Improving Performance

How do athletes train for improved performance?

• Improved athletic performance is achieved by combining the right balance of all aspects of training—strength, aerobic, anaerobic, flexibility and skill—into a tailored plan to suit an individual athlete’s needs.

Strength Training

• Strength is defined as the maximal force generated by a muscle group.

• Strength training involves manipulating several variables to achieve the different goals of strength, muscle hypertrophy and muscle endurance.

• These variables include:• repetitions • volume• sets • rest periods.• intensity

• Intensity is often determined in one of two ways:– by determining 1RM and lifting a

percentage of that depending on the goal– by calculating how much the athlete can lift

for a set number of repetitions, e.g. the maximum load for 10 repetitions.

• Resistance training– refers to any exercise in which muscles

contract against an external resistance with the aim of increasing strength, muscle size or muscle endurance.

– The resistance may be elastic bands, hydraulics, weight machines or free weights.

• Swimming pool exercise routines are one example of hydraulic resistance training.

• Another example involves hydraulic machines that involve two concentric contractions of the antagonistic muscle groups.

• These machines do not allow eccentric contractions.

• When using hydraulic resistance, greater resistance is achieved by a faster speed of execution.

• Elastic resistance bands and tubing are now becoming popular because of their portability and affordability

• Weight training– Weight training, or isotonic training, specifically refers

to exercises that rely on gravity for resistance. – These exercises involve equipment such as barbells,

dumbbells, weight stacks and plates to increase the force of gravity.

– They involve concentric and eccentric contractions.– During weight training exercises, the muscle

strengthens throughout the full range of motion. – However, the majority of the load is at the beginning,

so this is the most difficult part of the lift. – The resistance varies throughout the exercise

depending on joint angles.

• Designing strength training programs– The eight steps in designing an effective and safe

strength training program. 1. Identify the goals or needs of the athlete.2. Select exercises, considering whether they are multi-

joint or single-joint exercises, and the muscle groups involved.

3. Determine the order of exercises- alternate:

– lower and upper body exercises– push and pull exercises– power exercises, then multi-joint exercises, then single joint

exercises.

4. Determine the volume of the session (i.e. total amount of weight to be lifted).5. Determine the intensity required (as a percentage of 1RM).

6. Allow rest periods between sets These will be influenced by the training status of the athlete and the training goal.

7. Determine the number of exercises. This will be influenced by the athlete’s background.

8. Determine the number of training sessions per week.

• Incorporating variations– Once you have established the muscle

groups that need to be worked, you can consider different exercises or variations of exercises to continually challenge muscles.

• Training systems– To improve strength, an athlete needs to

perform at least three sessions a week, whereas generally strength can be maintained with two sessions a week.

– Beginners will usually start work on a program of 2–3 sets of 10–12 repetitions, with the emphasis on technique.

– However, once a base has been developed, more advanced overload training systems can be incorporated.

Aerobic training• Continuous

– Continuous training involves non-stop exercise for a set period of time or distance.

– This can involve any mode of exercise—rowing, cycling, running, swimming, kayaking, and so on.

– Traditionally, team sport athletes go for a 10-kilometre road run to build aerobic endurance.

– This run would be a ‘steady state’ activity at 75 per cent of MHR.

– Nowadays, unless a sport is a continuous endurance sport such as triathlon, distance running or road cycling, more emphasis will be placed on interval training as the method to improve aerobic endurance

• Fartlek– Fartlek training involves continuous

exercise interspersed with ‘sprints’ of varying distances.

– This is also referred to as ‘speed play’ and often involves hilly terrain.

– An example would be a 45-minute cycle that includes 10 reps of high intensity spurts for 30–60 seconds

• Long interval– There are two types of interval training:

• continuous intervals, which involve low-intensity exercise between the higher intensity repetitions

• stop-start intervals, which have a prescribed rest period between repetitions.

– Research indicates that interval training is an excellent way to improve aerobic fitness.

– Manipulating the duration, number and intensity of repetitions, as well as recovery periods, will provide overload.

– A popular form of continuous interval training is high-intensity interval training (HiiT), which research indicates is very effective for fat burning and increasing aerobic power.

– This type of training increases resting metabolic rate. One example is to include 15–20 minutes of 30-second sprints and 60–90 seconds of jogging (after a warm-up).

– An example of stop-start intervals would be 10 × 150-metre sprints with 2 minutes of recovery time between repetitions.

Anaerobic training (power and speed)

• A tennis player has just finished a long rally which involved quickly covering both sides of the court, then sprinting to the net to hit the winning volley.

• Anaerobic fitness allows the player to quickly accelerate, and to sustain repeated high-intensity efforts with short recovery.

• Anaerobic power refers to the maximum rate that ATP is produced by the alactacid anaerobic energy system, while anaerobic capacity refers to the total amount of ATP produced by both the alactacid and lactic acid energy systems during sustained high-intensity exercise e.g. 60–90 seconds at maximal effort.

• Developing power through resistance/weight training– Power is the ability to generate large amounts of

force as quickly as possible.– Consequently, power is a combination of strength

and speed. – Power exercises involve acceleration (e.g. bench

throws, jump squats and power cleans) throughout the movement, whereas strength exercises will have a deceleration phase (e.g. bench press, squat and shoulder press).

– Power can be developed by using free weights, machines and medicine balls. When using free weights, an athlete aims to perform the exercise explosively.

• Guidelines for developing power through resistance training include the following:– load = 50 per cent of 1RM for a trained athlete

(high maximal strength) or 20–40 per cent of 1RM for a developing athlete (continue to work on maximal strength)

– reps = 1–5– sets = 3–5– speed = fast but controlled– recovery > 3 minutes.

• Plyometrics– Plyometric exercises involve a fast, powerful movement

using a pre-stretch or counter-movement that involves the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC).

– Examples include jumps, hops, bounds and medicine ball exercises.

– Individual considerations for plyometric programming include:

• size of the athlete—lower volume for larger athletes due to great stress levels on contact

• the athlete’s injury profile• the fatigue factor—technique is compromised when an athlete is

fatigued and can lead to greater risk of injury• the maturation level of the athlete• sports demand—if power is not a major component of the sport,

or the person is training purely for health benefits, plyometrics are not recommended

• fitness level—the athlete should have an adequate strength base.

• Plyometrics should be performed when an athlete is in a non-fatigued state, so is programmed in to the early parts of a training session.

• For team sports, 1–2 plyometric sessions is sufficient per week, with at least a 48-hour recovery between sessions.

• As a general guide, it has been suggested to limit foot contacts to 100 per session for beginners and 140–200 per session for advanced athletes.

• Beginners could commence with 3–4 exercises, with 2–4 sets of 5–10 reps and 2-minute recovery periods.

• Short interval– Anaerobic intervals involve short periods of

high-intensity work. – The manipulation of the duration, intensity

and rest period will determine what is being trained—the alactic energy system, the lactic acid energy system, or speed.

– Varying the duration of high-intensity intervals will change the training effect:

• up to 6 seconds: targets alactic power• 6–25 seconds: improves alactic capacity• 25–40 seconds: incorporates lactic power• 40–60 seconds: improves lactic capacity.

– Recovery rates will be influenced by the training status of the athlete.

– Elite athletes will recover faster and still stay in the correct training zone.

– The work-to-rest ratio will generally be between 1:1.5 and 1:5.

– This means 30 seconds of effort will be followed by 45 seconds to 150 seconds of recovery.

– Overspeed training is employed to increase stride frequency.

– This includes running downhill, using a bungee cord or pulley system, or high-speed (lowresistance) cycling.

– Resisted training improves stride length and includes running pulling a sled or tyre, using a harness or parachute as extra resistance or running uphill.

Flexibility training

• Flexibility is the ability to move a muscle through a complete range of motion.

• When an athlete’s muscles are tight and they have a limited range of movement, there is an increased chance of musculoskeletal injuries and a possible reduction in performance.

• Regular flexibility training can improve or maintain an athlete’s range.

• Flexibility training can also be found within specific physical activities.

• There are three key types of stretching that can be incorporated into a training program: static, dynamic and ballistic stretching.

• In addition, there is a fourth type of stretching which can be useful: PNF stretching. This involves an isometric contraction or ‘hold’ followed by a concentric muscle contraction, with the sequence repeated several times.

• Variations include hold/relax and contract/relax. An example of PNF stretching is an assisted hamstring stretch.

• Static– Static stretching is performed slowly and does

not require any equipment.– The muscle is slowly taken to its end point and

held for a period of time, simultaneously relaxing and lengthening the stretched muscle.

– It is recommended that athletes hold each stretch for 10–30 seconds.

– Static stretching is suitable for all athletes.

• Dynamic– Dynamic stretching involves continuous and

progressively faster isotonic muscle contractions, allowing the muscle to work through to its full range of motion.

– It uses speed of movement or momentum to assist with the stretch.

– Movements are more sport specific.– Walking lunges and leg swings are examples of

dynamic stretching:

• Ballistic– Ballistic stretching is a form of dynamic stretching

involves a bouncing action at the end of the range of movement.

– This stretch is not held. Usually, this approach activates the stretch reflex (muscle spindles are stimulated) so the muscle does not relax.

– Ballistic stretching has a greater likelihood of injury.

An example of a ballistic stretch is bending over to touch your toes, using gravity and a bouncing movement

Skill training

• Drills practice– Drills are specific exercises designed to improve

the technique and efficiency of the skills an athlete performs.

– They allow emphasis to be placed on one aspect of the sport.

– During drills practice, the coach will provide cues and feedback to assist learning.

– Drills are predominantly used to practise technical skills, often in isolation from other aspects of the sport.

• Coaches should observe the following guidelines:– Drills should work on an athlete’s weaknesses as well

as their strengths.– Rotate players quickly in the drill, or make sure there

is enough equipment so everyone is active rather than waiting for their turn in long queues.

– Plan for drills to only run for a short period of time (e.g. 3–5 minutes) to keep concentration high.

– Once a skill has been learned, modify the drill to make it more challenging.

– Variety is important to maintain interest and focus.– Find a name for each drill that all the athletes are

familiar with. This will reduce the instruction time on the next occasion that the drill is used.

• Drills practice for team sport athletes may initially involve no defensive manoeuvres at all, but may then progress to passive defensive and actual defensive skills.

• Targets should also be set, so improvement can be easily monitored.

• Modified and small-sided games– Modified and small-sided games have become popular

with team sport coaches as an effective way to develop sport-specific adaptations.

– Careful and creative planning allows the games to be fun while developing skills under competitive conditions.

– Small-sided games have the benefit of increasing player involvement (for instance, the number of ‘touches’ with the ball) during actual game play, which can enhance tactical and technical skills.

– It also assists with developing communication and teamwork.

– Rules can also be altered to emphasise a particular skill or situation.

– Coaches should give feedback on ‘the run’ rather than having too many stoppages.

• Games for specific outcomes– Training games can be created for any number of

specific purposes, limited only by the imagination of the coach.

– In most instances, these games will primarily be aimed at improving players’ decision-making abilities, tactical awareness or fitness.

– Examples of games for specific outcomes include:• ‘what if’ situations, e.g. ‘There are 3 minutes left on the

clock and you are behind by 2 points …’• uneven team numbers, e.g. 6 versus 5 (to train for a

situation that may occur when a player is injured, sent off or sin-binned).