Igcse Agriculture

8/19/2019 Igcse Agriculture

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IGCSE and GCSE Agriculture

Specification:

3.1 Agricultural systemsCandidates should be able to:• Describe in general terms the main features of an agricultural system: inputs, processes andoutputs.• Describe the influence of natural and human inputs on the processes and outputs of the twoagricultural systems listed in the syllabus (a large-scale system of commercial farming andsmallscale subsistence farming). Studies should include natural inputs (relief, climate and soil) andhuman inputs (economic, social and sometimes political). heir combined influences on the scale of

production, methods of organisation and the products of each system should be studied. !eferencemay be made to an e"ample such as plantation agriculture or e"tensi#e commercial cereal farmingor e"tensi#e li#estoc$ production, etc., to illustrate a large-scale system of commercial farming.%"amples such as intensi#e subsistence rice culti#ation or shifting culti#ation, etc. could profitablyillustrate a system of small-scale subsistence farming. &ther illustrations might be selected ratherthan the abo#e. 'n each case reference should be made to a detailed case study.• !ecognise the causes and effects of food shortages. Shortages of food may be related to naturalproblems such as soil e"haustion, drought, floods, tropical cyclones, pests, disease, etc. hereshould be an awareness of the effects of these natural problems on selected areas within %DCs.

%conomic and political factors and their effects upon food shortages should be noted, for e"amplelow capital in#estment, poor distribution transport difficulties, wars, etc. he effects of foodshortages inencouraging food aid and measures such as those of the *+reen !e#olution to produce more foodshould also be considered.

Agriculture (farming): he production of crops and or li#estoc$.

Aquaculture: he farming of a uatic (water based) plants and animals e.g. mussels, fish and

seaweed.

astoral !arming: he rearing of animals.

"i#estoc$: nimals that are domesticated and reared on a farm.

Ara%le !arming: he growing of crops.

Crops: ypes of plants that are grown on a farm e.g. wheat, corn, rice and barley.

&i'ed !arming: /arming that rears animals and culti#ates (grows) crops.


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Su%sistence !arming: /arming that in#ol#es only rearing enough animals and or growing enoughcrops to support immediate friends and family.

Sedentary !arming: /arming that ta$es places in a permanent location. he farm and the farmerstays in the same place e#ery year.

S ifting Culti#ation: /arming that mo#es from one location to another e#ery couple of years.

Commercial !arming: /arming for the purpose of ma$ing a profit.

E'tensi#e !arming: 0here there are relati#elyfew inputs (and possibly outputs) per hectare ofland.

Intensi#e !arming: 0here there are relati#elyhigh inputs and outputs per hecatre of land.

• 1ormally a larger farm• !elati#ely few inputs per hectare• !elati#ely few wor$ers per hectare• !elati#ely low yields per hectare

• 1ormally a smaller farm• !elati#ely high inputs per hectare•

!elati#ely high number of wor$ers perhectare

• !elati#ely high yields per hectare

ectare: hectare is an area of measurement e ui#alent to 23,333m4.

*ield: his is the amount of crops that are har#ested i.e. the crop output.

!arming as a System

5ust li$e industry, farming can also be loo$ed at as a system with inputs, processes and outputs. 'nfarming, physical (natural) and human impacts are normally separated.

uman Inputs: hings that are built

or made by humansand added to a farm.

ysical Inputs: 1aturalthings that are either foundon a farm or are added to afarm.

rocesses: he e#entsthat ta$e place on a farmto turn inputs intooutputs.

+utputs: hingsthat are produced ona farm and are oftensold.

• abour(wor$ers)

• 6achinery(tractors,combinehar#esters,etc.)

• 7uildings(barns, silos)

• Seed to growcrops

• nimal feed• /ertlisers and

pesticides• Cal#es,

Chic$s,

• Soil: 'f soil is fertilethen arable farming isli$ely to ta$e place, ifit is less fertile andcan only supportgrass then pastoralfarming is li$ely tota$e place.

• recipitation: 0aterthat helps water thecrops.

• Sun: %nergy to helpplants and animals to

grow.• Allu#ium: his is

mineral and nutrient

• ,earing: his isthe caring for andsupport of animalsto maturity.

• S earing: heremo#ing of woolfrom animals,normally sheep.

• loug ing: urning o#er the

land andpreparing it forplanting seeds.

•

!ertilising: dding chemicalsto the soil to try

• 8rofits• 6eat

products(lamb, beef,chic$en,por$)

• 0ool(normallyfrom sheep)

• 6il$(normallyfrom cows)

• 0aste e.g.

animale"crement

• 6ethane


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piglets, etc.(smallanimalsbought to rearand later sell)

rich sediment (load)that is transported byri#ers and depositedon floodplains intimes of flood.

• !lood -ater: /loodsnot only bringallu#ium but alsowater to $eep theground moist.

• ,elief: 'f land is flatthen it is easier forarable farming to ta$eplace. 'f land is hillythen pastoral farmingis more li$ely to ta$eplace.

• rainage: 't isimportant that fieldsare well drained sothey are notpermanently flooded.

part from rice mostcrops and animalscan9t sur#i#e beingpermanentlysubmerged.

and ma$e it morefertile.

• /eeding: !emo#ing alienplants (plantsother than thecrops your aregrowing) fromcrop fields.

• Irrigating: 0atering the land.

• Culti#ating: ocare for and growcrops.

• ar#esting: hecollection of crops

at the end of thegrowing season.• Slaug tering:

he $illing ofanimals once theyha#e reachedmaturity and areready to sell.

• lanting: 8uttingseeds into theground.

(mainly fromcows)

• Crops (corn,wheat,carrots,potatoes,etc.)

'f a farmer has a really successful year, he maybe able to change his inputs the ne"t year, by:

• 7uying more land• 7uying better and newer e uipment e.g. new tractor or combine har#ester• 'mpro#ing drainage and or irrigation• 7uying new #arieties of seed, maybe +6 crops• 7uilding new buildings e.g. silos, barns or greenhouses• 7uying more animals or better breeds

lternati#ely the farmer may choose to ha#e a more rela"ing year and lea#e some of the land fallowor set it aside for en#ironmental purposes. owe#er, if a farmer has had a really bad year, he has toma$e decisions the ne"t year. Does he in#est in inputs and try and recoup loses or does he cut bac$on inputs. is choices may include:

• e may sell some of his li#estoc$• e may sell some of his land• e may di#ersify by opening a shop or a small 7;7• e may try and farm more intensi#ely by buying more fertilisers and pesticides


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Silos: large tall building designed to store and protect crops that ha#e been har#ested e.g. wheatand barley.

0arns: large structure normally made from wood or corrugated steel to store machinery,har#ested crops or to protect animals.

umans can change some of the natural inputs found on farms. he changes are not alwaysintentional, nor always caused by the farmer but may include:

Climate C ange: 't is now widely accepted that the main cause of climate change is the enhancedgreenhouse effect that has been caused by humans. he climate is changing in many ways analtering natural inputs in many ways< some areas are getting warmer and drier, while other areas aregetting wetter. 0hat e#er the change farmers will ha#e to adapt to the changing inputs.

Acid ,ain: cid rain which is largely caused by human pollution can alter the p of of soil anddamage crops again forcing farmers to adapt their farming techni ues.

Construction of a am: construction of a nearby dam may impro#e the supply of water andallow new irrigation channels to be built, but it will also reduce flooding and therefore the amountof allu#ium that is deposited on farm land. he reduced input of allu#ium may force farmers to usemore fertilisers.

Irrigation C annels: he construction of irrigation channels di#erting more water onto farmland

should ma$e the ground more moist and easier to farm.

rainage itc es: 'mpro#ed drainage may allow pre#iously flooded land to be farmed and drainflood water away uic$er.

Su%sistence !arming Ganges ,i#er2 India and0anglades

he +anges ri#er flows eastwards from the imalayas through northern 'ndia and into7angladesh. he mouth of the +anges is in the 7ay of 7engal. 6uch of 'ndia and7angladesh are #ery poor and a lot of the farming that ta$es place is subsistencefarming (growing crops for immediate friends and family).

he area around the +anges is moist (especially during the monsoon sea), warm (o#er43 degrees centigrade most of the time) and fairly fertile (allu#ium from flood e#ents).7ecause of the natural inputs growing can ta$e place most of the year and fairlyintensi#ely. owe#er, growing rice is #ery labour intensi#e, rice paddies need to beconstructed to hold water, irrigation channels need to be dug, seedlings planted, weedsremo#ed and rice har#ested. 7ecause most of paddies and plots of land are small, #ery

little e uipment is used. s well as humans animals li$e water buffalo are used.raditions means that plots of land are di#ided up after death which ma$es the farms

less producti#e as they get smaller.


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o try and impro#e yields in areas li$e the +anges !i#er the so called greenre#olution started in the late 2=>39s. he green re#olution was an idea to introducewestern plant #arieties and farming techni ues. he main change was the introductionof ?@ crops which aimed to increase yields. he green re#olution brought somesuccesses and failures. hese successes and failures are summarised below the climate

information.

Climate Grap for ol$ataClimate graphs are #ery useful for showing the a#erage conditions of a city or region. Climategraphs show two #ariables< temperature in a line graph (often coloured red) and rainfall in a bargraph (normally coloured blue). 0hen loo$ing at climate graphs you always need to rememberthat they are a#erage conditions and that months can be hotter or colder, drier or wetter thanshown on the graph.

'f we loo$ at Aol$ata9s climate graph we can notice that it has a fairly small temperature range,about B degrees centigrade. 'n 5anuary the temperature is about 43 degrees centigrade rising toabout 4B degrees centigrade in 6ay. 't then decreases gently reaching 43 degrees centigrade inDecember, e"cept for the month of September which e"periences a slight increase to about 4degrees centigrade.

he rainfall appears to ha#e two #ery distinct seasons. here is a lot of rain from 6ay through to&ctober and #ery little from 1o#ember through to pril. ugust is the month with pea$ rainfallreaching about 33mm, while December has the lowest with about Emm.

&onsoon: his is the term normally used to describe South sia9s rainy season running from6ay to &ctober.

Climate +raph for Aol$ata, 'ndia

Successes of Green ,e#olution !ailures of Green ,e#olution• ?@ did increase food production and

made countries li$e 'ndia more self-sufficient

• /ood prices began to fall ma$ing themmore affordable for the poor

• 6ore crops could be grown because ofthe shorter growing seasons

• he yields were more reliable• Different crops were grown adding

#ariety to local diet• here were surpluses so crops could

then be traded commercially

• arge amounts of fertilisers and pesticideswere needed that could then pollute watersources

• he ?@ were more susceptible to diseaseand drought

• 6ore water had to be di#erted to growingthe crops

• 6any poorer farmers could not afford tobuy the more e"pensi#e ?@ seed

• 6echanisation has ta$en place leading tounemployment

• 6any natural #arieties lost


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• 6any farmers became wealthier • Countries and farmers became dependent of

foreign companies for the supply of seed.

Green ,e#olution: he introduction of modern western style farming techni ues in %DCs during

the late 2=>39s and 2= 39s.

*4: igh yield #arieties were de#eloped to try and end food shortages by increasing yields. ighyield #arieties were first de#eloped by cross pollinating different #arieties of rice. 'ncreasingly thisis being done through genetic modification.

"a%our Intensi#e: 0hen wor$ done is mainly done by humans and animals.

5enure: his means who owns the land. 'n many societies on someones death the land is passed to

the eldest son or di#ided amongst all the siblings (sons and possibly daughters). 'f the land isdi#ided it means the plots of land get smaller and smaller with each generation and becomeincreasingly difficult to farm effecti#ely.

here are a number of ways that subsistence farmers can try and increase their yields and ma$emoney. 'f they increase their yields they can support their families, but also possibly ha#e e"tra tosell and earn an income.

• 6se *4 or G& crops: hese should increase the a#erage yield, but the crops can bee"pensi#e to buy. lso intensi#e farming may degrade the uality of the soil o#ertime.

• 0uy more land: 1ot always possible but if a farmer has money (maybe a micro loan) thenhe could try and buy e"tra land.

• "and reform: Changing traditional practices of di#iding land into smaller and smallerprofits can ensure that plots of land remain big enough to ma$e farming sustainably.

• 6se fertlisers and pesticides: Fse fertilisers so it is possible to grow more intensi#ely anduse pesticides to stop plants being $illed by infestations.

• 5-o crops: 'n some countries it is possible to grow two sets of crops each year (these mightbe the same crops or different crops). %#en if climatic conditions are fa#ourable by changingsome of the inputs li$e irrigation and drainage then it may become possible.

• &odern mac inery: Fsing machinery might not always be possible of small plots of land,but it maybe possible if neighbouring farmers are cooperating. 6achinery should ma$efarming more efficient and may increase yields by ploughing better and har#esting uic$er.

• Irrigation: 7y watering crops more fre uently it maybe possible to grow crops o#er alonger season, grow for two seasons or farm land that was pre#iously too arid.

• Cooperati#es: 7y Goining together with nearby farmers, farmers can share technology andpossibly e#en land to try and increase production.

• 5erracing: 7y terracing on hillsides farmers maybe able to increase the siHe of their land.

erracing can also reduce the use of water.


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Commercial !arming "ynford all !arm2Cam%ridges ire2 6

Commercial farming is growing agricultural products with the aim of ma$ing a profit.ynford all /arm is an arable farm growing mainly wheat, potatoes and peas. he

farm is located in Cambridgeshire which is the east of %ngland. Cambridgeshire is agood location for farming because the land is flat, the soil is fertile and thetemperature warm with plentiful rainfall. owe#er, before farming started inCambridgeshire the areas had to be drained because it was mainly wetland.

ynford all farm is a large farm (E 3 hectares) and highly mechanised andcomputerised. 7ecause of this it does not employ large numbers of wor$ers. 't couldbe considered an e"ample of e"tensi#e farming because its inputs are small comparedto its siHe, although its outputs are large.

he farm recei#es subsidies under the C 8. he subsidies that ynford all /armrecei#es are designed to impro#e the %F9s self sufficiency and protect the en#ironmentof the farm. ynford all farm has also tried to di#ersify and sa#e money. 't has donethis by selling some unused land and renting bungalows on the farm. 't has also triedto build a wind turbine but that has met with local protests (1'67?).&ec anisation: !eplacing humans with machine. Commercial farms will use more e uipment li$etractors and combine har#esters.

i#ersification: his means increase the range of products. 'n farming this might be mo#ing tomi"ed farming or adding new crops. owe#er, it might also mean opening a bed and brea$fast(small guesthouse), opening a coffee shop or farm shop or allowing educational #isits.

Su%sidies: Subsidies are financial help gi#en to industries to ma$e their production cheaper. he%F gi#es many of its farmers subsidies in order to protect tradition, to be self sufficient and toprotect from foreign competition.

7I&0*: 1'67? stands for not in my bac$ yard and it is the phenomenon of people appro#ing ofcertain de#elopments, but not wanting them to happen near where they li#e e.g. a wind turbine.

CA : he Common gricultural 8olicy is the %F9s farming policy aimed at creating a single%uropean mar$et for farm products, become self sufficient, increase farm income and pro#idefinancial support. he C 8 and %F subsidies ha#e been criticised as protectionist and actually$eeping the prices of farm products in the %F artificially high. 'f competition from outside wasallowed then cheaper products could be imported.

Surpluses: his is when you ha#e an e"cess of crops. surplus for a subsistence farmer will meanthat they can sell it at mar$et and ma$e a profit. surplus for a commercial farmer may mean that

they ha#e too much to sell and may dump it as aid on an %DC or simply throw it away.

Countries or indi#idual farms may produce surpluses for a number of reasons including:


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• Su%sidies: /inancial help may allow a farmer to increase his inputs (land, machinery,irrigation, etc.) which will allow them to produce more crops.

• !a#oura%le natural inputs: /arms or countries may ha#e ideal conditions to grow certaincrops. he relief of the land, the fertility of the land and weather may all be perfect. Someyears may also be better than others because of hot summers or absence of frost which

ma$es certain years better than other creating surpluses.• &ain sector of t e economy: /or countries where farming is the main sector of the

economy then greater support and help will be put into the farming sector gi#ing it a betterchance to produce surpluses for sale.

• Crop #arieties: he use of new #arieties li$e +6 crops may increase yields and lead tosurpluses.

• !arming tec niques8practices: 1ew farming techni ues li$e greater use of fertilisers,irrigation or crop rotation may increase yields.

Cas Crops Coffee !arming in 4ietnam

@ietnam is located in S% sia. lthough the @ietnamese economy is growing uic$ly, the maGorityof its citiHens are still employed in the primary sector - mainly fishing and farming. @ietnam usedto produce #ery little coffee, but after hea#y promotion by the @ietnamese go#ernment it uic$lyturned into the world9s second biggest producer after 7raHil and actually the biggest producer of thecheaper robusta coffee (the other type of coffee is arabica which has a better taste and sells formore). @ietnam now has o#er E33,333 hectares dedicated to coffee plantations (most in the Central

ighlands). @ietnam9s main customers are the FS and +ermany.

Coffee production has brought Gobs (estimated E33,333 accounting for 4I of national wor$force)and income (in 433B the e"port #alue was estimated to be o#er J4 billion) to @ietnam, but it hasalso caused many problems. arge areas of rainforest ha#e been cleared ( K,333 hectares only inDac ac 8ro#ince), rural areas ha#e become o#ercrowded, there are water shortages because of theall the water used to irrigate the coffee plants and the rapid growth of @ietnamese coffee e"portscaused the price of coffee to collapse. he large scale deforestation has also led to erosion oftopsoil and loss of wildlife - @ietnam has many endangered animals including tigers, leopards,elephants and the 5a#an rhino (now belie#ed to be e"tinct in @ietnam).

he graph to the right shows the world coffee prices o#er a ten year period. he graph clearly

highlights how much prices can fluctuate by and demonstrates the ris$ of depending on one cropfor income.


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Cas crops: Crops that are normally grown in large plantations for the purpose of selling (ma$ing aprofit). Cash crops are often grow in %DCs and refer to things li$e bananas, tea, rubber, coffeebeans, cocoa beans and palm oil, but they can also refer to corn, wheat, barley, etc. grown in6%DCs. Cash crops are sometimes referred to as commodities .

&onoculture: his is the growing of only one type of crop.

here are a number of problems that come from specialising in one crop (monoculture). heproblems include:

• isease: 'f you only grow one crop, they can be wiped out if they are attac$ed by a diseaseor parasite. 'f you ha#e a mi"ture of crops then other should sur#i#e if one is attac$ed.

• rice !luctuations: 7ecause cash crops are traded globally, their prices can fluctuate with

changes in supply and demand. herefore if you are only growing one crop and the pricecollapses, then you lose the maGority of your income.

• C anging emands: gain if you only grow one crop and the demand for that cropchanges, then you potentially lose all of your income. /or e"ample if you grow only coffeeand e#ery suddenly stops drin$ing coffee because of the fear of caffeine then you could loseall of your income.

• 7atural disasters: Some crops are more #ulnerable to natural disasters than others. /ore"amples frost can destroy fruits, grains can be flooded by rain, bananas can be damaged byhurricanes. herefore it is better to grow a #ariety of crops as to minimise the ris$ of

damage.


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S ifting Culti#ation

/arming that in#ol#es clearing an area of land (deforestation) in order to farm.Shifting culti#ation is usually small-scale subsistence farming. &nce the land is

cleared farming will ta$e place. owe#er, without its normal source of nutrients(rotting plant and animal matter) the soil soon becomes infertile and the farmers areforced to mo#e onto a new location. Shifting culti#ation is #ery common amongstindigenous groups in rainforests. Shifting culti#ation is often criticised for causingproblems including:

• he $illing or disturbance of flora and fauna.• he brea$ing of the nitrogen cycle, causing soil to lose its fertility #ery uic$ly• 7rea$ing the stability of the soil and causing top soil erosion. ree roots are

#ery good at holding soil in place. 'f you remo#e these roots then water andwind erosion is more li$ely to happen.

• 6ore flash floods caused by the reduced interception, faster saturation ofground and increased surface run-off.

• Silting of ri#ers caused by top soil being washed into ri#ers. he silt can thenbe washed into the seas bloc$ing shipping channels or damaging reefs.

owe#er, others would argue that shifting culti#ation is normally carried out byindigenous groups who ha#e been custodians of the rainforest for thousands of yearsand therefore should $now how to care for it. lso it maintains a traditional way oflife and is only small-scale as apposed to some of large cattle ranches that deforest

large areas of rainforest.Slas and %urn farming: he process of cutting down areas of forest and then burning thestubble roots in order to farm. 7ecause land will become infertile #ery uic$ly, slash and burnfarmers will mo#e land e#ery few years.

7omadic: 1omadic simply means mo#ing from place to place. Subsistence farmers who practiceshifting culti#ation (slash and burn farming) are nomadic because they mo#e locations e#ery fewyears.

G& Crops and +rganic !arming+,GA7IC C,+ S A7

!A,&I7G: /arming that usesnatural #arieties and natural farming

techni ues. here is only #erylimited use of fertlisers.

G& !A,&I7G A7 C,+ S:+enetically modified crops are

crops that ha#e their genes alteredto impro#e uality and or uantity

A 4A75AGES • 7ecause the crops ta$e longer

to ripen then they ha#e betterfla#our.

• imited fertilisers orpesticides are used so there isminimal run-off into ri#ers orinfiltration into groundwater

• Crops are all uniform inshape which may ma$estorage and transport easierand or appeal to customers.

• he growing season is oftenshorter and can often bepossible to ha#e two or


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stores.• here are also much less

chemicals they maybeconsumed by customers.

• &rganic crops often get ahigher price when sold toconsumers

more crop seasons per year.• Crops maybe drought

resistant so less water isused in their production.

• 't maybe possible +6 cropsin areas pre#iously deemedunsuitable for farming.

ISA 4A75AGES

• he crops are not uniform i.e.they don9t all loo$ the same.

lthough this is natural itmay put off some customers.

• he crops maybe susceptibleto diseases.

•

he crops may ta$e longer togrow increasing the growingseason.

• he crops may need morewater to grow,

• 1ati#e natural species maydie as a result because theycan9t compete with thestronger +6 crops.

• he taste is often not asgood because they ha#ebeen grown uic$er andoften grown for appearance

rather than taste.• 't can lead to thede#elopment of superweeds to compete with thestronger +6 crops

• 1o one $nows the long termaffects on humans

part from organic farming, it is possible for farmers to be more en#ironmentally sustainable byfollowing a number of other practices including:

• 8lant hedges to act as wind brea$ and create habitats for animals• 8rotect plant and animal species by building or protecting habitats e.g. lea#ing areas of

woodland, meadow and la$es• 8utting aside part of their land to grow wild natural species (the C 8 now offers some

funding for farmers who do this)• !otating crops and growing a greater #ariety of traditional nati#e crops• llowing animals to graHe outdoor, rather than li#e in cages (free range animals and eggs)• Fsing traditional farming methods instead of relying on fertilisers and pesticides e.g. natural

manure• 'ntroducing more fallow periods to allow soil to rest• &pen educational centres (city farms)

!amine

!amine: 0hen the demand for food e"ceeds the supply of food leading to undernourishment.8rolonged undernourishment can damage people9s health and e#entually lead to star#ation.

roug t: 0hen the demand for water e"ceeds the supply of water causing water stress (watershortages).


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Soil egradation: reduction in the uality of soil, ma$ing it harder to grow things.

esertification: he process of soil becoming degraded and turning to desert.

Soil erosion: he remo#al of topsoil (topsoil is normally the most fertile layer) usually by wind andwater. Soil is much more #ulnerable to erosion when no #egetation is growing on it.

uman Causes of !amine ysical Causes of !amine• +#erpopulation: he growing population

of the world means that demand for food isincreasing. Fnfortunately the supply of foodis not always matching this demand. his isa problem that 6althus predicted.

• +#ergra9ing: 7y trying to graHe too manycattle on land, all the #egetation can beeaten. his reduces the integrity of the soiland can cause topsoil erosion and soildegradation.

• +#erculti#ation: rying to grow much onland can cause its degradation by using allthe nutrients and not gi#ing them time toreco#er. 'f the land becomes degraded thenthe yields decline.

• eforestation: 7y deforesting large areas

of woodland, then again the integrity of thesoil can be damaged as well as its source ofnutrients. his can cause soil degradationand erosion, both leading to reduced yields.

• ollution: /arming and industrial pollutioncan both degrade the land and reduce yieldsof crops.

• Conflict: 0hen fighting ta$es place, it isoften men that fight remo#ing them fromfarming duties and therefore reducing yield.

lso conflict can also ma$e the land todangerous to farm (mines) or degrade thesoil because of chemical or biologicalwarfare.

• Corruption: Sometimes go#ernmentofficials or armies can use crops forthemsel#es or their own needs leading thegeneral population to go hungry.

• 5emperature: emperatures that aretoo hot or too cold can both $ill cropsand animals. 6ost crops need steadyand reliable temperatures.

• ,ainfall: 'f there is a shortage ofrainfall then most crops will die orneed e"tra irrigation. 'f water to irrigateis not a#ailable then crops will begin todie and yields reduce.

• !looding: lthough all crops needrainfall, especially things li$e rice, toomuch rainfall can flood and $ill cropsor wash away topsoil reducing the soilsfertility. ( %l Sal#ador Counts Cost asCrops are Destroyed by /loods - 77Carticle )

• 7atural isasters: 1atural disastersli$e hurricanes, tsunamis and #olcanoescan destroy large areas of agriculturalland. hey can also $ill or inGurefarmers. 7oth factors reduce yields.

• Soil fertility: 'f soil is infertile becausethe bedroc$ contains few minerals or

there is no flora and fauna to pro#ide ahumus layer then it can be hard toculti#ate the land and lead to lowyields.

General ro%lems Caused 0y roug t and !amine

"i#estoc$ deat s: 0hen there is a shortage of water and food, animals are the first to go without,so animals will start to die. his ma$es the famine e#en worse because there is less meat, eggs,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15457562http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15457562http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15457562http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15457562http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15457562http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15457562


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mil$, etc.

Crop failure: Drought can cause crops to fail, but also when there is famine people often becometoo wea$ to wor$ on the land so less crops are grown and the famine worsens.

Illness: 0hen there is s shortage of food and water, people become wea$ from undernourishment(lac$ of food) and are more #ulnerable to getting sic$.

eat : Se#ere drought and famine will e#entually lead to death. 't is usually the #ery old, young oralready sic$ that die first.

Conflict: 'f the resources of food and water are declining, fighting o#er these resources is li$ely toincrease, especially between different tribes and countries.

"oss of Education: 0hen drought happens people ha#e to tra#el further to find food and water.hey also become sic$er. 7oth of these factors can impact students and teachers. 0ho it affects it

means that people are either unable to go to school or ha#e no one to teach them once they are atschool.

"oss of income: 'f people are unable to wor$ they are unable to wor$ and earn money. lso manycountries that suffer from famine ha#e large primary sectors. /amine normally means that theprimary sector (farming) has collapsed and people ha#e nothing to sell to ma$e money.

5 e Sa el !amine and esertificationhe Sahel is an area of land south of the Sahara Desert. 't stretches from 6auritania in the west

through 6ali, 1iger, Chad and into %ritrea and %thiopia. he areas in the Sahel ha#e #ery hightotal fertility rates (the a#erage number of children a woman has in her lifetime) causing thepopulation to rise rapidly. his rising population is steadily increasing the demand for food. 'n themeantime the supply of food is also being affected because of land degradation caused by:

• Deforestation• ergraHing• !educed rainfall• 'ncreased temperatures

he combination of increased demand and reduced supply has meant that many areas in Sahelha#e suffered from famine (food shortages).

'n 1iger a lac$ of rainfall (rainfall #aries between 4 and BE cm in 1iger, but most falls in a 4month period) caused a 4>I decline in crop yields in 433=. Daytime temperatures in 1iger arenormally o#er 3 degrees centigrade so e#aporation rates are high. his has meant that about halfof its population of 2E million people face potential food shortages in 4323. 1iger is a poorlandloc$ed country (+D8 per capita is about J E3 per capita) where o#er E3I of the populationare in#ol#ed in farming (subsistence farming). 'ncreasing temperatures and less predictable rainfallcombined with deforestation and desertification mean that 1iger are li$ely to e"perience


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increasing problems in the future. 1iger is also e"periencing rapid population growth with totalfertility of .K.

Strong !is$ of 4323 /amine in frica9s Sahel - !euters

1iger9s Complicated unger Crisis - 77C article

Some Solutions to !amine and "and egradation• Crop ,otation and !allo- eriods: 7y using different crops and allowing the land to rest

it gi#es nutrients and minerals chance to return to soil ma$ing it more fertile and hopefullyincrease yields o#er longer periods.

• esalination: a$ing water from the sea and remo#ing the salt to ma$e it good for drin$ingand agricultural uses. 'f more water is a#ailable it is then possible to water arid areas of landand hopefully increase crop production.

• Irrigation: his means watering the land. 7y irrigating more arid areas we should be able toincrease agricultural output.

• ,eforestation and afforestation: 7y foresting areas of land it can ensure that the nitrogencycle (nutrients) is maintained, it can increase the stability and integrity of the soil and it canform a wind brea$ from erosion and finally pre#ent flash floods. ll these factors shouldimpro#e the uality of the soil and hopefully crop yields.

• !ertlisers and esticides: lthough o#eruse of fertilisers and pesticides can damage the soiland pollute nearby water courses, if they are used properly they should impro#e the amount

of nutrients present in the soil.• G& Crops: Some people belie#e +6 crops could drastically reduce famine by increasingyields by allowing crops to grow more uic$ly, grow bigger, be more drought and diseaseresistant.

• Impro#ed istri%ution of Crops: 't is argued that there is currently enough food to feede#eryone but it is not distributed e#enly. +o#ernments, charities and organisations li$e the0/8 (0orld /ood 8rogramme) can try and distribute food more e#enly so no one goeshungry.

• opulation olicies: 7y reducing population growth, especially in areas with low

agricultural output, we should be able to reduce shortages of food and therefore famine.
http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE60S04T20100129http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17506421http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE60S04T20100129http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17506421

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