) (3) (127)


I li ti f C ti P liti l Id titiI li ti f C ti P liti l Id titi



Respondents’ Support for Democratic Institutions & ProcessesRespondents’ Support for Democratic Institutions & Processes

QUESTIONS Agree SomewhatAgree

Disagree Other Total

All political partiesbe allowed to holdpublic meetings

58.3%

(74)

7.1

(9)

24.4

(31)

10.3

(13)

100

(127)

Government criticsshould not contestfor nationalleadership

28.3

(36)

3.1

(4)

59.8

(76)

8.7

(11)

100

(127)

Private-owned

media should berestricted

18.9

(24)

11.8

(15)

57.5

(73)

11.8

(15)

100

(127)

Only CCM should beallowed to rule

55.9

(71)

0.8

(1)

39.4

(50)

4

(6)

100

(127)

Implications of Competing Political IdentitiesImplications of Competing Political Identities(cont’d)(cont’d)

Implications of Competing Political IdentitiesImplications of Competing Political Identities



IV: Rigidity of Zanzibari VotersIV: Rigidity of Zanzibari Voters

As a result of politicized ethno-racial identities, itAs a result of politicized ethno-racial identities, ithas been difficult for a third party or mainland-has been difficult for a third party or mainland-based parties to gain electoral supportbased parties to gain electoral support

Electoral campaigns are avenues largely forElectoral campaigns are avenues largely for

enhancing party loyalty among members, ratherenhancing party loyalty among members, ratherthan recruiting new members, e.g. role of partythan recruiting new members, e.g. role of partyyouth wings is to guard the meetings againstyouth wings is to guard the meetings against

‘intruders’ (non-members) ‘intruders’ (non-members)

Community/group pressure to make people attendCommunity/group pressure to make people attendonly those meetings that are organized by theironly those meetings that are organized by theirpartiesparties


I li ti f C ti P liti l Id titi



V: The State of the UnionV: The State of the Union

Increased assertiveness on the part of Zanzibar governmentIncreased assertiveness on the part of Zanzibar government

for more political space and autonomy from the Unionfor more political space and autonomy from the Union

government.government.

As political competition gets tougher, the need for strongAs political competition gets tougher, the need for strongcontrol over coercive instruments of the state becomescontrol over coercive instruments of the state becomes

necessary.necessary.

In May 2004, the Revolutionary government of ZanzibarIn May 2004, the Revolutionary government of Zanzibar

outlined 15 Union matters to be removed from the Union list,outlined 15 Union matters to be removed from the Union list,

including oil and natural gas, international relations,including oil and natural gas, international relations,

intelligence, police, etc.intelligence, police, etc.




VI: Conclusions & RecommendationsVI: Conclusions & Recommendations

Consensus, negotiations, accommodation,Consensus, negotiations, accommodation,

and compromise become difficult.and compromise become difficult. Rule of law and good governance becomeRule of law and good governance become

jeopardized jeopardized

Recognizing variations and contrasts betweenRecognizing variations and contrasts betweenthese two partner states is criticallythese two partner states is critically

importantimportant

Bring ethno-racial issues and theirBring ethno-racial issues and their

implications to the negotiation tableimplications to the negotiation table

Building and nurturing incentive mechanismsBuilding and nurturing incentive mechanisms

of dialogue and reconciliations should beof dialogue and reconciliations should be

made a high priority.made a high priority.

SS i i Z ib



Sunrise in Zanzibar Sunrise in Zanzibar

Documents

Identity Politics in Zanzibar and Challenges to Democratic Consolidation in Tanzania