publishing.praan.nlpublishing.praan.nl/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2016/02/abhinava... · Editor in Chief Swami ParthaSarathy, Fima, Ph.D. EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD CHAIRPERSON Dr

Editor in ChiefSwami ParthaSarathy, Fima, Ph.D.

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

CHAIRPERSON

Dr. Arun S. NigavekarFormer Chairman

University Grants Commission Govt. of India

MEMBER ADVISORS

Padamshree Dr. V. R. GowrishankarAdministrator & CEO, Sringeri Math and Trustee & Governing Director, Sri SIIM Foundation

Axinn WilliamSr. Research ProfessorInstitute of Social Research,University of Michigan, USA

Dr. V.R. PanchamukhiChancellor & Founder Chairman, Indian Council of Social Science & Research, India Prof. C.J MatzenNorthern Institute of Technology Management, Hamburg, Germany

Swami SomeswaranandaChairman, Vivekananda Centre of Indian Management, Indore, India

Justin F. TerryDirector(Strategic Operation) Philips Electronics, North & Central America

Robert FosterPresident, American Centre for global Trade Studies, USA

Dr. Craig Galbraith Dean & Henry Ford Chair Professor, International Institute of Business & Policy Research, and Professor of Management, University of Northern Carolina Wilmington, USA

Kelvin A. HassettDirector of Economic Policy ResearchAmerican Enterprise Institute of Public Research Washington D.C., USA

Merck A. DainesPresident & CEO North American Center For Corporate Governance

Dr. Markandey RaiCO, Inter- Agency AffairsUnited Nations Human SettlementProgramme (UN-HABITAT)

Dr. Virendra P. SinghExecutive Director,HR RJ Corp- Devyani International Ltd.

Prof.Vishnuprasad Nagadevara Professor & DeanIndian Institute Of ManagementBangalore

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor in Chief & Chairman Swami Parthasarathy, FIMA, Ph.D.

Guest Editor Dr. Balakrishnan Muniappan Professor of Swinburne University of Technology, Malaysia

Member Editors Girish Vasishtha Prof. N. Venkateshan Prof. (Dr.) Satyanarayan Nandi Prof. (Dr.) Omprakash Bohra

Senior EditorS. Durgananda Swamy Associate Editor &Graphic Art ManagementMr. Rajesh Joshi

Associate Executive Editor & Editorial Coordinator Ms. Shraddha Bhadauria Design Assistance Mr. Virendra Thapliyal

IN THIS ISSUE

iii A Tribute to our Guiding Spirit

iv Genesis & Mission

v From the Desk of Editor-in Chief

vi A Brief Sketch of Jaga dguru His Holiness Sri Sri Abhinava Vidyatheertha Mahaswamigal

ARTICLES

. Spirituality and effectiveness ms. Soni agarwal

. A Model Governance structure for India based on Vedas and Manusmriti. mr. atul Sehgal

. Relationship between Spirituality & Corporate Social Responsibility-an Empirical Study. ms. Shikha makkar, ms. monika Saini

. Self Exploration is key to ultimate success: Saint Kabir’s Philosophies Dr. Subhash Pratap Singh

. Exploring indigenous Concepts of Public Administration: Learning for Leadership and Governance. mr. ankur Joshi,mr. Puneet BindlishDr. Pawan Verma ms. Priyanka Dutt

. A spirituality leadership competency model: What does it take to be a spiritual leader in business martha m. Geaney

. Realizing our ancient Indian ethos in the world of modern management. rimni Chakravarty

. The crisis and emancipation of the modern corporate executive: How the Bhagawad Gita Reinforces Edward Freeman’s Stakeholder Theory Sherayans Parekh

. Women and work family interface: Indian Context Vinita Chandra

. Religion, Culture and Entrepreneurship in India David B. audretsch, Nancy S. meyer

. Spiritual Scirptures Impact on Six Ethical Models Influencing Organiza-tional Practices wamond rodgers, Susana Gago

. Corporate Governance-Its Origin in Ancient India mr. Cma N raveendranth Kaushik

. Republic in Ancient India Need For A New Paradigm In Political Science anil Chawla

. The Bhagwad Geeta As A Treatise Of Vision and Leadership Dr. C. rajendra Kumar

. Rethinking Arthasastra: An Approach to Corporate Governance ms. aggi Jeemon

. Interpretation of An Integrated Frame Work for the Contents of Rigveda, Puranas and Science C.S.r. Prabhu

. Revisiting NEGP: E-Bharath 2020: The Proposed Future NEGP C.S.r. Prabhu

. Subtheme: Organizational Devlopment : Insights From Ramayan And Bhagwat Gita Damini Saini

. The Knowledge of Self Realization from Bhagawat Gita and Its Signifi-cance to organizational development. Smt. hemavathy Padmanaban

. Labour in Ancient Indian Economy Pratibha Goyal, mini Goyal, Sailja Goyal

. Basic Considerations an Indian Values in Management rajib Chakravorty

ContentsInternational Research Journal of Indian Ethos & Wisdom for Management - ‘The Vivek Management’

Combined Issue Vol 2 Issue 2 2014Vol 3 Issue 1 2015

ABHINAVA PRABANDHAN Vol 2 issue 2 2014 Vol 3 issue 1 2015

IV

ABHINAVA PRABANDHAN IS RECOGNISED BY THE COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC & INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH (CSIR) GOVT. OF INDIA, AS AN INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL AND REGISTERED THROUGH THE NATIONAl INSTI-TUTE OF SCIENCE COMMUNICATION & INFORMATION RESOURCES, NEW DELHI, WITH INTERNATIONAl RECOG-NITION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR ISSN, PARIS, FRANCE.

© 2015. Sri Sharada Institute of Indian Management-Research. All rights reserved.

Price: ~ 600/-

Published by: Sri SIIM Research Press Development: Adi Shankara International Centre for Research & Development (AICRD) Sri Sharada Institute of Indian Management-Research.

The Corporate body under whose auspices this research journal is published: Sri Sharada Institute of Indian Management-Research Foundation (Sri SIIM Foundation Trust) 7 Institutional Area, Ground Floor, ‘A’ Wing, Phase II, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070 Tel: +91 11 26124090/91• Fax: +91 11 26124092 Email: [email protected]/[email protected] • Website: www.srisiim.ac.in

THIS INITIATIVE OF R & D IS WITH THE BLESSINGS OF HIS HOLINESS SRI SRI BHARATHI THEERTHA MAHASWAMI, JAGADGURU SHANkARACHARyA MAHASANSTHANAM, SHARADA PEETHAM, SRINGERI

Disclaimer: The views expressed by the authors of various articles in this journal are their individual views and the editorial team/organization does not hold responsibility for nor endorse the views expressed.

Manuscripts offered for publication should be sent to the Editor, Abhinava Prabandhan, 7 Institutional Area, Phase II Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070. We prefer manuscripts, complete in all respects, including refer-ences and illustration or photographs, in MS Word, through email or on a CD. If sending a typed copy, please ensure it is on A4 size paper, in double space and with two inch margin. Sri SIIM pays an honorarium of Rs. 5000/- for accepted articles. Each prospective article is reviewed by a panel of eminent referees.

Graphic Design and Print Management: Sri SIIM Digital Studio, Sri Sharada Institute of Indian Management - Research 7 Institutional Area, Phase II, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070

Printed at: R. S. Prints, New Delhi - 110049


V

A TRIBUTE TO OUR GUIDING SPIRIT

vKkuka tkUgohrhFkZa fo|krhFkZa foosfdukeAlosZ"kka lq[kna rhFkZa HkkjrhrhFkZekJ;sAA

For the unenlightened, target is Ganga as a holy place.

For enlightened ones gaining wisdom/knowledge is everything.

But ordinary people, like me take refuge in Bharathi Thirtha Swami,

who blesses with happiness and well being.

Hkkjrhd:.kkik=a HkkjrhinHkw"k.ke~AHkkjrhinek:<a HkkjrhrhFkZekJ;sAA

We take refuge and bow down at lotus feet of

Sri Sri Jagatguru Bharathi Theertha Mahaswamiji, that Bharathi Theertha Mahaswamiji

who is the embodiment of extreme compassion.

VI • Sri SIIM ABHINAVA PRABANDHAN Vol 2 issue 2 2014 Vol 3 issue 1 2015

GENESIS AND MISSION

Some eminent corporate personalities joined hands in promoting a new management credo – VIVEK MANAGEMENT, after painstaking efforts in re-search and consultancy. The objective was singular: to produce value-en-riched managers, who could create corporate environment of excellence,

with the strategic intent of reviving the pristine glory of India. Recognising the growing significance of value orientation to business in particular and education in general, the need arose for establishing a management institute which would strive to impart the lofty ideals of character building to future corporate managers, apart from education in conventional management skills and techniques.

The idea translated into reality in 1994, during the Vijay Yatra of His Holiness Jagadguru Sri Sri Bharathi Teertha Mahaswamiji, Jagadguru Shankaracharya of Sringeri, when the final decision to set up a unique management institute with focus on Indian Scriptures took concrete shape and received the endorsement and blessings of His Holiness. At present the main campus of the Institute is function-ing in its new premises in Vasant Kunj, New Delhi. It was established with Vision of Creating an exulted International Platform for research and development of Indian School of Thoughts in Management and Managerial Excellence based on rich Indian Spiritual Wisdom, Ethos and Universal Values for emergence of the new generation in managerial and corporate tradition, as an organized movement of Neoclassical Principles and Culture in management technique and profession - The Vivek Management.

It is an Autonomous Institute approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD. Govt of In-dia, it runs Master, Under Graduate and MBA Equivalent Programmes - PGDM HR, Mktg, Intl. Business, Business Analytics, Finance, BBA + MBA integrated Programme, Ex-PGDM, PGDM-Finance, RGCM-Retail Mgmt. B. Com. based on industry-centric curriculum blended with Indian ethos, values and ambience of western professional culture.

Sri SIIM is awarded with British Royal Quality Crown Award from UK, Internation-al Star in Quality Leadership Award from Paris, France, Platinum Quality Award & Gold Award for Business Prestige by European Association of Otherways Manage-ment & Consulting. Sri SIIM is also having Triple Accreditation from AMBA, UK., AACSB, USA., & CHEI, USA., British Edexcell, UK.

This Institute is being led under the stewardship of eminent management philoso-pher and exponent Dr. Swami Parthasarathy (Chairman, Ramakrishna-Vivekanan-da International Foundation) whose visionary guidance creates the agenda for growth of Sri SliM. The Institute also aims to develop a band of learning individu-als, armed with the leadership quality and strong conceptual foundation and intui-tive insights, who are capable of successfully meeting the challenges of a global business economy. The Institute is geared to prepare students with a perfect blend of life skills and managerial competence to contribute to the yeoman task of na-tion building through sustained economic development.


VII

APPLIED MANAGEMENT OF ASOKA,THE GREAT

The 21st century management principles and prac-tices have gone through a sea change in compari-son to the 19th and 20th century. This new mil-lennium looks for concerns of human beings and greater interests. All those management practices of European model and American model have started clearing up of the black spots of industriali-zation from the corporate governance and system practices. Japanese management practices have started delivering the value base management principles for the greater world with high level of quantification for quality improvisation by borrow-ing the concepts from the oriental principles and practices with revival and new coinage methods. As a matter of fact the oriental practices of man-agement principles with human touch and greater social concern are the driving forces of change in the modern management. Indian management practices, principles, doctrines and arguments are in the store house of the history. It’s the right time for revival of the management practices for ap-plication in the modern methods and philosophy of management. India in its oriental texts has the treasury of knowledge wealth for rephrasing and moderation as per the disciplinary streams needs for application. This in fact is one of the most ad-vanced pragmatic philosophies for revival and reapplication for the benefits of the governance mechanisms of corporations and non commercial corporations of the 21st century. Maurya phase of the Indian history was the most pragmatic phase of 136 years of governance. Chanakya, the man, created the applied philosophy and the first em-pire. Asoka the Great championed the application beyond the texts that defined the future trends and both Chanakya and Asoka made the history that the world remembers as the excellent governance i.e.,the “Management of Humanitarian Supply Chain”. Management is being re-searched in this article from the Asokan governance mechanisms and applications of principles, that’s the great management system for the greater world.

FROM THE DESK OF EDITOR - IN - CHIEF

the 21st century management principles and practices have gone through a sea change in comparison to the 19th and 20th century.

“ “

VIII • Sri SIIM ABHINAVA PRABANDHAN Vol 2 issue 2 2014 Vol 3 issue 1 2015

JAGADGURU HIS HOLINESS SRI SRI ABHINAV VIDYATHEERTHA MAHASWAMIGAL*

*Disclaimer: The write up is completed by Swami Parthasarathy, based on different texts and information available. As the article is not the fundamental original composition of the author, so the editor and author both are regretful for any inadvert-ent incorrect and unauthentic information.

The accounts of the life of great sages and saints are proof that the Truth declared in our scriptures are not

mere words or figment of imagination but some-thing achievable in this life itself and also serve as a guiding torch for those venturing into the spir-itual life, a life of discovery and total fulfillment. Sri Adi Shankaracharya was one such pre-eminent sage who was responsible for re-establishing our Sanatana Dharma and bringing out clearly the es-sence of the Upanishads. In His great wisdom and compassion, He also established four Maths in the North, South, West and East of India so that our Sanatana Dharma is ever preserved and every spir-itual quest is always assuaged. Sri Sringeri Sharada Peetham, the first of the four Maths, has been led by mahapurushas well known for their abidance in Truth, tapas, sastraic (Scriptural) knowledge and compassion. In such a lineage, Sri Abhinava Vidy-atheertha Mahaswamigal, the 35th pontiff, shines like the pole star. Each and every aspect of His life is a veritable display of divine qualities that can

super-charge any spiritual as-pirant. Needless to say, the essence of His life and ac-tions will serve as an ideal to any human being. His Holiness, who should

be thought of at the start of every day, Jagadguru Sri Abhinava Vidyatheertha Mahaswamigal shone for thirty-five years as the thirty fifth pontiff of the Dakshinamnaya Sringeri Sharada Peetham. The holy life of this most illustrious one whose renown spread to the end of the quarters is an ideal for every body. This great soul took birth at Bangalore on 13th November, 1917 as the eld-est son of a virtuous couple, Kaipu Rama Sastry and Venkatalakshmi, and was named Srinivasa. He, who was endowed from childhood with de-votion to God, detachment to sensory objects, fondness for noble people and with good con-duct, became the recipient of the unlimited kindness of then pontiff of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham, the preceding Jagadguru Sri Sri Chan-drasekhara Bharathi Mahaswamigal, who brought Him to Sringeri.


IX

From the very words of the venerable Guru, who was continuously desirous of his rise, it can be unmistakably understood how much joy he experienced on learning about his mode of studying the Sastra.

From the very words of the venerable Guru, who was continuously desirous of His rise, it can be unmistakably understood how much joy He expe-rienced on learning about His mode of studying the Sastra.

His upanayana took place at Sringeri itself. Then, He sudied Veda and Sanskrit literature guided by eminent scholars. When He was going on four-teen, the revered Guru graced Him with the San-yasaasrama and the yogapatta of Abhinava Vidy-atheertha and nominated Him as His successor to the Peetham. Commencing thereafter the study of the Nyaya-sastra, He attained extraordinary profi-ciency in it in a few years and, even as He impart-ed it to students, His unique intellectual prowess was readily discernible. From the very words of the venerable Guru, who was continuously desirous of His rise, it can be unmistakably understood how much joy He experienced on learning about His mode of studying the Sastra. For instance, He has written as follows:

Hkonh;if=d;kHkoPBjhjs

fujke;rke/;;uk/;kiuçfØa;ka p

fu"çR;wga fuoZR;Zekuka fofnRok fujxZyekuUna leokfiA

‘I experienced unlimited happiness on learning from Your letter about the healthy condition of Your body and about the mode of Your study and teaching, which are proceeding without any im-pediments’.

“ “Thereafter, diligently learning the Vedanta¬sastra from His Guru, He acquired excellent proficien-cy in it too. Having put in much effort to master Sanskrit literature, He was thoroughly versed in Sanskrit, being able to write well and to speak it flawlessly. Thought not enamoured of composing poems, He did glorify His Guru in beautiful verses. By way of illustration, two of them are:

iknçHkkfofu/kwZrkfo|kU/relko rsA

;r;s fpfrfufoZ"Vfpuk;kLrq ueks eeAA

‘My salutation to the ascetic whose mind is ab-sorbed in consciousness and the lustre of whose

feet destroys the blinding darkness of avidya’.

Jherka nsf’kdsUæk.kka ikniHks uekE;ge~A

eUnks·fi oUnuk;sika foUnsr xq#rqY;rke~AA

‘I prostrate before the pair of lotus-like feet of the glorious king of preceptors by paying obeisance to whom even a dullard becomes akin to the Guru’.

Deeply scrutinizing dharma-sastra texts, He re-solved, with citations of authoritative passages and examples, the doubts of disciples on matters of dharma, He received the praise of His Guru for this. Able to speak fluently in Sanskrit, Telu-gu, Tamil and Kannada, He also mastered Hindi. North-Indian Scholars have been struck with awe on hearing Him discourse in pure Hindi. His Guru was generally introverted; the Guru’s mind did not incline even a little towards the activities relating to the Math. In obedience to His Guru’s command, He safeguarded the fame of the Math by keeping an eye on all the activities of the Math, ensuring the proper conduct of its functions and granting audience to and communicating with the devo-tees. The first President of independent India, the dis-tinguished Babu Rajendra Prasad, came to Sring-eri on 24th August, 1954, to have the darsan of the Guru. At that time, His Holiness arranged for his audience with the Guru, interpreted in Hindi what the Guru spoke in Sanskrit and conveyed to the Guru in Sanskrit what he spoke in Hindi; He thus

X • Sri SIIM ABHINAVA PRABANDHAN Vol 2 issue 2 2014 Vol 3 issue 1 2015

caused much joy to him and the Guru. That year, the Guru attained disembodied libera-tion. Conscious of His duty, though deeply pained, His Holiness performed the Guru’s aradhana and the like in strict accordance with all that is ancient is not good nor is a work censurable because it is mod-ern. The wise accept an alternative after examina-tion; the unwise are guided by the beliefs of others.

He was installed as the pontiff of the Sringeri Shara-da Peetham on 16th October, 1954. After His coro-nation, He dwelt for about one and a half years in Sringeri itself, focused on His revered Guru. Disci-ples variously requested His Holiness to undertake a dharmic digvijaya. Acceding to the request, He set out from Sringeri on a tour in 1956; reaching Kalady, the place where Sri Shankara Bhagavat-pada incarnated. He observed caturmasya and na-varatri there. Thereafter, He toured South India for six years. For years there has been the practice in the Sringeri Math of its pontiffs undertaking tours to bless disciples. However, it is hard to identify anyone in the annals of the Math who so exten-sively and repeatedly toured from Kanyakumari to the Himalayas as he did.

he used to discourse in a beautiful and lucid manner.

He used to discourse in a beautiful and lucid man-ner. He made people easily comprehend even profound Vedantic truths. The minds of people underwent a great transformation for the better on hearing His talks; the greatness

of the talks was such that the listeners became ded-icated to the performance of their duties. Through His discourses, common folk could understand topics of the Sruti-s, Smriti-s, Itihasa-s and Purana-s that would have otherwise been difficult for them to comprehend. He was not in the least dogmatic. The ancients held that the earth is fixed while the modern scientists aver the moves.

““

iqjk.kfeRiso u lk/kq loZ u pkfi dkO;a dkO;a

uofeRiuke~A lUr% ijh{;kU;r jtUrs ew<%

ijç;;us icqf)%AA

All that is ancient is not good nor is a work censur-able because it is modern. The wise accept an al-ternative after examination; the unwise are guided by the beliefs of others’. In keeping with this statement of the great poet Ka-lidasa, His Holiness subscribed only to the position that the earth moves. He ignored, in this manner, the distinction of ancient and modern in numerous matters and gave weight only to that which was reasonable and supported with evidence. Broad-mindedness such as His was difficult to come by in anyone else. Its not possible to consider ourselves competent enough to adequately speak about His total mastery over the senses, perfect character or high erudition.

'kdquhukfeokdk’ks tys okfjpjL; pA

ina ;Fkk u n`’;sr rFkk Kkuorka xfr%AA

‘Like the footprints of birds in the sky and of fishes in the water, the course of the knowers of the Truth cannot be discerned’.

He was the foremost of such knowers of the Truth. Having embraced Sanyasa at a young age like Bhagavatpada, He was a stranger to passion; what He was conversant with was moksa (liberation). He told people that while they were welcome to converse with Him on something worthwhile, He would not give room for idle gossip. He said, ‘Hav-ing studied the Upanishads, we know that they say:

ukuq/;k;k}gw´~NCnkUckpks fcXykiukW~ fgrr~A

‘One should not think of many words, for that is particularly fatiguing to the organ of speech’.


XI

So, it is better to remain silent than to waste time in idle speech. By keeping silent, we would at least not be taxing the organ of speech. He held the view that if we wish to speak, we must utter only what is useful.

He loved to read and reflect on the teachings con-tained in Sankara Bhagavatpada’s works. ‘One should ever contemplate, even when moving about, on the truths expounded by Bhagavatpada. We prostrate before the temple. That is a bodily activity. The inner activity should be the constant contemplation on the Truth taught by Bhagavat-pada. That indeed will make one’s birth fruitful’.

}sI;ks·fi laerf’’k VLrL;krZL; i;hike~A R;ksT;ks nq"V%

fç;ks·I;klhnxqthoksj{krkAA

Kalidasa wrote in Raghuvamsa:

‘A good person, though unfriendly, was accept-able to him (King Dilipa) just as medicine (though distasteful) is to the sick: and even a friend, if wick-ed, was to be discarded, like a finger bitten by a cobra’.

He had such characteristics of Dilipa. He was overflowing with compassion. He regarded life as meant to do good to others. In His natural kind-ness, He never kept in mind any wrongdoing to Him by others. He used to say - we should not entertain such a notion at all. That is for those of a rajasic nature. He often said, ‘Whatever be the at-titude of the people, we, for our part, should show affection to all. We should not forget this. None should feel that his presence is unwanted’.

vgeso erks eghirsfjfr loZ% çÑfrIoI;fpUr;r~A

(Raghuvamsa VIII.8)

‘Every subject felt, ‘I am the favourite of the em-peror (Aja)’.

This statement of Kalidasa, the foremost poet, about emperor Aja found fulfillment in His Holi-ness. Our revered Guru, Jagadguru Sri Abhinava Vidyatheertha, the repository of good qualities, the mine of knowledge and the mount of courage, covered the world with His glory like the sun with its rays and attained disembodied liberation on September 21st, 1989.

XII • Sri SIIM ABHINAVA PRABANDHAN Vol 2 issue 2 2014 Vol 3 issue 1 2015


001

The author is assistant professor at International Management Institute, New Delhi.

She may be reached at [email protected].

SPIRITUALITY AND EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

Ms. Soni Agarwal

Key WordsManagement, Leadership, Religion, Spirituality

AbstractManagement in general is understood as ‘get-ting things done through others’. The focus of management is to do ‘man management’. Spir-ituality encompasses a number of different di-mensions. Some of the dimensions are linked to leadership and management. In this study an at-tempt is made to understand the importance of spirituality and religion correlate those concepts of management and effective leadership. It tries to highlight that there is a clear consistency be-tween spiritual values and practices and effec-tive leadership.

One of the essential attribute of human nature is to discover purpose and meaning of life and the significance of their existence in this world. Since ages, it is noticed that spiritual and re-

ligious beliefs & practices are pursued to express at indi-vidual, interpersonal, and corporate level.

Religion and spirituality play an important role in the de-velopment of human values. It is always seen that an or-ganization is preferred by the employees as well as custom-ers, where spiritual and religious principles and values are given importance in business. This ultimately gives benefits not only to the society but also to the organization.

India is known for its rich tradition of ancient wisdom. In India we find scholarly and holy books devoted to spiritual-ity and wisdom. In many ways management practices and principles are also influenced by them. These include

“ “india is known for its rich tradition of ancient wisdom.

002 • Sri SIIM ABHINAVA PRABANDHAN Vol 2 issue 2 2014 Vol 3 issue 1 2015

four Vedas i.e., ‘Rig’, ‘Yajur’, ‘Sama’, and ‘Athar-va’, the ‘Upanishads’, the ‘Puranas’ the ‘Bhagavad Gita’, and the two great epics ‘Mahabharat’ and ‘Ramayana’. All these writings contain different sets of principles that are applicable and beneficial even in today’s context. In India Karma, Bhakti, and Jnana are popular concepts and are related to modern management as well.

Spirituality as defined by (Enblem, 1992) presents principles of personal life that builds and demonstrates relationship with God

These three concepts are explored on how to:1. Inspire employees to excel in work

2. Enhance employee commitment to the organization.

3. Use knowledge to achieve business excellenceIndian tradition has a strong confidence on the leadership skills and qualities of ‘Gurus’ and ‘Raj Gurus’ (in Sanskrit). In Bhagavad Gita in Chapter III shloka 21, details and concept of a raj rishi the leader who is also a sage are discussed. Indian tra-dition recognizes universalism and deontological approach to ethics. It appreciates the person who takes decisions without self motives (nishkama karma Chapter III shloka 19), and in a balanced manner {sthitaprajna as described in Chapter II shloka 54-55 and Chapter XVIII shloka 63). Very importantly, it details a process of self-discipline through yoga which can enable one to perform this difficult task (Chapter VI and in particular sh-loka 32).

“ “

This concept of the wisdom of a virtuous person who can take a balanced view is strongly remi-niscent of Aristotle’s ‘virtue ethics’ expounded in the Nichomachean Ethics (e.g. Bk2 Chapter 2.11: 20-23 which says ‘what is destroyed by the excess is preserved by the mean’).

The concept as given by Aristotle in the form of wisdom of virtuous person was tested further. In this study of Shekhar (2001), the value and ethics of Indian teachers, which is depicted as virtuous person vis-a-vis of other professionals, were com-pared. The study was conducted in India and USA. The sample had included 4000 respondents. The author administered a questionnaire and asked questions as ‘teachers are ethically far ahead of all other classes of professions.’ Interestingly, the results of the study administered in USA found that teachers no doubt get high regard and ethi-cally they are superior to other profession but not to such a great extent as in India.

This proves that India has a strong devotion to val-ues and ethics. Teachers are respected a lot and in some instances teachers are worshipped even before God as Written by Indian Saint Kabir

SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION

Spirituality as defined by (Enblem, 1992) presents principles of personal life that builds and demon-strates relationship with God. The focus of religion is specific to a group or an organization. It compre-hends further that spirituality is understood more in generic sense, and may even encompass more than one religious approach. As defined by Gia-calone & Jurkiewicz (2004), workplace spirituality can be linked with organizational values, which are further evidenced in culture that promotes em-ployees’ experience of transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense of being con-nected in a way that provides feelings of compas-sion and joy.There are two views of spirituality i.e., intrinsic and extrinsic. In the intrinsic view of spirituality, the concepts are limited to an individual. As defined by Guillory’s (2000, p. 33 cited in Krishna kumar & Neck, 2002) spirituality is ‘our inner conscious-ness’ and ‘that which is spiritual comes from with-in-beyond our programmed beliefs and values’.


003

Spiritualty encompasses a

number of dimensions .

The interpretation of this view is that spirituality is beyond rules of religion. This is the inner self of an individual. Different religions have given spe-cific views such as for Christians ‘call for work’ is believed important, whereas in Hinduism, ‘doing the work with top most importance and dedica-tion is the prime responsibility of each individual, the Buddhist’s believe in ‘hard work and devotion’ that helps in modifying the life of an individual. If we see in Islam’ commitment towards organiza-tion, encouragement and cooperation’ are given prime importance. Some other religion such as Confucianism proposed the importance of team-work and togetherness (Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002).

The other aspect of seeing the spirituality is extrin-sic view of spirituality. Under which the concepts such as; what is the meaning of a work that is done at the work place is more focused (Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002). Some of the related questions are; what is the work, why this is the work, what is the meaning of the work, and what is being achieved by doing this work.this work. Under this, goals of the organization, work given to individu-als, importance and existence in the organiza-tion are explored. The above questions try to find out the importance and significance of work in a meaningful way. In this form, the existence of an organization is not limited to earning profit, rather an organization is existed to work that can serve the nation and individuals along with earning prof-it. These views and principles are also related to corporate social responsibility (CSR) as how an or-ganization is socially sensitive, devoting time and money for the well being of the society. “Spirituality encompasses a number of dimen-sions.” According to it, each person in an organi-

“

“zation desire a meaningful work, wants to lead a meaningful life, and also wants to add value to the organization. The value or desire for a meaningful or a popular life often reflects in terms of desire to make or create a meaningful workplace. There are lots of Scholars are always been sceptical about the relationship among spirituality, religion, and business. In some academic journals we find that researchers tried to find out a relationship between spirituality, religion, and business (Abuznaid, 2009; Beekun & Badawi, 2005). Researchers had tried to develop concepts and tried to integrate these religious faiths with the scriptures such as the Bible (Christianity), the Quran (Islam) (Epstein, 2002; Zinkin & Williams, 2006). Importance of ancient Indian tradition and wisdom and the link with the management was also searched by a few Indian scholars (Chatterjee, 2009). The model as proposed by Chatterjee, 2009 was based on seven pillars of wisdom. The model supports that an in-dividual is the source of all transformation and the cultivation of higher values. This is not only in in-dividual, but is also applicable in organizational and societal context. These pillars are (1) niskama karma or action without desires, (2) chittasuddhi or quality of mind and character, (3) karma or action, (4) guna (quality—goodness, passion and igno-rance) dynamics, (5) striving for purna or holistic development and self-mastery, (6) lokasangraha—enlightened collective welfare (this is highly rel-evant for GSR or global social responsibility) and (7) darshan or integrated vision.Dharma’ is one of the aims of human life besides wealth (artha), desires (kama) and liberation (mok-sha). There is a systematic relationship amongst each of these aims. The ultimate element of life should be interpreted as a drive to achieve moksha or liberation guided by dharma and kama using ar-tha as a tool. Business is considered as a means for creating artha or wealth. Business principles need to be based on ‘dharma’ and ‘dharma’ should al-ways be protected. ‘Dharma’ has been explained to be that which helps the welfare of all living being. questions that are related to it as what work one is doing, what is the purpose of that work, what he is going to leave behind, and where one is leading. If we want to link it in an organizational context then we can find a clear link with Maslow’s hierarchy of need theory. As per the theory, an individual initially desire to fill basic needs as food, shelter,


and security. When the basic needs are filled, an individual looks for safety and security needs fol-lowed by love and belongingness. The next level is desire for respect, confidence, achievement, and self-esteem, followed by self-actualization. Under self-actualization, an individual tries to understand the problems what others are facing and wants to solve the issues faced by the organization. When a person reaches to the highest stage (as per Maslow) self actualization, starts contributing more to the organization as well as to the society. Here, it can be inferred that the goal of spirituality is often seen in terms of giving full potential to the workplace. Moreover, individuals want to get connected to each other and they go beyond one’s self interests to make a clear difference and a more meaningful world.

to understand a link between spirituality and effective leadership, there is need to understand how different religions taught or used leadership

Spirituality can lead individuals to experience con-sequences at a deeper level, thus enhancing their intuitive abilities (Vaughan, 1989), which is a very important leadership and managerial skill. This can be related to personal and organizational pro-ductivity (Agor, 1989). Level of intuition through prayers (spirituality base intuition) also facilitates employees to appreciate the vision of the organi-zation. And organization on spiritual mission is often able to attract and retain more creative peo-ple. They provide opportunities to employees to experience a higher level of service and greater personal growth and developmentThis can be linked as a positive correlation of spirituality and organization performance. An in-dividual who is satisfied with basic needs wants to feel engaged in the organization and gives its full potential for the growth and well being of that organization, which ultimately improves organiza-

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tion performance.

SPIRITUALITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF LEAD-ERSHIP Among many complex processes, leadership is considered as one of the most complex process faced by managers in organizations. Leadership can be understood as getting thing done by other. It can be understood as a product of subtle, invis-ible feelings, thought and intuitions (Badaracco, 2002). The constituents of leadership are numer-ous. Action and visible behaviour is just the tip of the iceberg of effective leadership.

There are different approaches and styles of lead-ership. These approaches are transformational, transactional, and situational. The transforma-tional leadership approach is having inspirational motivation and putting efforts to empower follow-ers to accept and pursue challenging goals and a mission, enjoys more project success. The leader of the team interacts with a number of teams, pro-jects, or functions (Barber & Warn 2005).

Transactional leadership is emphasized to realize performance levels as the leader has to be an am-bassador and represent the team to others while at the same time protect the team from interference, explain the way ahead and motivate these external stakeholders to pursue objectives cooperatively with the project team (ibid). Diverse and often conflicting demands on the manager gave rise to situational approach, focusing on the relationship between specific circumstance and leadership . To understand a link between spirituality and ef-fective leadership, there is need to understand how different religions taught or used leadership. A brief snap shot is given below as giving the basic examples that are understood in the context of dif-ferent religions.As discussed, all the religions have remarkably similar role models. For example, in Islamic tradi-tion there is a leader, who guides others, (‘Arabi, 1971), In Bhagvad Gita, Krishna also provided Ar-juna on the balancing of opposing values by guid-ing him to follow the right path and his Dharma (Prabhavananda and Isherwood, 1951). Buddhist


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tradition presents many role models as provided by masters and teachers as how to embrace complementary values and behaviours. Various parables and stories woven to teach how to embrace

S . No.

Judaism Christianity Islam Buddhism Hinduism

1 Leader asTeacher &question-asker

Role Model

Servant of God and His creations

Teacher and role model

Role model of the “Gods”

2 Exemplars Abraham Jesus Mohammed Buddha Rama and Krishna

3Leadershipthrough

Meaning and making

Love & peace

Embodying the 99 names of God

Being an example

Example and Stories

4ValidityPrimarily

Testing & perseverance

Faith BeliefMeditation &investigationof awareness

Awareness & perception

5 Core vision Oneness VisionSurrenderingto God

Wisdom & compassion

Liberationfrom Duality

6Revelation through

Ten Commandments & the words of the prophets

Example & life of Jesus

The Qur’an throughGod’s messenger,Mohammed

Direct experienceSelf-inquiry and Practice

7 Core statement“Hear, oh Israel, the Lord, our God, is One.”

The Lord’s prayer

“There is no God,but God”

“Thou art that”

Taking refuge in the Buddha, dhar-ma, & sangha

8Source of Wisdom for leaders

The Torah (tanakh)

The Old andNew Testaments

Qur’an

Investigation of innerself; Pali Canon & Abhid-harma

Upanashads &Bhagavad Gita

9Manifestationof the divineor spirit via

The “Lightning flash”

The TrinityThe 99 Attributesor Names of God

Direct awareness Divine play (lila)

10 Basis for The Mishnah Moral Shari’ah (the Cila; the 10 4 goals of life

11Moral Leadership

(610 rules for cor-rect behaviour)

VirtuesLaw) adab; remem-brance

precepts;mindfulness

purusharthas):meditation,pleasure, worldlysuccess, liberationfrom rebirth

values by jesus. Thus, it can be inferred that all the religion taught more or less in similar direction as how to behave and take decisions considering ethics and values to achieve the ultimate goal. “There is always been a debate whether spirituality exist at the workplace or not.” If we define this in simple terms then we find the values such as integrity and expressing caring attitude and concern to others are integral components at the workplace. Many leadership theories emphasized that there is a need that the vision of the leader should be clear and inspiring. It is important for a leader that his actions should speak louder than words, the ethics demonstrated by him should be high, and should show respect and compassion to others.


Fairholm (1996, 1998) was one of the first scholars to put the terms spirituality and leadership together to explain spirituality in the context of workplace leadership. Since then others have attempted to validate his model in order to move the field to-ward a theory of spiritual leadership (Fairholm, 2002; Fry, 2003). Different leadership. models as given are, i.e., charismatic, stewardship, transfor-mational, and servant (Biberman et al., 1999; Ca-cioppe, 2000; Tischler, 2002). Other authors have put forth spiritual leadership models that relate to constructs such as emotional intelligence, ethics, and values. In some studies, it was found that en-couragement of the principles and values, devel-ops creativity, honesty, trust, personal fulfilment, and commitment, which leads to increased corpo-rate and business performance (Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002; Muniapan, 2009, 2010). Employees at the workplace find it significant and also start exploring philosophy, transpersonal psychology, meditation, yoga, Buddhism, and many other spir-itual schools of thought.Till date, these constructs have been confounded and need conceptual distinction (Fry, 2003).

Spirituality is indeed a powerful source as it motivates its followers.

was the lack of integrity that was found associated with leadership success or failure.

Spirituality is indeed a powerful source as it mo-tivates its followers. Leaders who emphasize spir-itual values are often able to inspire others and motivate them to do their work. This leads to an increased level of motivation those results in in-creased productivity and satisfaction. There are studies that have found that a vast majority of Americans (over 90%) describe a personal and private spirituality incorporating belief in God and the practice of prayer (Shorto, 1997; Zinnbauer et al., 1999). Some of the other aspects that were found important are the character and behaviour of leaders that must also be integrated. A leader,

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who loses credibility due to personal or other rea-sons, experiences tremendous loss and damage in their effectiveness. Some of the examples as quoted were, Ex. Bill Clinton, who was very much admired as an effective leader, lost its credibility because of personal indiscretions. Even the same principle is applicable in case of organizations. If we see the example of Enron or Anderson Inc., the entire organization experienced damage, got de-stroyed quickly because of loss of credibility (Mor-gan, 1993). One other feature that was highlightedwas the lack of integrity that was found associated with leadership success or failure.Some studies have emphasized the necessity of in-tegrity to build trust, essential for effective leader-ship. The evidence of this concept was presented by the study of Harden Fritz, 2002) and the results were found that more than 50% of the employee surveys complaint that their bosses are engaged in unethical behaviour such as taking credit for oth-ers’ work, lying about task accomplishments, not following workplace rules and regulations. One re-search highlighted that there is difference in terms of expectation from top manager, middle and jun-ior level managers. One study that was conducted in Netherland involved 2161 participants. The focus was to get the perception of different char-acteristics of being a good manager. Respondents emphasized the importance of trustworthiness for leaders at all the levels. For top-level managers, it was the number-one quality and number-two for middle-level managers. For lower-level managers, it came in at number two (following concern for subordinates’ interests).

This reflects that being an effective leader or an organization, the values, ethics are very important. These ethics and values are taught be our religion, which leads towards spirituality. From the above discussion, it can be drawn that fine tuning be-tween the cultures at home and at the job enhanc-es productivity and motivation.

CONCLUSIONS

From the above discussion it can be concluded that the importance of spirituality and religion is very important in an organizational context and cannot be denied in any sense as it give the di-


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rection as what is right or wrong. The principles and concepts are admired and appreciated by the internal as well as external customers in an organi-zation. Organizations are not different than the in-dividual; rather they are emerged from the society. Thus, understanding of traditional wisdom is very important. It helps in understanding complex is-sues related to organization. Why people behave in a particular manner, how different situations can be handled, what are the resources that can be consulted at the time of need, etc. Above all, the importance of religion and spirituality if under-stood clearly, an organization can get success in a larger perspective.

REFERENCES

1. Agor, W H (1989). Introduction in Agor, W H (Ed.) Intuition in Organizations, sage Publications, Newbury.Abuznaid, S. (2009). “Business Ethics in Islam: The Glaring Gap in Practice.” International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 2(4), 278-288.2. Arabi, I. (1971). [Sufis of Andalusia: The Ruh al-quds and Al-Durrat al-fakhirah of Ibn ‘Arabi], (R.W.J. Austin, Trans.). London, England’ George Allen & Unwin Ltd.3. Barber, E. and Warn, J (2005). “Leadership in Project Management: From Fire Fighter to Fire Lighter.” Management Decisions, 43(7/8), 1032-1040.4. Beekun, R I and Badawi, J A (2005). “Balanc-ing Ethical Responsibility Among Multiple Organi-zational Stakeholders: The Islamic Perspective.” Journal of Business Ethics, 60, 131-145.5. Biberman, J, Whitty, M, & Robbins, L (1999). “Lessons from Oz: Balance and Wholeness in Or-ganizations.” Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12(3), 243-252.6. Cacioppe, R (2000a). “Creating Spirit at Work: Re-visioning Organization Development and Leadership — Part I.” Leadership and Organiza-tion Development Journal, 21(1), 48-54.7. Chatterjee, S R (2009). “Managerial Ethos of the Indian Tradition: Relevance of a Wisdom Model,” Journal of Indian Business Research, 1(2/3), 136-162.8. Enblem, J D (1992). “Religion and Spirituality

Defined According to Current According to Cur-rent Use in Nursing Literature.” Journal of Profes-sional Nursing, 8, 41-47.9. Epstein, E M (2002). “Religion and Business—The Critical Role of Religious Traditions in Man-agement Education.” Journal of Business Ethics, 38, 91-96.10. Fairholm, G (1996). “Spiritual Leadership: Ful-filling Whole-Self Needs at Work.” Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 17(5), 11-17.11. Fairholm, G (1998). Perspectives on Leader-ship: From the Science of Management to its Spir-itual Heart. Westport, Connecticut Quorum Book12. Fairholm, M R (2002). Conceiving Leader-ship: Exploring Five Perspectives of Leadership by Investigating the Conceptions and Experiences of Selected Metropolitan Washington Area Munici-pal Managers. PublicAdministration. Ann Arbor, MI UMI.13. Fry, L W (2003). “Toward a Theory of Spir-itual Leadership.” The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 693-728.14. Giacalone, R A and Jurkiewicz, C L (2004). Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organi-zational Performance. New York M.E. Sharpe.15. Guillory, W A (2000). The Living Organiza-tion: Spirituality in the Workplace. Salt Lake City, UT: Innovations International Inc.16. Harden Fritz, J M (2002). “How Do I dislike Thee? Let Me Count the Ways.” Management Communication Quarterly, 15(3), 410-438.17. Lee-Kelley, L (2002). “Situational Leadership: Managing the Virtual Project Team.” Journal of Management Development, 21(6), 461-476.18. Kriger, M and Seng, Y (2005). “Leadership with Inner Meaning: A Contingency Theory of Leader-ship based on the Worldviews of Five Religions.”, The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 771-806.19. Krishnakumar, S and Neck, C P (2002). “The ‘What’, ‘Why’ and ‘How’ of Spirituality in the Workplace.” Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3), 153-164.20. Morgan, R B (1993). “Self- and Co-Worker Perceptions of Ethics and Their Relationships to Leadership and Salary.” Academy of Management Journal, 36(1), 200-214.21. Muniapan, B and Satpathy, B (2009). “The Bhagavad-Gita on Leadership for Good Govern-ance and Sustainable Development.” 15th Annual International Sustainable Development Research


Conference, ‘Taking up the Global Challenge: Analyzing the Implementation of Innovations and Governance for Sustainable Development’, Uni-versity of Utrecht, Utrecht, 5–8 July 2009.22. Muniapan, B and Satpathy, B (2010). “Ancient Indian Wisdom for Managers: The Relevance of Valmiki Ramayana in Developing Managerial Ef-fectiveness.” International Journal of Indian Cul-ture and Business Management, 3(6), 645-668.23. Prabhavananda, S and Isherwood, C (1951). The song of God: Bhagavad-Gita. New York, New American Library.24. Shekhar, R C (2001). “Trends in Ethics and Styles of Leadership in India, Business Ethics: A European Review, 10(4), 360-364.25. Shorto, R (1997, December 7). Belief by the numbers (pp. 60–61). New York, the New York

Times Magazine.26. Tischler, L, Biberman, J, and McKeage, R (2002). “Linking Emotional Intelligence, Spiritual-ity and Workplace Performance.” Journal of Mana-gerial Psychology, 17(3), 203-218.27. Vaughan, F E (1989). Varieties of Intuitive Expeirience in Agor, W H (Ed.), Intuition in Or-ganization, Sage Publications, Newsbury Park CA, 1989, pp. 4.28. Zinnbauer, B J, Pargament, K I, and Scott, A B (1999). “The Emerging Meanings of Religiousness and Spirituality: Problems and Prospects.” Journal of Personality, 67(6), 889-919.29. Zinkin, J and Williams, G A (2006). “Islam and CSR: A Study of the Compatibility between the Tenets of Islam and the UN Global Com-pact.” Retrieved from SSRN: http://ssrn.com/ab-stract=905201


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A MODEL GOVERNANCE STRUCTURE FOR INDIA BASED ON VEDAS AND MANUSMRTI

Mr. Atul Sehgal

Key WordsVedas, Manusmriti, Omniscient, Code, Governance, Primeval

AbstractIt is the general belief that Vedas are divinely revealed scriptures and the fountainhead of all knowledge. Human beings are innately of lim-ited intellect and understanding. But their cre-ator is omniscient and hence knows best what is good for his subjects. Therefore, it makes perfect sense to base the structure of human institutions on Vedas and on Manusmriti, the code of human living derived from the Vedas. This article is an attempt to carve out a model governance structure for contemporary India based on the codified principles of sound gov-ernance expounded in Vedas and Manusmriti, the primeval scriptures of mankind.

The ancient Indian scriptures Vedas and Manusm-riti are primeval compendiums of human dos and don’ts. Far from providing a perfect defini-tion of human dharma (righteousness), they give

a comprehensive code of right action, right systems and right procedures for human beings at both individual and collective levels. Thus, indirectly, these scriptures are the sources of good guidance for professional management of human institutions.

The author is Principal, at Delhi Public School. He may be reached at [email protected]

“ “the ancient indian scriptures Vedas and manusmriti are primeval compendiums of human dos and don’ts.


Among institutions of human civilization, govern-ment as a political institution is of varied types, historically. Democracy and dictatorship are the two prime variants of a governing system. It is un-derstood and believed that democracy is the oldest form of governance sanctioned by our scriptures. The Vedas and Manusmriti provide a clear blue-print for democratic polity and constitute an inter-esting subject of study in this regard. But talking of democracy, we also do observe that in the con-temporary world, democratic polity exists in vari-ous shades. These variants of democratic systems need to be studied and analysed in the backdrop of the code of democratic polity enshrined in the scriptures. This exercise will give deep insight into the advantages and deficiencies of modern vari-ants of democratic systems. It will also enable de-velopment of a basic plan and set of criteria for the purpose of formulating appropriate political system for the Indian nation at the present criti-cal time. This article is precisely an attempt in this direction.

the principles of ‘dharma’ have been clearly expounded in manusmriti

The Rigveda in its hymn 3/38/6 talks of three re-quired assemblies or committees formed jointly by the rulers and citizens for the purpose of a basic governance structure. These are—Vidyaryasabha (Education committee), Dharmaryasabha (Law committee) and Rajaryasabha (Administration committee). The very notion of a joint commit-tee of rulers and the ruled indicates that governing bodies are required to be fully democratic with an inbuilt power sharing mechanism. As per Athar-vaveda mantra 19/55/6 cited below, these committees or bodies are intended to be designed such that neither the governing elite nor the com-mon citizens hold independent sovereignty.

Elucidated further, it means that the ruling elite groups and the citizens’ groups should be under

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the control of each other. In functional sense, each one is to be subordinated to the other. If this type of working mechanism is not set, either group will become tyrannical. In such a situation, the rulers will exploit, oppress and decimate the ruled or vice versa i.e.the citizens will become highhanded and usurp the rights and privileges of the governing elite. A good example of this is provided by the setting of the jungle in which the lion preys upon the less powerful animals. A king having power over his subjects with the latter having no power or control over him is a similar setting in which the king will tend to become exploitative and plunder his own kingdom.

The above Vedic mantra talks of ‘Sabha’ (assem-bly), ‘Sabhapati’ (leader of the assembly or king) and goes on to say that the king and the citizens’ assembly should protect each other. Hence these Vedic hymns have provided in a subtle form the concept of a democratic polity. The said assembly consists of representatives of the common citizens and the members of assembly as also the king who is their leader, who are collectively responsible for governance in accordance with the principles of ‘dharma’ (righteousness). The principles of ‘dhar-ma’ have been clearly expounded in Manusmriti. These ten tenets of ‘dharma’ are---forgiveness, in-tellect, patience, truthfulness, honesty, control of the senses, mind control, abjuring anger, cleanli-ness and true knowledge. The institutions created by civilized humans operate harmoniously based on the observance of these ten cardinal principles of righteousness by them. In other words these ten-ets of ‘dharma’ constitute the bedrock of peace, progress and prosperity.

Leadership is the attribute of a human being or a human institution that is characterized by assidu-ous adherence to values and principles of pro-gress. A leader is one who shows true direction to his team in the pursuit of charted goal and demon-strates by personal example through action conso-nant with those values and principles. Leaders are motivators and inspirers. Leaders are passionate about their mission and create the same passion in their followers or team members. A true leader commands respect of his team members who fol-low him with zeal and not out of fear. Leaders are


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the torchbearers of the norms, rules and values that drive an institution. They become the focal points of determined, collective action. They spearhead concerted action, formal or informal. The govern-ing head of a state is a formal leader, who needs to govern effectively as well as command the respect and reverence of his subjects.

The Manusmriti lays down the attributes of the king who is the prime administrator of the state. As per aphorism 7(4) of Manusmriti indicated be-low, the king should be swift and valorous, com-manding love and respect of all subjects, just and non-partisan, illuminator and propagator of jus-tice, righteous and possessor of true knowledge, destroyer of evil doers and delinquents, bestower of rewards on the worthy subjects and an efficient manager of the state’s finances.

We observe from the above that a model structure of governance is necessarily democratic and its working principles are premised on assiduous ad-herence to dharma. In India, through its long and chequered period of history, governance structure has been built and based on these scriptural apho-risms. That is exactly the reason why India has a long, distinguished history of utopian governance. In contemporary times, the structure of govern-ance does not match well with these aphorisms and hence is unable to deliver good results.

We also observe in the present set up that elected representatives of citizens who form the legislative bodies are vested with powers but the citizens have no control over them once they have been elected. This fact has, in the recent past, been brought out very vociferously in India by the newly constituted political party – the AAP (Aam Admi Party) which talks of sharing of power and authority between politicians and the electorate. Hence, in the exist-ing structure, the rulers are free to exploit and op-press the ruled. The present democratic structure based on Westminster type model is drawn from the constitution of India which is really an eclectic admixture of elements borrowed from the consti-tutions of some West European countries mainly, France, Finland and UK. The Indian constitution does not fully incorporate elements of the Indian ethos and its foreign ingredients are dissonant with Indian culture. That is precisely the reason that the

Indian democracy has, over the decades, failed to give us truly representative and stable govern-ments. Moreover, the governments have exhibited an abject failure to deliver on almost all fronts. The present times in India are most challenging with people having got totally disillusioned with the governmental functioning and turned cynical, in the hope of a change of guard through hustle that will redeem the promises that history had made with them.

the manusmriti lays down the attributes of the king who is the prime administrator of the state

In the model democratic structure conceived for India, the governing head or king will have control over the assemblies and the assemblies will have control over the king. Also the people will have control over assemblies who govern them. This control is in the nature of a power to recall the representatives or impeach them on the basis of popular consensus. The modalities of this control can be worked out by the assemblies of education and law. The bottomline is that the prime refer-ence for drawing the finer elements including the operational norms of the governing structure will be the primordial scriptures Vedas.Manusmriti is also based on Vedas and, therefore, the Vedas re-main prime reference for all governing activities. The model democratic structure, if based on these ancient Indian scriptures, will logically be in sync with Indian tradition, culture and ethos and hence far more alive to the needs of the Indian society and decidedly more practical for governance. It would be definitely much more appropriate in meeting the requirements of our ancient country with its pluralistic culture.Coming back to the codified form of democratic governance structure enunciated in the Vedas, the above mentioned committees or assemblies viz. Education Committee, Law Committee and Administration Committee are required to be con-

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stituted in our model and these committees will have the power, authority and wherewithal to legislate, administer and also adjudicate matters in their respective spheres. The Education Com-mittee will be like a ‘knowledge authority’, not limiting its purview to mere formal education as it commonly understood today. The Law Commit-tee will be the prime agency for the formulation of rules and regulations for governance in a dynamic setting. Members of the committees in the model government will be democratically elected from among citizens through a system of adult fran-chise, in which voting will be mandatory for every citizen. The process of this election would be iden-tical to what exists on the contemporary scene. At the village levels, the existing system of panchayati raj is consonant with the model suggested by the scriptures.

Our primeval scriptures provide eternal truths in a very simple way but humans, out of limitations of their understanding, have needlessly made simple things complicated.” what we witness in our country today is a complicated

The important point is that the three committees will have sweeping powers to legislate and ad-minister, as stated before. In the matter of day to day administration of the state, the administrative officials shall be appointed by the Administration Committee which will have comprehensive au-thority to appoint, dismiss, reward and punish the administrative officials at the ground level. This kind of democratic government is not formed in a system of party based democratic polity. It is a party less system and hence is arguably free from the numerous disadvantages of party politics as are widely witnessed in India today. A party less democratic polity will have virtually no room for

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electoral malpractices and machinations.

“Our primeval scriptures provide eternal truths in a very simple way but humans, out of limitations of their understanding, have needlessly made sim-ple things complicated.” What we witness in our country today is a complicated system of demo-cratic polity in which electoral arithmetic has as-sumed overriding importance. Multiparty system has rendered the whole process of elections com-plex and susceptible to corrupt practices. It has vitiated the entire process of electoral democracy which, theoretically, is supposed to be very objec-tive, fair and rational.In the model democratic structure conceived for India, the elected and the electors hold power over each other. The elected representatives on the gov-erning committees can be called back by the pub-lic through consensus if they are perceived to be unequal to the task assigned to them. In a multi religious, multi caste and multi lingual society like we have in India, party less democracy is argu-ably the best form of government. Pluralism is an ornament of the society but not of the polity. We need to go back in time to see through the pages of authentic history books that Hindu or Aryan kingdoms right from the days of Mahabharat (3100 B.C.) till the time of King Chandragupta Maurya (300 B.C.), political systems in India were largely based on the code of human living prescribed in our prime scriptures. Chanakya, the celebrated political scholar of the time of King Chandragupta Maurya had authored a compendium of practi-cal tips on good governance which is famous to this day as ‘Chanakya Niti’ (Political strategy of Chanakya). This scholarly work liberally draws upon aphorisms given in our ancient scriptures in-cluding Manusmriti.

A block diagram of the model democratic structure of governance for contemporary India is represent-ed in Annexure-1.In the diagram, the rectangular blocks marked E, A and L are respectively the Education, Adminis-tration and Law Committees; the circle marked G denotes Governor of state and the circle marked P denotes the President of the country who is the governing head of the country. It is clear that the above simple governance system is free from the stark disadvantages and deficiencies of the present


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system. It will throw up strong, stable governments through every election process instead of coali-tion governments which are weak, unstable and ineffective as they are formed and run on electoral arithmetic. “The role played by caste, religion and language in elections will be almost eliminated in such a structure.”

E A L

E A L

Effective committees on education will enable the development of concepts and philosophy of sound

governance in a dynamic setting, based on primor-dial, time tested principles and sound committees on law will help in formulation of rules and regula-tions for a smooth and steely administration.

Referring to the blocks marked E, A and L above, it is understood that these committees will con-sist of representatives of common citizens and the ministers on behalf of the President (govern-ing head). Our scriptural wisdom says that in the entire uverse, ‘dharma’ is the most powerful en-tity. A cardinal element of ‘dharma’ is truthfulness which comprises elucidation of true knowledge and assiduous adherence to it. All true knowledge is sourced to Vedas which are divinely revealed. And these Vedas declare that humans are innately limited of knowledge, understanding and intellec-tual prowess. Only the creator and sustainer God is omniscient and human beings need to follow his injunctions spelt out in Vedas for peaceful and progressive living. Vedic injunctions have no room for exploitation of man by man.

in the ultimate analysis, it is stated that the model governance structure outlined in Vedas is meant to uphold ‘dharma’ which necessitates establishment of justice, equality, freedom. as cardinal values.

In the ultimate analysis, it is stated that the model governance structure outlined in Vedas is meant to uphold ‘dharma’ which necessitates establish-ment of justice, equality, freedom. as cardinal val-ues. It can be observed that the model democratic governance structure derived from the blueprint given in Vedas and Manusmriti is secular, rational and universalistic. It is simple but sound. Basically governance is meant to create and maintain an

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P

NATIONAL

FEDERAL


atmosphere of fairness, harmony, stability, peace and progress—both material and spiritual. To this end, the model structure appears to be only too appropriate, presumably based as it is on divine principles and precepts.

REFERENCES

1. Satyarth Prakash by Swami Dayanand Saras-wati

2. Rigvedabhashabhashya by Swami Dayanand Saraswati

3. Manusmriti (Hindi Translation) by Sarvadeshic Arya Pratinidhi Sabha

4. Ved mein kya aur kahan by Ved Pal Verma Shastri

5. Hinduism—Frequently asked questions (Cen-tral Chinmaya Mission Trust)

6. Bhagawadgita by Swami Prabhupada7. Bunch of thoughts by M.S.Golwalkar8. Leadership Wisdom by Robin Sharma9. The difficulty of being good (on the subtle art

of dharma) by Gurcharan Das


015

The first author is PH.D. Research Scholar, at Department of commerce, University of Delhi.

She may be reached at [email protected] second author is M.PHIL. Research Scholar, Department

of commerce, University of Delhi. She may be reached at [email protected]

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPIRITUALITY & CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY – AN EMPIRICAL STUDY

Ms. Shikha Makkar Ms. Monika Saini

Key WordsSpirituality; Corporate Social Responsibility; Workplace Spirituality; Business Sustainability; Ethical Behaviour.

AbstractMany people today feel that there’s more to life and business than just profits. Money as the sin-gle bottom line is increasingly a thing of the past. In a post-Enron world and a post Satyam (read as “not at all Satyam”) India, values and ethics are an urgent concern. Therefore in today’s times, there is a need for a deep sense of mission and passion; for strong moral, ethical, and spiritual values; for self-awareness; for courage; and for a sense of social responsibility. This study aims to review the definitions of spirituality and CSR; and also study the link between the two. A ques-tionnaire was developed to test the relationship between the two aspects and results show sig-nificant relationship between the two.

Introduction

Many people today feel that there’s more to life and business than just profits. Money as the single bottom line is increasingly a thing of the past. In a post-Enron world and a post

Satyam (read as “not at all Satyam”) India, values and eth-ics are an urgent concern. The hottest buzz today is about a “triple bottom line,” a commitment to “people, planet, and profit.” Therefore, in today’s times, there is a need for a

“ “many people today feel that there’s more to life and business than just profits.


deep sense of mission and passion; for strong mor-al, ethical, and spiritual values; for self-awareness; for courage; and for a sense of social responsibility. As un-ethical business practices are gaining wide attention in the business circle, academia and government;there is also a need to know how to engage people in the process; therefore, there is a crucial need for honesty and integrity. Individuals and societies are constantly evolving and changing their systems of values and beliefs (Charis, 2007). Consequently, since business does not operate in a vacuum, the outcomes of these negative changes in values and beliefs of individuals and societies are constantly being smeared on firms and corpo-rations, and by extension on the social and natural environment. Many companies according to Ve-lasquez (1983) have broken anti-trust, ethical, and environmental laws and received fines worth mil-lions. The problem is that the amount of money these companies are making outweighs the fines applied (Green, 1991).

The profits blind the companies to their lack of business ethics, and the money sign wins (DeGeorge, 1999).

“The profits blind the companies to their lack of

business ethics, and the money sign wins (De-

George, 1999).” In the increasing conscience-

focused marketplaces of the 21st century, the

demand for more ethical business processes and

actions (known as ethnicism) is increasing (Don-

aldson, 1982). More so, there has been increas-

ing demand on businesses and their managers to

behave responsibly and ethically in the conduct

of their business activities (Abiodun and Oyeniyi,

2011). Since ethics in business is simply the ap-

plication of everyday moral or ethical norms to

business (Boylan, 1995; Bennett, 2003), business

persons have been encouraged to learn and prac-

tice spiritual values and virtues, and by extension

transform their businesses into ethical businesses.

“ “

This is premised on the fact that many business

persons arestrongly influenced by their religious

beliefs and the ethical norms that they have been

taught as part of their religion, and apply these

norms in their business activities (Velentzas and

Broni, 2010).

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

H01: There is no significant relationship between spirituality and CSR.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Defining: Spirituality and corporate socialresponsibility (CSR)

Spirituality is “an intrapersonal and metaphysical relationship with a higher power or transcendent force which provides motivation, purpose, and a sense of connectedness with others” (Kolodinsky et al, 2010). It relates to values and beliefs “that gives one’s life meaning and direction” ( Kolod-insky et al, 2010). Studies conducted in this area, have indicated that Spirituality has a positive re-lationship with CSR. Meaning those that hold a strong connection with Spirituality, feel the need to connect their business activities with society (that is they feel a need to be involved in commu-nity activities).“Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is not a new idea.” The first definition for this concept was proposed by Bowen, in 1953. He proposed that it was “the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to fol-low those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society” (cited in Carroll, 1999). Since then, many defini-tions have been proposed and contrasted, with a range of interpretations. Some theorists empha-sised it as a voluntary process (Walton, 1967; cited in Carroll, 1999), while others saw it as a means to maximise profits (Johnson, 1971; cited in Carroll, 1999).

Definitions of Corporate Social Responsibility: Backman, (1975, p. 2 cited in Carroll, 1999) “Em-ployment of minority groups, reduction in pollu-tion, greater participation in programs to improve


017

the community, improved medical care, improved industrial health and safety – these and other pro-grams designed to improve the quality of life are covered by the broad umbrella of social respon-sibility.”

Carroll, (1991, p. 43; cited in Carroll, 1999) “The CSR firm should strive to make a profit, obey the law, be ethical, and be a good corporate citizen.” Commission of the European Communities (2001) “Corporate social responsibility is essentially a concept whereby companies decide voluntarily to contribute to a better society and a cleaner envi-ronment.”

a positive approach to organizational ethics can yield a living ethical code that with authentic leadership can create an organizational response that truly manifests its responsibility to society

Ethics in Action Awards, (2003; cited in Carroll, 1999) “Socially responsible companies consider the full scope of their impact on communities and the environment when making decisions, balanc-ing the needs of stakeholders with their need to make a profit.”Frederick et al, (1992) “Corporate social responsibility can be defined as a principle stating that corporations should be accountable for the effects of any of their actions on their commu-nity and environment.”

Jones, (1980, p. 59) “CSR is defined as the notion that corporations have an obligation to constitu-ent groups in society other than stockholders and beyond that prescribed by law or union contract, indicating that a stake may go beyond mere lead-ership.”Frederick et al, (1992) “Corporate social respon-sibility can be defined as a principle stating that corporations should be accountable for the effects of any of their actions on their community and en-

“ “

vironment.”

Jones, (1980, p. 59) “CSR is defined as the notion that corporations have an obligation to constitu-ent groups in society other than stockholders and beyond that prescribed by law or union contract, indicating that a stake may go beyond mere lead-ership.”

Figure 1: A model of spirituality, ethical behaviour, and corporate social responsibility

LINK BETWEEN SPIRITUALITY AND CSR

The link between CSR and Spirituality will be in-vestigated. Spirituality refers to beliefs and values. Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) surveyed US companies, in relation to their attitudes on CSR (cited in Kolodinsky et al, 2010). This survey indi-cated Spirituality as an important predictor of in-dividual opinions, in regards to whether particular business practices were considered ethical or not. The findings specified “that Spirituality along with hope, gratitude, and generosity, was a significant positive predictor of whether or not an individu-al placed value on multifiduciaryconsiderations when making consumer decisions. In 2004, As-tin and Astin surveyed the spiritual development of “college career students.” They noted that 50% associated themselves with “spiritual qualities: helpfulness, compassion, generosity, kindness, forgiveness and empathy” (cited in Kolodinsky et al, 2010). What is needed on the part of corpora-tions is a different attitude: an organizational ap-plication of positive psychology which shifts the organizational focus away from an exclusive focus on corporate.profits or shareholder wealth to posi-tive individual virtues among their decision mak-ers (Seligman &Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003). A positive approach to organizational ethics can yield a living ethical code that with authentic leadership can create an


organizational response that truly manifests its re-sponsibility to society (Verbos, et al., 2007).With the dawn of a new century, there is an emerging and exponentially accelerating force for global so-cietal and organizational change. Responding to these forces will require a major organizational transformation to a learning organizational para-digm that is radically different from the traditional centralized, standardized, and formalized bureau-cratic organizational form based on fear that has

been the dominant organizational paradigm since the beginning of the industrial revolution (Ancona et al., 1999; Fry, 2003; Moxley, 2000). It is clear that the above simple governance system is free from the stark disadvantages and deficiencies of the present system. It will throw up strong, stable governments through every election process in-stead of coalition governments which are weak, unstable and ineffective as they are formed and run on electoral arithmetic. The role played by caste,

A COMPARISON OF SCHOLARLY ARTICLES COMPARING SIMILAR VALUES

RELATING TO SPIRITUAL INDIVIDUALS IN THE WORKPLACE:

AUTHOR(S) SPIRITUAL VALUES COMMENT

Jackson , (1999, pp. 65-66) & Kriger& Hanson, (1999, p. 304)

Equality, Honesty, Ctn, Avoiding Harm, Respect, Peace, Justice, Forgiveness, Service, Duty Trustworthiness, Being a Good Citizen, Peace, Thankfulness

Spiritual values from world’s main religions (Sikhism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Baha’ism, Confucianism & Jain-ism)

Synder& Lopez (2001)Optimism, Hope, Humility, Compassion, Forgiveness, Gratitude, Love, Altruism, Empathy, Toughness, Meaningfulness

List of values linked to positive psychology and spirituality

Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, (2003a, p. 14)

Integrity, Humanism, Awareness, Meaningful-ness, Responsibility, Love, Inner Peace, Truth, Humility, Sense of Community, Justice

Manifestations of spirituality in the form of spiritual attributes

Fry (2003, p. 695)Forgiveness, Kindness, Integrity, Empathy, Honesty, Patience, Courage, Trust, Humility, Service to Others

Specifically tied to spiritual leadership; all sub-ordinate under a single value altruistic love

Jurkiewicz & Giacalone, (2004, p. 131)

Benevolence, Generativity, Humanism, Integ-rity, Justice, Mutuality, Receptivity, Respect, Responsibility, Trust

Values framework for measuring workplace spirituality

Fry, (2005, p. 56)Honesty, Forgiveness, Hope, Gratitude, Humility, Compassion, Integrity

A set of core values reflecting a state of ethical and spiritual well-being experienced by a spiritual employee

Marques (2005, p. 86)

Respect, Understanding, Openness, Honesty, Giving, Trust, Kindness, Peace & Harmony, Acceptance, Creativity, Appreciation, Help-fulness

Vital themes for a spiritual workplace from the Literature and compared with the statements of six business executives.

Reave (2005, p. 658)Meaningfulness, Integrity, Honesty, Humility, RespecTt, Fairness, Caring & Concern, Listen-ing, Appreciating Others, Reflective Practice

Spiritual values and practices as related to leadership Effectiveness Integrity viewed as the most crucial spiritual value for success


019

eligion and language in elections will be almost eliminated in such a structure.From a strategic and empowered team spiritual leadership perspective, it is therefore necessary for organizations to adopt a stakeholder approach in viewing social organizations as imbedded in layers or levels (individual, group, organizational, soci-etal) with various internal and external constituen-cies (employees, customers, suppliers, government agencies etc.) all of whom have a legitimate stra-tegic and moral stake in the organization’s perfor-mance (Freeman, 1984). Each of these stakehold-ers may have different values and interests as well as different stakeholder relationships with other individuals, groups and organizations: The core problem is to achieve the common good of the organization, while at the same time meeting the needs and safeguarding the rights of the various stakeholders. To achieve such an outcome, people must to some extent come together and cooperate on the basis of values interest and social choice. (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999, p. 200) Because of this,the single-minded focus on measuring organiza-tional performance through “shareholder value” based primarily on the basis of stock price must give way to a balanced perspective that elevates the importance of simultaneously satisfying the ex-pectations and interests of employees, customers, and their communities in addition to the bottom line. Even Milton Friedman (1970), the guru of free markets and profit, in his famous New York Times article, “The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Profits,” proclaimed that the appropriate goal for corporate executive was to maximize prof-its as much as possible while conforming to the ba-sic rules of society—both those imbedded in law and ethical custom. Corporate ethical policy needs to be focused on achieving the common good. The view of the individual in this context is that they, like the corporations they represent, are rational actors mechanically devoted to accomplishments that are largely material and can be measured. Yet, humans are not automatons. They have a soul. Humans have higher needs and concerns than the materialistic. Without a spiritual dimension, many people feel unfulfilled and incomplete. To be spir-itually self-actualized is an important goal and mo-tivating force for many people. This metaphysical dimension to corporate social policy and reality overall is largely unrecognized by the corporation.

When CSR policy addresses values, the discussion revolves around such factors as behaving honestly, avoiding conflicts of interest, treating the customer fairly, not engaging in discriminatory practices, and protecting the environment. Values that are critical to effective social responsibility such as love, empathy, compassion, kindness, and caring are not part of the corporate lexicon. Yet these are the very values necessary to creating a viable so-cial presence for large businesses.

humans have higher needs and concerns than the materialistic.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Literature review was conducted to develop the relationship between spirituality and CSR. A ques-tionnaire was developed and adopted to generate data to test the research hypotheses. “The ques-tionnaire for the study was developed on two con-structs; spirituality and corporate social respon-sibility.” The Measurement scales were gleaned from previous studies; these scales were adopted and modified to suite this study. The questionnaire utilized a response set of strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) and accordingly in between. The questionnaire was assessed for validity and reli-ability. The internal consistency test showed that all the constructs and scales exhibited coefficient of Cronbach’s alpha that exceeded the minimum threshold of 0.7 as suggested by Nunnallyand Bernstein (1994) and Neuman (2006). In all, of the 186 copies of questionnaire that were sent out, only 145 out of those returned were useable; thus, a response rate of 80%. The generated data were analysed using Pearson Product Moment Correla-tion with the aid of SPSS (Version 20.0). All the respondents were under the age of 55 years. The sample further showed that 46.8% were from the service sector, while 53.2% were from the trade sector. The distribution of the respondents by sex showed that 62.5% were female, while 37.5% were male.

“

“


the generated data were analysed using Pearson Product moment Correlation with the aid of SPSS (Version 20.0).

DATA FINDINGSTable 1 revealed the result of H02 test. The result showed that there is a significant relationship be-tween spirituality and CSR. Thus the null hypoth-esis is rejected.

Correlations (Table 1)

Spiritu-ality

csr

Spirituality

Pearson Correlation

1 .827**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

N 145 145

csr

Pearson Correlation

.827** 1

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

N 145 145

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The Pearson’s r for the correlation is 0.827. Therefore we conclude that there is very strong relation between spirituality and CSR and the correlation is significant at 0.01 levels.

Variables Entered/Removeda

ModelVariables Entered

Variables Re-moved

Method

1 spiritualityb Enter

“ “a. Dependent Variable: csrb. All requested variables entered.

MODEL SUMMARY

ModelVariables Entered

Variables Removed

Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the Estimate

1 .827a .684a .666 9.14963

The r value is 0.827, which represents high degree of correlation. R2 indicates how much of CSR can be explained by spirituality, in this case 68.4% can be explained, which is large.

ANOVA

Model

Sum of

Squares dfMean

SquareF Sig.

1. Regression

Residual

Total

9543.721

9872.285

9416.172

1

143

149

3382.887

88.051

36.955 .000b

a. Dependent Variable: csr

b. Predictors: (Constant), spirituality

From the anova table we can conclude that p<0.05,indicates that overall the model applied can statistically si

Cofficient

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Stand-

ardized

Coef-

ficients

t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1. (Constant)

Spirituality

12.509

2.444

8.245

.368

8.245

.368 .215

1.071

6.637

.140

.000

This table gives us information to predict CSR from spirituality. Therefore are regression equation is:


021

CSR = 12.509 + 2.444 (SPIRITUALITY)

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

This study investigated the relationship among the Spirituality, and corporate social responsibility. Man is a spiritual being that needs to be spiritu-ally nurtured so as to optimally tap and harness his potentials in a work or vocation. Work or vocation is a calling when the spiritual man finds meaning and purpose in it (Agbim et al., 2013). Spiritual persons in the workplace exhibit “spiritual behav-ioural characteristics” (i.e., self-transcendence, in-terconnectedness, sense of purpose and ultimate concern) in their work/business place. It will be a reference point that will help to regulate both mo-tivation and conduct so that a spiritual individual tends to conform to their internalized conception of good or excellent spirituality. We also found that spirituality is significantly related to ethical behaviour. Spiritual virtues are habits in that once acquired they become characteristic of a person because he or she tends to be honest in all circum-stances. Every virtuous act is more than a habit, as it requires choice, understanding, and knowledge.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND SCOPE FOR FUR-THER RESEARCH

Spirituality enables a businessperson to gain a bet-ter perspective on their firm, family, neighbours, community, and themselves. Furthermore, ac-knowledging dependence on God gives the indi-vidual manager a more stable and helpful vision.Themanagerthen knows that his/her success also depends on someone beyond himself or herself, so such a view also lessens stress. Such a vision also enables the manager to integrate their life, so that it is less segmented or compartmentalized. There is much evidence of this new interest in spirituality in business. Business managers and firms now de-pend more on vision and spirituality in the work-place. “Gull and Doh (2004) argue that spirituality can be the basis for ethical conduct in business.” Where spirituality is absent, there is a lack of un-derstanding that we are deeply connected. Being in touch with spiritual principles and values helps to stimulate the moral imaginations of individu-als and can provide depth of understanding of the many ethical problems that arise in business.This

paper has sought to explain the link between indi-vidual spirituality and CSR. Further research can be carried to develop a model for examining the relationship between spirituality, ethical behavior and corporate social responsibility (CSR).The au-thors believe that it’s one’s ultimate concernwhich governs what individuals perceive, and value and how they act. These moral values practiced over time become virtuous, and spiritually virtuous in-dividuals contribute significant benefits to the so-ciety.

Spirituality enables a businessperson to gain a better perspective on their firm, family, neighbours, community, and themselves.

REFERENCES

1. Aaker, AD, Kumar, V & Day, GS 2004, Market-ing Research, 8th Edition, John Wiley, and Sons, New York, NY. 2. Ancona, D., Kochan, T., Scully, M., Van Maanen, J., & Westney, D.E. (1999). Managingfor the future: Organizational behaviour and process-es. Boston: South western College Publishing.3. Bowen, HR 1953, Social responsibilities of the businessman, Harper and Row, New York. 4. Cameron, K. S., Dutton, J.E. & Quinn, R. E. (2003) Foundations of Positive Organizational Scholarship, in Cameron, K. S., J. E. Dutton, and R.E. Quinn (eds.) Positive Organizational scholar-ship.5. Carroll, A 1999, Corporate Social Responsibil-ity: Evolution of a Definitional Construct, Business and Society, Vol. 38, Iss. 3, pp. 268-295. 6. Carroll. A. B, (1979) A three-dimensional con-ceptual model of corporate performance. Acad-emy of Management Review, 4: 497-505.7. Cavana, R, Delahaye, B, & Sekaran, U 2001, Applied Business Research: qualitative and quan-titative methods John Wiley and Sons, Australia.

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8. Commission of the European Communities 2001, Promoting a European framework for corpo-rate social responsibilities, Com (2001) 366 final, Brussels.9. DeGeorge, R.T. (1987). The status of business ethics: Past and future. Journal of Business Ethics, 6, 201-211.10. Dent, E. B., M. E. Higgins and D. M. Wharff: 2005, ‘Spirituality and Leadership: An Empirical Review of Definitions, Distinctions, and Embed-ded Assumptions’, the Leadership Quarterly 16(5), and 625-653. Boston: Pitman Publishing.11. Frederick, W, Post, J & Davis, KE 1992, Busi-ness and society: corporate strategy, public policy, ethics, 7thedn. McGraw-Hill, London.12. Freeman, R.E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman Publish-ing.13. Friedman, M. (1970, September 13). The social responsibility of business is toincrease profits. New York Times.14. Fry, L.W. (2003). Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. The leadership quarterly, 14,693–727. 15. Giacalone, RA & Thompson, K 2006, „Busi-ness Ethics and Social Responsibility Education: Shifting the Worldview, Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 5, Iss. 3, pp. 266–277. 16. Hodge, DR 2003, „The intrinsic Spirituality scale: A new six-item instrument for assessing the salience of Spirituality as a construct, Journal of Social Service Research, Vol. 30, Iss. 1. 17. Jones, TM 1980, „Corporate social responsi-bility revisited, redefined, California Management

Review, Vol. 22, Iss. 2, pp. 59-67. 18. Kolodinsky, RW, Madden, TM, Zisk, DS & Henkel, ET 2010, „Attitudes about Corporate So-cial Responsibility: Business Student Predictors, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 91, Iss. 2, p. 167. 19. Manne, HG &Wallich, HC 1972, „The Mod-ern Corporation and social responsibility, Ameri-can Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, Washington DC. 20. Maon, F, Lindgreen, A &Swaen, V 2010, „Or-ganisational stages and cultural phases: A critical review of Corporate Social Responsibility devel-opment, International Journal of Management Re-views, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, pp. 20-38. 21. Peter McGhee, P. G. (2008). Spirituality and Ethical Behaviour in the Workplace: Wishful Thinking or Authentic Reality. EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Stud-ies, 61-62.22. Seligman, M. P., &Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive Psychology. American Psycholo-gist, 55(1), 5.23. Ticehurst, GW& Veal, AJ 1999, „Business re-search methods: A managerial approach, Long-man, Malaysia.24. Tull, DS and Hawkins, DI 1990, Marketing Research 5th Edition, Macmillan Publishing Com-pany, New York. 25. Verbos, A., Gerard, J., Forshey, P., Harding, C., & Miller, J. (2007). The positive ethical organiza-tion: Enacting a living code of ethics and ethical organizational identity. Journal of Business Ethics, 76(1), 17-33.


023

SELF EXPLORATION IS KEY TO ULTIMATE SUCCESS: SAINT KABIR’S PHILOSOPHIES

Dr. Subhash Pratap Singh

Key WordsSelf Exploration, Saint Kabir’s Philosophies, Ultimate success

AbstractLearning about oneself is a lifelong process. Self exploration is the process of acquisition of skills, positive and negative traits and beliefs. Everybody, irrespective what he is and who he is, seeks to accomplish ultimate success in life. Therefore, one looks for acceptance, praise and love from others and society at large. In addition to this, one desires to attain name, fame and prosperity in one’s life. The per-spective of ultimate success varies from one individual to other. But the basic truth is that awareness can only be the vital ingredients of ultimate success. In a large number of cases, people are quite ignorant about what they really want from their lives and even if they know, they are not aware of their own abilities or shortcomings. In this context, to larger ex-tent the present study is highly influenced by the philosophies of Saint Kabir. Therefore, the basic nature of this paper is conceptual. This paper is an attempt to bring understanding on two extreme points (Self exploration and Ulti-mate success) might be physically but having synonymous nature when one wants to trans-form one’s life.

The author is Assistant Professor (Stage Two) at FMS, Rajiv Gandhi South Campus-Banaras Hindu University.

He may be reached at [email protected].

INTRODUCTION

Learning about oneself is a lifelong process. Self exploration is the process of acquisition of skills, positive and negative traits and beliefs. Everybody, irrespective what he is and who he is, seeks to ac-

complish ultimate success in life. Therefore, one looks

“

“

Learning about oneself is a lifelong process.


for acceptance, praise and love from others and society at large. In addition to this, one desires to attain name, fame and prosperity in one’s life. The perspective of ultimate success varies from one in-dividual to other. In a large number of cases, peo-ple are quite ignorant about what they really want from their lives and even if they know, they are not aware of their own abilities or shortcomings. Self-exploration is an intrinsic tool for individuals for self evaluation in all dimensions of life by discov-ering individual strength and shortcomings.

the perspective of ultimate success varies from one individual to other

This becomes the sound base for attaining success in life. In this context, to larger extent the present study is highly influenced by the philosophies of Saint Kabir. This paper is an attempt to bring un-derstanding on two extreme points (Self explora-tion and Ultimate success) might be physically but having synonymous nature when one wants to transform one’s life. No effort is made in this paper to reflect Kabir’s philosophies as superior to other religions and philosophies, in fact its humble trib-ute to great Saint of India. This paper what one can analyse is a drop in the ocean. Saint Kabir’s Life Story Saint Kabir, a mystical poet and great Saint of India, was born in the year 1440 and died in the year 1518. According to the Islam the meaning of the Kabir is The Great. Kabir Panth is the huge religious community which identifies the Kabir as the originator of the Sant Mat sects. The members of Kabir Panth are known as the Kabir panthis who had extended all over the over north and central India. Some of the great writings of the Kabir Das are Bijak, Kabir Granthawali, Anu-rag Sagar, Sakhi Granth etc. It is clearly not known about his birth parents but it is noted that he has been grew up by the very poor family of Muslim weavers. He was very spiritual person and became a great Sadhu. He got name and fame all over be-cause of his influential traditions and cultural.

Many legends abound about the birth, life and death of Kabir, one of India’s most quoted poets and mystics. His birth itself is shrouded in mystery,

“

“

some say he was the son of a Brahman widow, others that he was of virgin birth, what is known though is that he was brought up in a family of Muslim weavers. He was never formally educated and was almost completely illiterate. According to legend, the only word that he ever learned how to write was “Rama”. As the end drew near, Kabir decided to move to Maghar in order to debunk the belief that dying in Kashi guaranteed entry into heaven. But once in Maghar, he missed his Kashi, as it was not just a ‘holy’ city to him but his own city, the city of his childhood pranks and youthful adventures, the city of his friends and family, the city of his dreams, which now haunted him. Kabir describes his feel-ings towards his city in a poignant poem (collected in Adi Granth, 1604 CE) that is generally ignored by his progressive and radical admirers, for it is likely to ‘deconstruct’ the one-dimensional, ‘pro-gressive’ image of Kabir that they have so diligent-ly constructed.

Kabir’s final departure was as dramatic as the rest of his life. He talked of the futility of the religious divide all his life but his ‘admirers’ fought over his body to settle the question: cremation or burial? Kabir had probably foreseen this drama, as one of his poems suggests: The Hindu wants to burn my body but the Muslim resists: ‘How can you do this to my pir The followers of both religions quarrel as Kabir the swan looks on]” (Bijak, pada 90).Since Kabir had foreseen his followers’ enthusiasm regarding the ‘treatment’ his dead body should receive, he took care to make ‘suitable arrange-ments’. How did he feel as he made these arrange-ments? Much like Gandhi perhaps, who along with a few friends and comrades was ‘fast asleep’ at Haidari Mansion in Kolkata on the night of the 14th and 15th of August 1947 when India was “awakening to the dawn of freedom”.Kabir himself called for some flowers, spread them over the sheet, wrapped himself up, asked his fol-lowers to sing bhajans and quietly ‘left’. It is un-clear whether he left the world itself at that very moment or whether he left the world of his follow-ers who were now free to divide, cremate and bury the flowers. Kabir had nothing to do with all this; he was on his way, alone. Or, more correctly, with his sadhana [spiritual endeavor], his poetry and his loneliness.


025

Kabir says: “I cry for this world, I am not sure if somebody will cry for me, maybe he who knows the Sabad [Word] will cry for me.”

Without a doubt. As long as there are words, he who knows the Word will certainly cry for Kabir – the Sabad sadhak.

KABIR’S PHILOSOPHY

Saint Poet Kabir was illiterate by choice. He was of the firm view that if one realizes the value of the two letters of the alphabet R and M which make the name of Shri Rama there was no need to both-er about the rest of the fifty-four alphabets which might as well be washed down the river as being of no value.But Kabir also emphasized that the true value of Shri Rama should be realized which will help man to realize the intrinsic value of God and ingrain true and deep love for the Lord. And Kabir acted accordingly as he has shown in his songs and max-ims which flowed from his lips in thousandsThe social and practical manifestation of Kabir’s philosophy has rung through the ages. It repre-sented a synthesis of Hindu, and Muslim concepts. From Hinduism he accepts the concept of reincar-nation and the law of Karma. From Islam he takes the affirmation of the single god and the rejection of caste system and idolatry.

Kabir touches the soul, the conscience, and the sense of awareness and the vitality of existence in a manner that is unequalled in both simplicity and style

“The basic religious principles he espouses are simple.” According to Kabir, all life is interplay of two spiritual principles. One is the personal soul (Jivatma) and the other is God (Paramatma). It is Kabir’s view that salvation is the process of bring-ing into union these two divine principles.Kabir is a very important figure in Indian history.

“ “He is unusual in that he is spiritually significant to Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims alike. Kabir openly criticized all sects and gave a new direction to the Indian philosophy. Kabir touches the soul, the conscience, and the sense of awareness and the vitality of existence in a manner that is unequalled in both simplicity and style.

POETRY

It is for this reason that Kabir is held in high es-teem all over the world. Another beauty of Kabir’s poetry is that he picks up situations that surround our daily lives. Thus, even today, Kabir’s poetry is relevant and helpful in both social and spiritual context. Following Kabir means understanding one’s inner self, realizing oneself, accepting one-self as is, and becoming harmonious with one’s surroundings. Kabir has written much poetry and song. All of Ka-bir’s recorded verses are in Hindi. His lyrics are characterized by a free use of the vernacular, and are unfettered by the grammatical bonds of his day. It is this quality which has made his philoso-phy accessible to generations of Indians.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:

The basic objective of the study is to understand the process of self exploration as experienced by Saint Kabir’s teaching in the form of taking select-ed dohas and further to determine it’s significant in attainment of ultimate success.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

a) Research Design: The present study is basically descriptive in nature. The descriptions in the sense that some selected dohas of Saint Kabir were taken for subjective understanding of self-exploration which is significant for ultimate success. b) Sources of data and tools for data collection: The research is basically based on secondary data. Then it has been examined on the basis of expe-rience one has attained in real life situation. For secondary data references would include by some books and websites. c) Significance of the Study: The study is significant in all aspects irrespective of religion, caste, com-


munity, profession, country etc. Human tendency is generally outward but this study will influence the reader to begin the journey of ultimate success through self-exploration.In this regard, selected dohas were taken to understand the process of self exploration as experienced by Saint Kabir’s teach-ing and further to conclude it’s significant in attain-ment of ultimate success

in my opinion without self knowledge any kind of knowledge is incomplete.

DOHA1:

Paanee bich meen piyaasi, mohi suni-suni aawat haansi. Aatam gyan binaa sab soona, kya Mathura kya Kaasi. Ghar me padi vastu nahi soojhe, baa-har khojat jaasee. Mrig ka naabhi maanhi kasturi, ban-ban khojat jaasee. Kahe Kabir suno bhai sad-ho, sahaj mile avinaasi.

People say that the fish is thirsty in the water; Ka-bir can’t help laughing hearing it (It is said that the world is within GOD and GOD is within the world, still people can’t feel his presence and cry for the Lord, the same is true for Love). Kabir says – If you have not experienced the knowledge of your own true self, nothing can help you even if you go to holy places like Mathura (Place of Krish-na) or Kashi (place of Shiva), these all will remain deserted place for the person devoid of the self-

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knowledge. The true knowledge is within us but we don’t seek it there and go outside, how can it be found? Kabir says the true thing is in your own house but you go on searching outside. It is like a deer has the musk in its own navel but the deer goes on running to search it in grasses. Kabir says – GOD will be found with the effortless meditation, in natural ways.

MY LEARNING

In my opinion without self knowledge any kind of knowledge is incomplete. Through self-explora-tion (medium) one can accomplish infinite knowl-edge in the form of wisdom that further becomes the base for realizing ultimate success. The line as quoted by Saint Kabir truly reflects the irony of life. Human tendency is outward in exploring things physically but the fact is that true knowledge (wis-dom) exists inside. Since the real journey of life begins with in. Here the most important awaken-ing call by Saint Kabir is this that GOD used to visit every day, but most of the time one is not at home. Thus consequently one remains deprived from GOD all the time.

DOHA 2:

bura jo dekhan main chala, bura naa milya koyejo munn khoja apnaa, to mujhse bura naa koye


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I searched for the crooked, met not a single one When searched myself, “I” found the crooked one.This Doha deals with our perception behavior and tendencies. It has been invariably noticed that we tend to find fault with someone else for our situa-tions and circumstances. Our “I”, the ego, always tries to put blame on others. Non-awareness of our own self is the cause of this attitude. Resultantly, we find ourselves being busy in criticizing and condemning others and conveniently term them as crooked or evil. So Kabir says that instead of finding fault and maligning others, dive deep into your own-self. Amazingly, an honest introspection will reveal that all fault lies with “me” and “my” own perceptions and attitudes. If there is any evil or crookedness, it is in “me”. Correcting this and opting for a lov-ing and compassionate attitude will change one’s perceptions and the world will appear wonderful all over again.

MY LEARNING

Human approach is always extrinsic. That is why most persons used to interpret the nature of others in two aspects either positive or negative. Again, in general experience focus is on negative traits of others. Hence, that becomes the barrier for under-standing the self. This eventually creates impedi-ment to explore oneself in direction of ultimate success. If the same tendency applied for one self then the radical change shall be realized.

i searched for the crooked, met not a single one

DOHA 3:

pothi padh padh kar jag mua, pandit bhayo na koye; dhai aakhar prem ke, jo padhe so pandit hoye

Reading books everyone died, none became any wise One who reads the word of Love, only be-comes wiseTo understand this Doha in its true perspective is important. We all read and now with tremendous

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media exposure, we are seemingly more informed. Everyone seems to know everything. Yet, the truth is that in spite of all this information, there is no awareness. We are not at peace. There is a lot of frustration all around. Our minds are not quiet and relaxed. We talk of Love but have no compassion. Selfishness, greed, fear, hatred and similar tenden-cies seem to grip us all the time. Why?I have found myself in this dilemma a number of times. Kabir in this doha shows the way, in his sim-ple but dynamic style. He daringly says that de-spite all our readings, despite all our knowledge, we cannot become wise. Only if we ‘read’ Love, become loving and loveable unconditionally, only then wisdom will dawn on us. Only then Life will be worth living.

MY LEARNING

What I got from this Doha that unconditional love is only the way and means to incorporate every-thing in life. Here the point of awareness is that one has to be love and respect for others. This is universal truth what one has share with others. “If one has plenty love then definitely shall be dissem-inated to others and realized harmony.” This again becomes the source of ultimate success in life.


DOHA 4:

panch tatva ka putara, manush dhariya nawn;ek kala ke bichhure, vikal hot sab thawn.

The body is made of five elements and is named human; if deprived of one element, it becomes restless at every step.The body is made of five elements - earth, water, fire, air and ether. Being with the body have we been named ‘human’ i.e. who use the mind (man). If this body is deprived of one element e.g. air, then it becomes restless and dies. This indicates the fragility of the human body. There is no need to be engrossed in pride and ego.Speaking, the one element Guru Kabir refers to here is knowledge of the Self. Without knowledge of the real Self which is God dwelling within, man does not achieve peace of mind the peace that contains all understanding.

the above Doha truly reflects the significant of understanding the ingredients of how the formation of human being

He is caught up in a merry-go-around of the mate-rial world, and is driven by cravings and passions which keep him in turmoil all his life. Every per-son desires peace of mind and happiness. These can be achieved only by that Supreme Knowledge which gives total freedom. That Supreme Knowl-edge is of the Self.

MY LEARNING

The above Doha truly reflects the significant of un-derstanding the ingredients of how the formation of human being. If one self explore this, then the spark of awareness is ignited inside. This perpetu-ally goes ahead towards the freedom of all kinds of belongingness. In material world, whatever the physical things one observed has some key com-ponents. Similarly, if one pause for a moment and started scanning oneself then the self awareness is generated and that turn into the source of ultimate success.

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DOHA 5

rangahi te rang upaje, sab rang dekha ek;kown rang hai jiw ka, taka karahu vivek.

One color arise s from another color, but basically all colors are one; what is the color of the Soul? Try to understand the difference.One color arises from another color as is well known. The primary colors - red, blue and green - can be mixed to produce a number of secondary colors and these secondary colors can be mixed to produce an endless variety of tertiary colors. Guru Kabir is using this analogy to state that the various forms that exist in the universe are derived from the same basic form, which is termed mat-ter and which is unconscious. This unconscious matter exists in endless variety, but nevertheless, they remain gross matter and lifeless. He then asks the question about what color is the Soul. And he says that we must try to understand what the dif-ference between the soul and matter is. Is the soul conscious, or unconscious? Is it physical, or non-physical? Is it reproducible as various colors, or various forms of matter, or is it non-reproducible and unitary? Does it have form, or is it formless? These and similar questions are implied in this question asked by Guru Kabir. Every person who is a true seeker of spiritual understanding must, at some point, try to understand what the Soul is, be-cause by this understanding one understands one’s real self.


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MY LEARNING

From above Doha one can learn that material world is very glittering in nature. But the very fact is that the origin of this world is Soul of an indi-vidual which is completely free from all kinds of colors. At this time, the emphasis has been given to origin that is soul which is pious in nature (free from all colors). If one comprehends the very ob-jective of this Doha then it becomes easy to realize GOD.

DOHA 6:

kaal kare so aaj kar, aaj kare so ubpal mein pralaya hoyegi, bahuri karoge kub

Tomorrows’ work do it today, today’s work now If the moment is lost, the work be done when.This Doha is a little difficult to translate, particu-larly when the words “Pal mein Pralaya Hoyegi”, have been translated by many scholars as the un-pleasant destiny may come at any moment or in similar words. In my understanding Kabir, reflect that pending action is thief of time. He knew more than anyone else that if God is eternal, his creation is also eternal. Also being a Guru, Kabir would not like to talk about unpleasant destiny, as he himself was full of life.In this Doha, Kabir has clearly tried to explain the human tendency of laziness and procrastination. It is a known fact that we all tend to postpone

matters, we are indecisive and given a choice we would like others to be doing work and we simply enjoying a cool time. When it comes to us, we try to get away by saying, “Very busy, no time.” Don’t we? This lethargy is what Kabir is condemning. Be-sides, according to me, his emphasis is on now, the present, the moment as it is. Now, that is Life, the moment. It is in the now, in the spontaneous nature that one gets energized to do, to achieve, to realize. As they say, it is now or never.Keeping this context in mind, this Kabir Doha clearly teaches us to shed all procrastination and lethargy. It motivates us to do whatever we have to do, and do it now. If we will keep postponing it, then the work will never be done.

MY LEARNING

In the above Doha, it paid stress on the charisma of Now Here, the now does not mean today itself. It means instant mindset which is ready to take pre-sent situation sincerely. This Now is actually can break the mystic characteristics of time. Everybody knows that time is precious. Yet time is taken for granted most of the time. This is irony of life. But this Doha is profoundly stating categorically that it is now which makes or breaks one’s life. If one takes care now then now will take care Past and Future. now is actually the bridge in between past and future.

tomorrows’ work do it today, today’s work now if the moment is lost, the work be done when“

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DOHA 7

jab mein tha tab hari nahin, jab hari hai mein na-hin sab andhiyara mit gaya, jab deepak dekhya mahin

When “I” was then Hari (GOD) was not, Now Hari “is” and “I” am not. All the darkness (illusions) mit-igated, when I saw the light (illumination) within.From the root word “Har” (everything) is derived the word “Hari” which is used as yet another name or expression for God.

this darkness - the state of ignorance - diminishes, rather eliminates, when the all-pervasive effulgence of God (the light within) is perceived, realized or experienced.

In this doha, Kabir explains that till such time we are engrossed within the bounds of our (limited) ego - the mundane “I” - we are not able to experi-ence or realize the all-pervasive attribute of God. Resultantly we are in a state of conflict, chaos and a state of ignorance aptly expressed as darkness or illusion in the Doha. This darkness - the state of ig-norance - diminishes, rather eliminates, when the all-pervasive effulgence of God (the light within) is perceived, realized or experienced. With this conviction we are able to transcend the bondage enforced by our ego.

“ “MY LEARNING

Kabir explains that till such time we are occupied within the bounds of our (limited) ego - the mun-dane “I”, hence we are not able to experience or realize the all-pervasive attribute of God. Conse-quently we are in a state of conflict, chaos and a state of ignorance which is explicitly expressed as darkness or illusion. This darkness (the state of ig-norance) diminishes, rather eliminates, when the all-pervasive effulgence of God (the light within) is perceived, realized or experienced. With this conviction we are able to exceed the oppression enforced by our ego.Moreover the least significant word in this world is ‘I’. But unfortunately, each one of us is very fo-cus on this ‘I’. Such approach is self centered and creates argument, confusion and ignorance. If ‘I’ is relinquished then gradually the state of ignorance depletes and finally leads to realization of GOD which is base for self exploration. This whole pro-cess eventually reflects the state of renunciation (self denial).

CONCLUSION

Saint Kabir has inspired many people and nations. The sole purpose of Kabir was enlightening peo-ple. Self-discovery is great when it is done for a limited time for a specific purpose. The very pur-


031

pose of life (which reflects the existence of oneself) is to know about self. In this concern, learning to live with integrity and an awareness of true self is a great journey. Overlooking the gems within one can lead on a search for something we already have, but overlook. The outcome of this study is on self exploration which can be developed through positive thinking that can make one open to a world of physical changes. here are various ways to start the journey of self exploration as understood by the selected Dohas of Saint Kabir. Self exploration is an endless search towards the realization of the self i.e. GOD. It is an unending pilgrimage. In this journey, man tries to find his own self and thereby reaches a higher level of perfection. But the bottom line is, one play a huge part in attaining happiness, and this can greatly increase it by taking action and changing attitude toward oneself.

In conclusion, the more one know oneself, the more empowered one is going to be. A clear self understanding results in renewed confidence, cen-teredness and strength which are really the very source of ultimate success. Let’s hope for the best.

REFERENCES

1. http://www.varanasi.org.in/kabir-das2. Purushottam Agrawal, Akath Kahani Prem Ki:

Kabir Ki Kavita Aur Unka Samay (An Ineffa-ble Tale of Love: Kabir’s Poetry and his Times Rajkamal Prakshan, 2009, extract in English translation by Javed Anand (published in Com-munalism Combat – January 2010)

3. G. N. Das, G.N. Das, Maxims of Kabir, Abhi-nav Publication; 1 edition (May 1, 1998)

4. http://www.poemhunter.com/kabir/biogra-phy/

5. https://www.facebook.com/shri5navtanpurid-hamposts/447714988679498

6. http://www.boloji.com


The first three authors are Research Scholar and Doc-toral Student at Management Development Institute,

Gurgaon, India (MDI). They may be reached at [email protected], [email protected], dr.pawanverma@out-

look.com respectively. The fourth author is Assistant Professor in the

Department of Management Studies at IIS. She may be reached at [email protected]

EXPLORING INDIGENOUS

CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION: LEARNING

FOR LEADERSHIP AND

GOVENANCE

Mr. Ankur joshi Mr. Puneet bindlish Dr. Pawan Verma Ms. Priyanka Dutt

Key WordsKautilya Arthshaastra, Indigenous Research, Public ad-ministration, Raj Dharm Neeti

AbstractThe discourses on public management major-ly focus on the managerial approach in pub-lic sector organisation and employees. Public governance orientation is also focussed on de-centralized institutions. Both are about instill-ing competitiveness and an attempt towards displacing the rule bound and hierarchical concepts of public Administration.

Kincheloe and Steinberg (2008) suggested in their study on indigenous research that scholarship needs to move from binary re-ductive categories. This implies the need to look the domain from a unified perspective. For instance, both centralisation as well as decentralisation is needed in any governance structure. There is need to identify the areas where decentralized approach can work; in which area strong leadership skills are desired; where the state cannot allow decentralization etc. To exploring these kinds of framework or concepts of co-existence of public administra-tion and public management, the Arthshastra of Kautilya provides us deeper insights. The paper attempts to explore for such evidences from Kautilya Arthshaastra and concepts of Raj-Dharm Neeti from Mahabharat.

“ “Kincheloe and Steinberg (2008) suggested in their study on indigenous research that scholarship needs to move from binary reductive categories.


033

INTRODUCTION

Lynn (2006) lists milestones in the history of public management from 4th century BCE (Shen Pu Hai codified principles of admin-istration, China) to current times. The indig-

enous texts in the Indian context like Kautilya’s Arthshastra, Vidur Neeti and Neeti Shastra are few of the scriptures that are rich in detailing the con-cepts of Raj Dharm Neeti.

But the skewed the academic literature towards contemporary and western literature has resulted in loss for whole academic community. The an-cient wisdom which is rich in its knowledge has not gained attention of scholars and hence schol-arship remains deprived of this knowledge. This is a concern for practitioners, academics and public too. Hence for ensuring that the application of the research work benefits the society, the contextual significance needs to be taken into account. This work tries to address this gap and focuses on the conducting indigenous work in the public admin-istration. First, a review of contemporary research in the public administration has been presented with respect to the emerging public management and governance orientations. Then a few concepts from Raj Dharm Neeti have been presented with respect to governance and leadership. The article explored the way an indigenous research can be attempted with unified perspective. For conduct-ing indigenous research in public administration few propositions have been made. Review of Public Administration Literature The research in public administration has witnessed emerging orientations of public management, new public management, public governance and new public governance. Lynn (2006) raised concern over the lack of definitive conceptualization in all three terms- public administration, public manage-ment and public governance. This is also reason why these terms could not be differentiated in the academic or scholarly works. Although as Osborne (2006) remarked that a three-stage model is a sim-plification. The elements of each stage can often coexist with each other or overlap.

The old public administration’s model of delivery of services considered that state formulates rules and regulations, which are implemented by bu-

reaucracy for delivering services to the public. Henry (1975) found that the public service move-ment that took place in American universities in the early decades of 20th century was crucial in gaining interest of scholars in public administra-tion studies. Later, the reform movements that grew to offer better services to the citizens took the managerial orientation. The public management then proposed, was concerned with the manage-rial actions within given policy and institutional settings (Lynn (2006) cites Moore (1995), Toonen and Raadschelders (1997), toonen (1998)).

a review of contemporary research in the public administration has been presented with respect to the emerging public management and governance orientations

REVIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION LITERA-TURE

The research in public administration has witnessed emerging orientations of public management, new public management, public governance and new public governance. Lynn (2006) raised concern over the lack of definitive conceptualization in all three terms- public administration, public manage-ment and public governance. This is also reason why these terms could not be differentiated in the academic or scholarly works. Although as Os-borne (2006) remarked that a three-stage model is a simplification. The elements of each stage can often coexist with each other or overlap.

The old public administration’s model of delivery of services considered that state formulates rules and regulations, which are implemented by bu-reaucracy for delivering services to the public. Henry (1975) found that the public service move-

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ment that took place in American universities in the early decades of 20th century was crucial in gaining interest of scholars in public administra-tion studies. Later, the reform movements that grew to offer better services to the citizens took the managerial orientation. The public management then proposed, was concerned with the manage-rial actions within given policy and institutional settings (Lynn (2006) cites Moore (1995), Toonen and Raadschelders (1997), toonen (1998)).

“the public governance or new public governance orientation was about a further decentralized and institutional approach to delivery of services.”

The concepts related to this discussed in the lit-erature were like micro management; the offic-ers in the administrative services were considered as public managers who were expected to adopt managerial approach at their end to deliver the services (Behn, 1995). Then the next variant was termed as new public management (Kaboolian 1998). About the usage of words “management” and “administration”, Lynn (2006) states that this has an implicit meaning. Citing Dimock (in Thom-as 1978, xvi) it is mentioned that Americans pre-fer management- the word being dynamic; while Britishers prefer administration it implies princi-pled respect for others and management implies manipulation and self aggrandizing.

The public governance or new public governance orientation was about a further decentralized and institutional approach to delivery of services. Be-fore discussing public governance a section here is needed on conceptual understanding of the term ‘governance’. Although academic literature has not been able to come up with a common understand-ing and definition of phenomenon called govern-ance. Fukuyama (2013) stated about the usage that the term governance, that it has been applied to international matters in a variety of ways that have

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been at best disorderly and perhaps confusing.

What is governance? An answer to this question has remained challenge for the scholarship. Fin-kelstein (1995) stated: “we say governance be-cause we don’t really know what to call what is going on”. Although Dingwerth & Pattberg (2006) have critiqued the Finkelstein statement and based on their study they argue that various authors have tried to articulate and come with the explanations the definitions. Defining governance Osborne and Gambler (1992) state that it is a mechanism to ad-dress to the needs of society and government (or policy makers) as a tool in this process. The collec-tive action could be through stakeholders which includes administrators, people, civil society, en-trepreneurs (for profit, not for profit), media etc. Fukuyama (2013) defined governance as an ability of government to make and enforce rules, and to deliver services.

Lobel (2004) proposed a governance model with factors like -increased participation of other than state actors, public private collaboration, diversity and competition within market, decentralization, integration of policy domains, non-coerciveness (soft law), adaptability and constant learning and coordination.

Lynn (2006) discussed historical and contempo-rary structures and practices and institutions of the old and new public management (specifically US, UK, France and Germany). Author remarked that these are so interrelated that answers to the forego-ing questions require an understanding of the paths and patterns of national institutional development.

The rise of modern bureaucratic state was termed as a social invention of Western Europe (Rosen-berg, 1958). Feudalism has been critiqued as it moved towards personal enrichment and dynastic advantage of the princes. Fukuyama (2013) argued that governance can be achieved irrespective of the type of government. An authoritarian regime can be well governed, just as a democracy can be mal-administered. This also signifies the impor-tance of governance, rather than focusing on re-ductive categorization of type of government. The next section now explores the Bhartiya Raj Dharm Neeti


035

REVIEW OF BHARTIYA RAJ DHARM NEETI

This section reviews public administration and policy related concepts from Neeti Saar Ank, Kaly-an (Geeta Press, 2002) and Kautilya Arthshastram (Vachaspati Gairola, Chaukhamba Prakashan).According to the scriptures the main purpose in the life of king (public leader) should be “bhagwad-praapti” (union with the supreme one). The mixed bag of guidelines for kings (public leader) existed along with those for ministers, administrators and common public. These are few shlokas that carry

message-how crucial the role of all the actors of state was considered by Kautilya at that time. Propositions and Future Research This exploratory study has potential to be carried forward while researching in various dimensions like that of leadership, governance, public admin-istration, indigenous research etc. The most impor-tant implication out of these areas is the learning from indigenous wisdom. In this article attempt was to draw learning for leadership and govern-ance.There were various takeaways for the management literature as well as practitioners. If the academic community boasts itself of being rational and open minded; it can learn a lot from the ancient wisdom.

S.N. SHLOK MEANING CONCEPT AND LEARNING

1.1 loZ= pksikgkrku~

firsokuqx`âh;krA~

In all the situations governorshould treat public like a father.

Taking care of the publicThis simple description has huge implications for the relationship that exist between public leader (being a parent) and people.

1.2 iztklq[ks lq[ka jkK%iztkuka p

fgrs fgre~A

ukRefiz; fgre~ jkK%iztkuka

rq fiz;a fgre~AA

fo|kfouksrks jktk gh iztkuke~

fou;s jr%A

vuU;ka i`fFkoha HkqDrs loZHkqrfgrs

jr%

Interest of king lies in the interest of public, not in the self interest.

The king who is intelligent remains involved in ensuring the interest of people and makes provisions for education of the people enjoys the kingship for a long period.

The discussions with various Aacharya and Gurujan who still follow the living oral tradition, led to some interesting implications for the public accountability issues in current times. The king in those days collected tax and revenues from the public specifically for performing activities that are for the public only. The salary and other ex-penses of the king as a person were to be earned by himself by doing some sort of work. The taxes collected from the public could not be used.

2.1 lalkj vfuR; World is mortal Public leader should be aware of this could a philosophical guideline

2.2 fo|kfou;gsrqfjfUnt;t%

dkedzzzzks/kyksHke;k

uengzÔZa R;kxkRdk;Z

Control over senses, which is moti-vated by training in the sciences, should be secured by giving up lust, anger, greed, pride, arro-gance and foolhardiness.

Control over senses. There is mention of public leader being indriyajay (person who was won control over senses)

“according to the scriptures the main purpose in the life of king (public leader) should be “bhagwad-praapti” (union with the supreme one).” ““


2.3 d.kZRoxf{k ftOgk?kzk.ksfUnz;.kka

’kCn Li’kZ

:Ik jl xU?ksJfo

izfrifÙkfjfUnzt;t%

Absence of improper indulgence in thepleasures of sound, touch, colour, taste and smell by senses of hear-ing, touch and sight, the tongue and the sense of smell, means control over senses.

Answering the question- what is indriyjay

2.4 lcU/kqjkVªk jktkuks fous’kqj

ftrsfUnz;k%AA

’k=qÔM~oxZ eqRlqt; tkenUx;ks

ftrsfUnz;%A

vEcjhÔ zJoukHkkxk qHk qtkr sfpj a

egheAA

These and many other kings, giv-ing themselves up to the group of six enemies, perished with their kinsmen and kingdoms, without control over sensesCasting out the group of six en-emies, Jamadagnya, who had full control over his senes, aswell as Ambarisa, the son of Nabhaga, enjoyed the kingship for long time.

Reference for impact of being indriyajay

2.5 jktk vkRenzO; izd`fr laiUuksu

;L;kf/k ÔBku fothxhÔq

The king, endowed with personal excellences and those of his mate-rial constituents, the seat of good policy, is the would-be conqueror.

Summing up

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION

S.N. SHLOK MEANING CONCEPT AND LEARN-ING

3.1 fu;qDrq%deZlq O;;

fo’kq/n eqn;a n’kZ;sr~

When assigned the work, courtier is expected to show income cleared of expenses.

Role of courtier

3.2 ckg;ekH;Ruja pk;a

fo|k}ÔZ’krnkfiA

rFkk i`ÔBks u lT;rs

O;;’ksÔa p n’kZ;srAA

Associate is expected to be ready with receipts (incoming and outgoing) of 100 years, so that when-ever asked those could be on fingertips.

Motivation for administration and expectation from them

3.3 lgk; lk?;a jktRoa pd~esda u

orZrsA

dqohZr lfpoka~ LrLek

ÙksÔka p Jq.kq;kUereAA~

State can successfully run with help of associates. One wheel does turn alone; similarly, ruler should appoint associates and listen to their feedbacks / suggestions /opinions.

Collective work (mix of cen-tralization and decentralization (advice for public leader)

3.4 loZekR;f;d

dk;Za Jq.kq;kfUUrikr;sr~ A

d`PN~ lk?;efrd~kUrelk?oka ok

fotk;r AAs

All the urgent matters be heard at once and not linger on. Once the work has been deferred, it be-comes very difficult or even impossible to settle.

Setting the advice for public leader, Kautilya has aptly put the urgency of doing works. How the work priority could be decided by public leader

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF THE PUBLIC LEADER


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REFERENCES

1. Aucoin, P. (1990). Administrative reform in public management: paradigms, principles, paradoxes and pendulums. Governance, 3(2), 115-137.

2. Behn, R. D. (1995). The big questions of pub-lic management. Public administration re-view, 313-324.

3. Bertelli, A. M., & Lynn, L. E. (2003). Manageri-al responsibility. Public administration review, 63(3), 259-268.

4. Davy, T. J. (1962). Public administration as a field of study in the United States. Internation-al Review of Administrative Sciences, 28(1), 63-78.

5. Finkelstein, L. S. (1995). What is global gov-ernance? Global governance, 1, 367.

6. Fukuyama, F. (2013). What Is Governance? Governance.

7. Gaebler, T., & Osborne, D. (1992). Reinvent-ing government: An agenda for the 1990s. Public Management, 74, 4-8.

8. Gore, A. (1993). From red tape to results: Cre-ating a government that works better and costs

less: Report of the national performance re-view. DIANE Publishing.

9. Henry N. (1975). Paradigms of Public Admin-istration. Public Administration Review, Vol. 35, No. 4. pp. 378-386

10. Kaboolian, L. (1998). The new publicmanage-ment: Challenging the boundaries of the man-agement vs. administration debate. Public Ad-ministration Review, 58(3), 189-193.

11. Kautilya Arthshaastram, Vachaspati Gairola, Chaukhamba Publication, Varanasi.

12. Kincheloe, J. L., & Steinberg, S. R. (2008). Indigenous knowledge in education: Com-plexities, dangers, and profound benefits. Handbook of critical and indigenous method-ologies, 135-156.

13. Lynn Jr, L. E. (2006). Public management: old and new. Routledge.

14. Neeti-saar-ank (2002). Geeta Press, Gorakh-pur

15. Osborne, S. P. (2006). The New Public Gov-ernance Editorial Note.

16. Rosenberg, H. (1958). Bureaucracy, aristoc-racy, and autocracy: The Prussian experience, 1660-1815 (Vol. 34). Harvard University Press


A SPIRITUALITY LEADERSHIP

COMPETENCY MODEL: WHAT

DOES IT TAKE TO BE A SPIRITUAL

LEADER IN BUSINESS?

Martha M. Geaney

Key WordsSpirituality, Competency, Models Leadership

Abstract Academic and popular literature offers abun-dant perspectives regarding what it takes to be a leader in a business environment. But what does spirituality in business leadership look like. In 2010, the undergraduate business text book, Management by Schermerhorn, men-tions and briefly defines spirituality in the workplace and its relationship to values based leadership. In my research, I have focused on the definition of spirituality in business and how it operates at work. I observed and interviewed individuals, specifically in top executive management, regarding how they operationalize spirituality in their business leadership practice. How should spirituality at work be defined? What does spirituality in business leadership look like? This paper ex-plores these questions and provides a descrip-tion of a spirituality leadership competency model.

The Author is faculty of Division of Business & Management Sciences, Felician College

He May be reached at : [email protected]

This paper attempts to provide a spirituality lead-ership competency model for business students and leaders. The idea of spirituality in the work-place and a spiritual business leader is not a new

one but it can be a controversial topic to discuss in the workplace and in a business classroom setting. For some individuals and organizations, the term spirituality is of-ten associated with religion. And as such is considered a taboo topic in a business setting. Additionally, the ongo-ing fluidity of the meaning of spirituality makes it difficult to find a common vocabulary and context to discuss the

“ “the idea of spirituality in the workplace and a spiritual business leader is not a new one but it can be a controversial topic to discuss in the workplace and in a business classroom setting.


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integration of spirituality with all our human roles, including workplace leadership. However, this challenge brings with it the opportunity to reflect upon the word “spirituality” and what it means, both in the broad context of humanity, and in specific circumstances such as business life. The writer and business leader, Gregory Pierce, ap-propriately described trying to define spirituality as trying to nail jello to a tree (1999). Many lead-ership consultants and researchers have written about the practices and processes of spirituality and leadership using terms such as spirit, whole-person, whole-soul, spiritual and most recently en-gaging leadership.

this paper attempts to provide a spirituality leadership competency model for business students and leaders

When preparing to interview senior level execu-tives and CEOs regarding their definition of spiritu-ality and how it informs their leadership practices and processes, it was useful to frame the discussion using Gilbert Fairholm’s definition of spirituality and spiritual leadership: “possessing the elements and characteristics of spiritual leadership, such as community, competence, continuous improve-ment, a higher moral standard, servant leadership, stewardship, visioning, and living out deeply held personal values of honoring forces or a presence greater than self” (1997, p. 112). Although each interview participant used different words and stories to define and describe spirituality, similar themes revealed deeply held personal values and the honoring of God or a higher purpose greater than the leader’s self. The leaders also described the ways in which aspects of their spirituality were reflected in their leadership style, including indi-vidual behaviors, values, actions, relationships, connections and choices they made in their execu-tive roles.

The idea that the leader’s primary task is to lead an organization in such a way that everyone’s per-

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sonal spiritual values are related to work values is a new way of thinking about leadership (Fairholm, 1997, p. 1). Traditional approaches to business and management sciences theory have been based on leaders motivating followers to perform work roles in effective and efficient ways. However, many studies indicate that employees want and demand more meaning, purpose, and fulfillment from their organizational cultures, work leaders, and work processes. Workers want to know that they con-tribute not only to their own emotional, physical, and spiritual well-being but also to the good of so-ciety. This view of work and the workplace signals a radical shift from traditional management tech-niques and business curriculum that focuses on functional roles and a need to begin to incorporate spirituality into management education curricula. This need for integration of one’s spirituality with one’s work echoes St. Paul’s words defining spir-ituality: “one way of life, the way of spirituality, is the way of life led, ordered, or influenced by the Spirit of God.”

How do Catholic colleges and universities engage students in the field of business in a discussion of spirituality leadership in the workplace? How do Catholic colleges and universities create a context for discussing spirituality in business as opposed to religion in business? How does one integrate the whole self, values, purpose, and belief in a higher purpose or being into every aspect of one’s life and most especially in work? These are the questions this paper addresses by providing a discussion of the definition of the term “spirituality” followed by a discussion of spirituality defined in business man-agement and the core ideas of spiritual leadership in business as viewed by leadership practitioners and consultants. Then, a brief overview of what top executive business leaders say about spiritual-ity is discussed. In addition, ways in which lead-ers practice operationalizing spirituality into their business leadership are discussed. Based upon recent leadership research and analysis of leader-ship interviews about spirituality, seven spirituality leadership competencies – possesses self-knowl-edge, models behaviors, connects to a higher pur-pose, believes in the future, commits to successful business, manages balance and counterbalance, and communicates deeply - are proposed in a spir-ituality leadership competency model. This paper


concludes with a discussion regarding how a lead-ership spirituality competency model can deepen and expand the definition of business leadership in Catholic higher education’s business programs.

A DEFINITION OF SPIRITUALITY

If we are to include a spirituality competency mod-el in Catholic higher education business programs, we must agree on a definition. The term spirituality has experienced changes in its connotation several times throughout history. These changes reflected the political, social, philosophical, and religious aspects of specific periods in time, and in the de-velopment of humanity. There has been fluidity regarding whether spirituality is an integral com-ponent of our understanding of what it means to be human and it has also been compartmentalized to refer only to experiences that were non-material or non-corporeal. The Latin for spirituality, spir-itualitasis an abstract noun like the words beauty or honesty and was derived from the noun spiritu-sand the adjective spiritualis(Farina, 1983, p. 130). In Latin translations of letters written by followers of the Catholic Pauline tradition, these words were used to describe the opposition of two ways of life. One way, the way of spirituality, was the way of life in which the person was led, ordered, or influ-enced by the Spirit of God. The other way of life was described as “all that is opposed to the Spirit of God” (Sheldrake, 1991, p. 43). In this early usage of the term spirituality, a spiritual person was not someone who turned away from material reality but rather someone in whom the Spirit of God dwelled…and acted as to advance in spirituality (Sheldrake, 1991 p.43). This contex-tual definition and general Pauline definition was found throughout the ninth to thirteenth century (Sheldrake, 1991, p. 43).

Under the influence of a new philosophical trend in theology in the twelfth century, the intellec-tual roots of distain for anything corporeal began to emerge and as such the term spirituality began to take on the meaning of opposition to material reality. In the thirteenth century, both meanings stood side by side. For example, a computerized concordance of Thomas Aquinas’s writings, Busa found that Aquinas used the Pauline sense of the word spirituality over 5,000 times, and that sense

of the word that is opposed to corporeal related matter more than 70 times (Busa as cited in Princ-ipe, 1983, p. 131). An additional sense of the word spirituality also came into being at this time; the sense that spir-ituality referred to the clerical estate. This was the most frequent usage of the word from the thir-teenth to the sixteenth centuries. The clergy were referred to as the “lords spiritual” as opposed to the “lords temporal” who exercised civil jurisdic-tion (Sheldrake, 1991, p.m. 43). By the fourteenth century, the team spirituality which once referred to a way of life that integrated the material realm with the realm of a higher power has evolved to a compartmentalized, dualistic usage that separated the material realm from the spiritual realm as well as being used to describe religious clergy within society.

the term spirituality has experienced changes in its connotation several times throughout history

At this time, the Latin gave way to English and French translations of the word spiritualitasand continued to be used in the context of the religious realm or for ecclesiastical persons or properties. In the seventeenth century, the French began to use the term to express a personal, affective rela-tionship with God. And, we see the rise of other words to express a similar meaning. These words included “devotion” used by the Anglican Church, “perfection” used by the Methodist Church, and “piety” used by the Evangelicals. Other groups of individuals, practicing mysticism as a form of communication with God, used the word spiritu-ality to describe their way of life. In this context, spirituality took on a negative connotation refer-ring to those groups that were outside the mainline churches (Sheldrake, 1991, pp. 43 – 44).

The early twentieth century saw publications of books such as the Manual of Spirituality and The Christian Spirituality. In 1932 the Dictionary of Spirituality began publication. And in 1943 the

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Catholic Institute of Paris established a chair in the History of Spirituality. Studies of the spirituality of individuals such as John Calvin and Ignatius of Loyola and non-Christian religions such as Islam, Hindu, and Buddhist began to appear. There were studies of the spirituality of matter; the spiritual-ity of the human voice was examined. Cross and Crown, now known as Spirituality Today, began publication in 1949. In 1964, the French diction-ary provided a definition that linked spirituality with the soul, describing spirituality as a set of principles that regulated a person’s spiritual life (Principe, 1983, pp. 128 – 129). In the English lan-guage, the religious sense of the word continued into the early nineteenth century. Later, the term began to be used to differentiate between so-called Western materialism and what was viewed as the superiority of Indian religions such as Hinduism (Principe, 1983, p. 133). And, in English usage, the word continued to be defined as an attachment to things of the spirit as opposed to material and worldly interests.

moreover, Fowler found that faith was at once deeper and more personal than religion

As educators of current and future business lead-ers, we must be prepared to clarify this fluidity in the meaning of spirituality. If spirituality is to be a component of business and management sciences theory as well as curriculum, we must be willing to define spirituality so that it can be an area of discipline and study. Farina (1989) saw the issues of defining spirituality as opportunities:

The final opportunity created by the use of this term arises from the linkage between spirituality and praxis. Whatever it may mean, spirituality is used to connote the way humans live out their faith, or at least their moral commitments. Both the attitudes engendered by their relationship to those ultimate values and the actions that flow from

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them are the stuff of spirituality. (p. 30) With this in mind, attention is shifted to distin-guishing between spirituality and religion.

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION

Research studies concerned with spirituality and transformational leadership have found that the topic of “religion” is taboo in the workplace, and some attempts at studying spirituality in the work-place have been confused with attempts to study “religion” (Jacobsen, 1994; Zwart, 2000; Hahn D’Errico, 1998; Marko, 2002) which resulted in a reluctance to enter into a discussion of spirituality. A review the literature of contemporary scholars such as Fowler, Hayes, Wilbur, and Taylor also points to similar confusion. These scholars often used words and expressions such as faith, spirit, the Great Chain of Being, and religion, inter-changeably with the word spirituality.

Fowler, in his study identifying the six stages of faith development, defined faith as the values that humans center love and loyalties around. “Faith is a search for an overarching, integrating, and grounding trust in a center of value and power suf-ficiently worthy to give our life unity and meaning” (Fowler, 1995, p. 5). One looked to something to love that loves in return; something to value that gave value; something to honor and respect that has the power to sustain one’s being. “Faith is not a separate, compartmentalized dimension of life. It is an orientation of the total person, giving purpose and goal to one’s hopes and strivings, thoughts and actions” (Fowler, 1995, p. 14). Defined in this manner, faith widens one’s belief far beyond the specific domain of religion. According to Fowler, religion was a cumulative tradition that was consti-tuted by texts of scripture or law, including myths, narratives, prophecies, accounts of revelations, and so forth (p. 9).

Moreover, Fowler found that faith was at once deeper and more personal than religion. Faith was a person or group’s way of responding to the transcendent value and power as perceived and grasped through the forms of the cumulative tra-dition. Faith involved an alignment of the will, a


resting of the heart, in accordance with a vision of transcendent value and power, one’s ultimate concern. According to Fowler (1995), faith was an active mode of being and committing, a way of moving into and giving shape to one’s experiences of life. Faith was always relational; there was al-ways another in faith (p. 16). One did not commit oneself because one ought to. One invested and devoted oneself because the other to which one committed has intrinsic excellence or worth and because commitment promised to confer value on oneself. In each of the roles one played, in each significant relationship one had with others, in each institution of which one participated, humans are linked to others in shared trusts and loyalties to centers of value and power. In each of these contexts one served common goals, held shared meanings, remembered shared stories, and cele-brated and renewed common hopes. One’s iden-tity and faith must somehow bring these diverse roles, contexts, and meanings into an integrated workable unity. In so doing, faith provided a way of seeing everyday life.

Although Fowler did not explicitly relate faith to spirituality, there seems to be a relationship be-tween Fowler’s description of faith and the defini-tion of spirituality. Like the early definition of spir-ituality, faith was not compartmentalized, instead it was an orientation of the total person.

“hayes proposed that a clear distinction must be made between spirituality and religion so that a clear and rigorous debate may occur within the sphere of psychology.

Hayes proposed that a clear distinction must be made between spirituality and religion so that a clear and rigorous debate may occur within the sphere of psychology. His review of the literature sought a clear definition between religion and

“ “spirituality and found: The term religion was often used generically and interchangeably to refer to spirituality and religion. The use of the term reli-gion brought negative overtones; and therefore, it was critical for scholarly dialogue to be able to dif-ferentiate between spirituality and religion. Hayes’ review of the literature revealed several scholars who did make a distinction between religion and spirituality. The definition of religion included di-mensions such as ritual, myth, and doctrine, social and experiential. Other scholars defined spiritual-ity as a sense of right relationship with the self, the world, and the sacred. These scholars pointed out that a person may be spiritual but not religious or religious but not spiritual (Hayes, 2001, pp. 112 – 113).

Similarly, the psychologist K. Wilbur’s work ad-dressed the challenges of integrating “science and religion” (Wilbur, 1998, p. 3). Wilbur (1998) stated that defining “religion” is difficult and he utilized a term “the great chain of being” and defined it as: Reality is a rich tapestry of interwoven levels, reaching from matter to body to mind to soul to spirit. Each senior level ‘envelopes’ or ‘enfolds’ its junior dimensions – a series of nests within nests within nests of Being – so that every thing and event in the world is interwoven with every other, and all are ultimately enveloped and enfolded by Spirit, by God, by Goddess, by Tao, by Brahman, by the Absolute itself. (pp. 6 – 7) W. C. Roof, professor of Religion and Society at the University of California, conducted a study, which offered the following differentiation, “The two realms have become disjointed, according to the majority of our respondents. To be religious conveys an institutional connotation…. To be spir-itual, in contrast, is more personal and empower-ing, and has to do with the deepest motivations of life” (Roof, 1994, pp. 76 – 77). Likewise, psy-chologist Eugene Taylor (1999) described the dif-ference between spirituality and religion mainly as an opening in a deeper level of experience and perception (p. 7).

Although many scholars differentiated between the terms spirituality and religion, it was also clear that operationally many individuals do not differ-entiate between religion and spirituality; therefore, the definition of spirituality continues to be fluid.


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However, this fluidity provided an opportunity to continue to think about developing the term and what it means in business management. With this framework in mind, attention turned to definitions of spirituality in business management.

SPIRITUALITY DEFINED IN BUSINESS MANAGE-MENT.

A number of research studies have been directed at defining spirituality and its relationship with transformational leadership in secular settings. In 1994, respondents in Dr. Stephen Jacobsen’s study provided many diverse meanings for spirituality in-cluding: a relationship with a transcendent power; a guide for personal values and meaning mak-ing; a way of understanding the world; an inner awareness; and a means of personal integration. Hahn D’Errico’s 1998 study found that study par-ticipants, organizational development consultants, defined spirituality “in terms of universal principles such as unity, interconnectedness, love, compas-sion, energy and intuition”. In another study ex-amining transcendence in the organization, Lund Dean (2002) defined spirituality in terms of “em-ployee experiences at work that surpass everyday meaning by facilitating some fulfilling relationship with a higher power or transcendent being” (Lund Dean, 2002).Vail (1996) describes spirituality as a decision to open one’ self to a transcendent source of meaning. Learning then becomes a way of be-ing; a life-long journey and search for meaning and purpose. Genuine spirituality was the willing-ness to enter into a dialogue about meaning with oneself and others, to stay with it for a period of time and to remember that no one has found the compelling once and for all answer regarding meaning and purpose (Vaill, 1996, pp. 179 – 180). The scholar and educator, Parker Palmer (1993) in his essay Leading from Within described spir-ituality as the leader’s power to create the condi-tions under which other individuals or groups must live and move and have their being. A leader is a person who must take special responsibility for what is going on inside him or her self, inside his or her consciousness, lest the act of leadership cre-ate more harm than good (p. 7). Fairholm (1998) stated that spirituality in the corporation referred to the inner values of the leader and the followers – the mature principles, qualities, and influences

that people implicitly exhibited in behavior and interactions with others. Thus, the integration of the many components of one’s work and personal life into a comprehensive system for managing the workplace defined the holistic or spiritual (whole person) leadership approach.

Former Fulbright scholar and professor, D. Marcic (1997) defined spirituality in terms of one’s rela-tionship to the world:

Spirituality is one’s means of connecting with that other world, and it is fostered by certain beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. One sees indications of humanity’s spiritual development in relationships with the material world – for instance, in how peo-ple treat other people and the environment, as well as in attitudes toward work. (p. 2) Moreover, spirituality has been linked to transfor-mational leadership. In 1978, James MacGregor Burns conducted what is now known as the foun-dational work in defining transformational leader-ship

the transforming leader also recognizes and exploits an existing need of a potential follower.

The transforming leader also recognizes and ex-ploits an existing need of a potential follower. But beyond that the transforming leader looks for po-tential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs and engages the full person of the follower. The result of transforming leadership is a relation-ship of mutual stimulation and elevation that con-verts followers into leaders and may convert lead-ers into moral agents. (p. 4) Transformational leadership implies a changing of the individual as well as the group. It is self-actualizing and enables leaders and followers to reach higher levels of accomplishment and moti-vation. It releases human potential for the collec-

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tive pursuit of common goals (Fairholm, G., 1994). This kind of self-actualization, this selflessness and commitment is what Fowler (1981) called a dedi-cation to a “universal community.” He regarded Gandhi, Martin Luther King, and Mother Theresa as examples of self-actualized leaders (pp. 201 – 202). Self-actualized leaders have a capacity to learn from others and their environment. Burns (1978) suggested that because “leaders themselves are continually going through self-actualization processes, they are able to rise with their follow-ers … to respond to their transformed needs and thus to help followers move into self-actualization processes” (p. 117).

Kouzes and Posner (1993), who have conducted research with more than 1500 people from around the world and have collected over 400 case stud-ies regarding leadership, described leadership as a reciprocal relationship between those who choose to lead and those who decide to follow. Moreover Kouzes and Posner (1993) found that the qualities of honesty, inspiration, and competence were the three most enduring traits that followers sought in a leader: In sorting out how people felt when working with leaders they admired, we analyzed the themes that were expressed in over four hundred case exam-ples of admired leaders. Every case was about a leader who uplifted the spirit. Every story was one of enhanced self-worth. Every example was about how admired leaders strengthened the people around them and made others feel more impor-tant. The conclusion is inescapable: when people work with leaders they admire and respect, they feel better about themselves. Credible leaders raise self-esteem. Leaders who make a difference to oth-ers cause people to feel that they too can make a difference. They set people’s spirits free and en-able them to become more that they might have thought possible. (p. 31) Burns also pointed out that leaders elevate the human spirit. “Their purposes, which might have started out as separate but related become fused raising the level of human conduct and ethical as-piration of both the leader and led, and thus it has a tranformating effect on both” (J. M. Burns as cited in Kouzes and Posner, 1993, p. 187).In Jacobsen’s (1994) empirical study which ex-plored the connections between spirituality and

transformational leadership in business found the following five conclusions: 1. The word “spiritual-ity” was meaningful to this group of transforma-tional leaders, 2. Spirituality was important to this group of transformational leaders, 3. There was a strong inference that spirituality and transforma-tional leadership related to aspects of human expe-rience, 4. These transformational leaders viewed the realms of spirituality and the secular world as integral to each other, 5. All leadership is spiritual leadership (pp. 94 – 96). Fairholm (1998) suggested there are different con-ceptions of leadership depending upon an indi-vidual’s perspective, cultural frame, or stage of development. One of those leadership models was what Fairholm named “spiritual (whole person) leadership” finding that there was a “significant connection between a leader’s (or worker’s) ability to have a transformational effect on the organiza-tion and his or her disposition towards spirituality” (1998, p. xxiii).

Leaders who make a difference to others cause people to feel that they too can make a difference

Mitroff and Denton (1999) explored spirituality, religion, and values in the workplace resulting in the following findings. First, the respondents did not have widely varying definitions of spirituality. Second, people did not want to compartmentalize or fragment their lives. Third, respondents general-ly differentiated between religion and spirituality.Fourth, people sought models of practicing spir-ituality in the workplace without offending their coworkers or causing acrimony. Fifth, lacking pos-itive role models of how to practice spirituality in the workplace, many people, not all were terribly afraid to use the words spirituality and soul. Sixth, one of the most significant findings that emerged from the research was the existence of a relatively small number of models for practicing spirituality in the workplace. Seventh, there was an especially strong tendency in Western culture to identify spir-

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045

ituality exclusively as an individual phenomenon. Eighth, the interviewees did not see spirituality as a “soft phenomenon.” And ninth, ambivalence and fear were two of the most important components of spirituality. Mitroff and Denton (1999) described ambivalence and fear as the unsettled feelings that are associated with the idea that spirituality in the workplace is managed and thus could be misused. And until “all of us learn to manage our fear and ambivalence, we will be prone to wall off spiritual-ity from our everyday lives” (p. 168).

In summary, although there has been continuous publication regarding spirituality and business leadership practices, there has been little direct empirical research regarding the perspectives of CEOs and senior level executives regarding the definition of spirituality and how it informs their leadership practices.

BUSINESS LEADERS PERSPECTIVES OF SPIRITU-ALITY

In the course of my research, I examined the re-lationship between spirituality and leadership at work. Individual leaders were asked to describe how they define spirituality. As outlined earlier in

this paper, agreeing upon a definition of spirituality is a difficult task. For this reason, each leader was provided with Fairholm’s definition of spirituality taken from his book: Capturing the Heart of Lead-ership: Spirituality and Community in the New American Workplace. Respondents were also in-formed that this research was not focused on their religion or religious beliefs. In this way, respond-ents were willing to participate in the research study. Table 1 represents the primary themes evi-dent in how respondents define spirituality.

in the course of my research, i examined the relationship between spirituality and leadership at work. individual leaders were asked to describe how they define spirituality.

“ “DEFINITIONS OF SPIRITUALITY DEFINITION THEMES

Values Principles that guide behavior Core values such as integrity, respect,impact High moral values and deeply held personal values that guide actions and behaviors

Higher Power Belief in a Higher Power that provides purpose greater than one self Belief in a Higher Power that is greater than one’s self

Connection Connection to others through spirituality Relationships with others and how these relationships are actualized

Essence of Our Being Essential characteristic of who we are as humans Condition of com-plete simplicity and authenticity without ego Self-knowledge and comfort with self


REALIZING OUR ANCIENT INDIAN ETHOS IN THE WORLD OF MODERN MANAGEMENT

Rimni Chakravarty

Key WordsEthos, Wisdom literature. Business Ethics, Leadership, Nation

Abstract Ethos as the Advanced Oxford Learner’s Dic-tionary state is ‘the moral ideas and the at-tributes that belong to a particular group or society’. Originating from the Greek word ‘ethos’, meaning character, it is used to de-scribe the beliefs or ideals that characterize a community, nation and its ideology. The ex-pression ‘Indian Ethos, ‘is a concept to cap-ture the experiences of Indian civilization over the centuries which may be accepted as a guide book to be followed in managing both the professional as well as the personal front. This paper attempts to focus on the doctrines and ideas from the ancient Indian scriptures: our epics Ramayana ,Mahabharata, Vedas ,Vedanta,Upanishad,Srimad Bhagvat Geeta and of course Arthashastra of Chankya rele-vant to global mindset development with spe-cific reference to business leadership efficient managerial skills for creating a proper ambi-ence for qualitative development and increas-ing the productivity, shaping a better future in the business world ,keeping in tune with the thoughts of Peter F.Drucker. It is an ideal en-deavor to incorporate the ideas as expressed in our wisdom literature for the fullest growth of human potentials who accept business eth-ics appreciate corporate social responsibili-ties, initiate leadership for a .prosperous and strong nation.

“ “this paper attempts to focus on the doctrines and ideas from the ancient indian scriptures:

The author is the Assistant Professor in Department of Engineering Sciences and Humanities,

Siliguri Institute of Technology. She may be reached

at [email protected].


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IMPLEMENTING OUR ANCIENT ETHOS IN THE WORLD OF MANAGEMENT

The process of management involves the three aspects; maximum utilization of re-sources, leading efficiency, materializing the organizational goals towards effective-

ness and value addition to the world suggesting social responsibility. All these aspects could be possible only in a healthy environment Ethics and ethical behavior happens to be the main ingredi-ents of healthy management. The question crop up from where one would avail the opportunity to understand the code of ethics as guidelines to be followed in the world of management? Many of us aim to go back to our roots, which is in our ancient scriptures termed as our philosophy.

It cannot be denied that India had a glorious past with its wisdom literature: The Vedas, Upanishads, Vedanta, Our epics – Ramayana, Mahabharata and of course Arthashastra of Chanakya, the man who built the Mauryan Empire by motivating and guiding Chandra Gupta Maurya in 321B.C. Is this thought of applying our ancient Indian ethos in the field of management some kind of a Hindu con-cept? It is only a way of life, a philosophy to moti-vate us on to the direction of enrichment.Since time immemorial our country as well as the world cherishes on the ideals set by our sacred books. So how could the world of management stay far away from accepting these cherished val-ues?

THE BASIC CONCEPT OF INDIAN ETHOS

There are varied principles which the world of modern management could apply for the uplift-ment of the organization. Each soul is a potential god. Vedanta believes in the oneness of existence. All of us have a spark of divine within our hearts and this word ‘divine’, means an endeavor to-wards perfection, knowledge and power or energy for self development. If one bring about his or her self development it would automatically benefit his or her organization and the society because he or she is a part of the large unit, provided he or she is duty bound and impartial to one and all with the faith on the maxim that ‘god helps them these who help themselves.’

Vedanta believes in non dual concept that is; the universe is an individual whole where each and every one of us is connected to the other. We the individual souls are together connected to the “Over Soul” or God. Such a person with a firm belief in oneness of humanity can achieve the sta-tus of integrated human personality who believes in building strong interpersonal relationship; man-age his or her sector with excellence, if not with total perfection. This is the ideal of Indian Ethos: -‘Atmano Mokshartam Jagat Hitya cha,’ or gaining perfection in individual life as well as aiming for the welfare of the organization. The managers or the people involved in the decision making stands motivated to pour out their best selflessly for the betterment of their organization, inevitably con-tributing the development of the Nation and the wide world outside, serving the humanity with a holistic approach of lifting their spirits cheerfully, spreading cheers among others ensuring harmony to enhance productivity in their job sector.. Now if such egalitarian concept is implemented for cor-porate governance there could sound the music of concord.The importance of the contemplation or medita-tion is important to remain calm and focused, bal-anced, detached with a vision. Then only it would be possible for the manager or the team leader do justice to one and all. And of course he or she need to develop a third eye, the eye of wisdom or fore-sight to bring efficiency in the organisation.And to be a person of such a temperament one need to inculcate the characteristics of a yogi or an ascetic as says Lord Krishna to Arjuna in Bhagavat Geeta ,discourse V line 6

the importance of the contemplation or meditation is important to remain calm and focused, balanced, detached with a vision.

“ Yoga yukta MuniBrahma Na ...chire na dhi gachhati Yogayukta bishuddhatma bijitatma jitendria”.

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In English when translated, mean “the ascetic who has cleansed himself has gained mastery over his mind and all his senses and he has become one with all, in all creation, although he acts, remains unaffected.”—The Gita according to Gandhi –Ma-hadev Desai

A manager with such a vision would have enough prudence to implement this knowledge of detach-ment. We all are aware of ‘Karma yoga’, that is self less service to others. Again when turn to the pages of Bhagavat Geeta, dicourse II line 47 Lord Krishna speaks to Arjuna:

“Karmany evadhikaras.Te Ma phalesu kadachanaMa karma phal hetur bhur Ma.Te sango’stvakarmani

The English translation goes on to state

‘’to work only you have the right and you have no right to the fruits of work”

the sermon is thus a kind of advice to all who need to manage self as well as organization to put on his or her heart and soul only to the present as one has no control of future and it is useless to be clouded with the thoughts of the past.

The sermon is thus a kind of advice to all who need to manage self as well as organization to put on his or her heart and soul only to the present as one has no control of future and it is useless to be clouded with the thoughts of the past. A question comes in our mind as to why we work?All of us know for our salvation, growth or what-ever we term that in turn ltead to all round global progress. But how many of us really perceive this concept whole heartedly? As there arises a query ,could the six condemned vices of passion ,hatred,

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arrogance greed , anger, lust be wiped out in the consumerist world of 21st century where compa-nies enter into cut throat competition for maxi-mum profit?.If the leaders of the companies set themselves as examples for their team with selfless service ,believe in cooperation, not only motivate themselves as well as the subordinates and work as a team to realize the set goals ,establish ,peace ,prosperity for the society and minimize inequal-ity, injustice ,nepotism that exist at every level may at times lead to the downfall or the closure of the companies

PETER F. DRUCKER’S HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO MODERN MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Mr Peter F.Drucker, the creator and inventor of modern management voiced his opinion in the 1950’s when was sickened by the excessive rich-es awarded to mediocre executives, even as they slashed the rank of ordinary workers. He taught the generation of managers the importance of picking the best people of focusing on opportunities and not on problems ,rather solve them in the best pos-sible manner .He was the first to assert that work-ers should be treated as assets, not as liabilities to be eliminated. Co operation and mutual support then is the road to enhance human welfare. Syner-getic cooperation and not competition, symphony and not cacophony could then prevail in work place area. Employees would not then blow off hot steam, but cool and composed perceive the cool breeze blow to succeed in every aspect of their life.

OUR VEDAS: A GUIDE TO IMPLEMENT COR-PORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Much has been said by the world of our Vedas known as the store house of our ancient value sys-tems that emphasize: a) Satyam orTruth,b) Tapah or Austery ,c) Damah or Sense Control)Samah or Tranquility of mind e) Dharma or Righteousness f) Danam or Charity ,g) Daya or Mercy and i) Nyasah or RenunciationHere Renunciation does not mean suffering of body, mind or soul. It does not aim for strong penance, but find oneself in the vast cosmos with abundant joy, feel the presence of God in all creation We


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can be happy when the others in our surroundings be happy...As writes Mr Tarini Komal Pandit in the introduction of his book ‘The Vedas, The Gospels of India, “....the Rishi calls upon each and every one of the Universe to feel His existence in every-thing, in light and darkness, wind and water, fire and ashes ,in songs and smells ,buds and flowers, sprouts and leaves ,trees and creepers and each atom of creation”..The Vedas therefore indicate the path of attaining knowledge, the realization of the abstract through the concrete. Then is it possible for our Corporate World to implement our Vedic knowledge into practice? There is always a pos-sibility to achieve everything positive with a right approach in implementing the social responsibili-ties concerned with a) Family welfare Programme, where every employee work under the belief that he or she will be looked after during the times of need where he or she is just not a mere employee but a member of the large family)Community De-velopment Programme, where the corporate hous-es perceive it is their moral duty to undertake the responsibilities of the community where belong .. .c) Corporate Philanthropy; a part of their respon-sibity, to feel for the distressed and downtrodden with no means to advertise themselves) Corporate Citizenship, where every company feel proud to be a part of the nation and enrich it.e) Concept of Trusteeship, where the business owners could empathize without bearing the attitude that the organization is wholly their private property. As quotes Professor A.N Tripathi in his book Human Values .New Age International, about a contem-porary management thinker who said “...(corpora-tions) are expected not only to create wealth and produce superior goods and services ,but also to conduct themselves as moral actors as responsible agents that carry on their business within a moral framework .As such they are expected to adhere to the basic ethical principles ,exercise moral judg-ments in carrying out their affairs ,accept responsi-bility for their deeds and misdeeds ,be responsive to the needs of others and manage their own val-ues and commitments.”

RAMAYANA: THE HELPING GUIDE TO MAN-AGEMENT.

Indeed, to boost the welfare of the nation as well as the world, we need moralizing corporations

who follow the path set by Lord Rama in Treta yug or period. The ‘Ayodhya Kand’,second chapter of Ramayana composed by sage Valmiki gives a detailed account of good governance, where lord Rama advice Bharat, his younger brother in ap-pointing courageous,knowledgeble ,strong willed men with a high emotional quotient as his minis-ters ,for quality advice is the secret behind a sound system of administration Lord Rama emphasized on moderate taxes to be levied on common peo-ple, treat soldiers well and pay their legitimate wages on time ,provide proper irrigation facilities ,ensure the traders a fear free environment and grievances to be redeemed promptly. Lord Rama staunchly followed the path of righteousness and set himself as an example of a king for whom du-ties comes before his personal comfort. He had to send his queen Sita away from the palace to satisfy his subjects, especially a fisherman who doubted the chastity of Sita.And of course he also per-formed his duty as a husband by sending Sita to the hermitage of sage Valmiki.Both Rama and Sita suffer their agony in separation very gracefully, to exemplify how strong they are in love amidst all the adversities, with a firm fidelity to each other. Perhaps for his firm stand on Dharma or righteous-ness, Rama gains the title of ‘maryada purushattam ‘or the greatest of all men who maintains dignity. Lord Rama sets himself an example to our manag-ers or decision makers in the field of management that everyone is answerable to the public, supe-riors, subordinates, shareholders, stake holders, board of directors to ensure transparency for the day to day running of the organization...In fact, if our managers motivate and mentor the staff they automatically help in increasing the growth of the company as well as the nation.

the ‘ayodhya Kand’,second chapter of ramayana composed by sage Valmiki gives a detailed account of good governance,

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ROLE OF MAHABHARATA IN THE WORLD OF MANAGEMENT

The Mahabharata of Vyasa, the longest Indian epic too provides guidance to our corporate world on the varied lessons of management. The epic teach us how we can transform our weakness into strength. The Pandavas utilized their thirteen years of exile by developing their skills.Yudhistira be-came a master craftsman in the game of dice. Ar-juna went on a mission to acquire heavenly weap-ons and become technically sound in the field of archery. The Pandavas were united so could share their responsibilities and work as a team under the able leadership of Lord Krishna. They understood the ground realities and so were able to reach out to the common people without displaying their ego. Hence they gained support from the differ-ent strata of the society. The Pandavas undertook calculated risks at the time of crisis. An able man-ager never shy away from undertaking risks, but remain cool and composed, accept the challenges to speed up with his or her mission and realize the set goals sucessfully.Inorder to defeat Dronacha-rya Lord Krisna prevails on Yudhistira to lie that Aswathama, his son is dead.From a moral perspec-tive such deed seem unethical, but such a lie is ac-ceptable when it does good to the larger humanity for long term gain.

india has gifted the world with the holy Geeta, the best guide to self development.

THE RELEVANCE OF BHAGAVAT GEETA IN THE WORLD OF MODERN MANAGEMENT

India has gifted the world with the Holy Geeta, the best guide to self development. Lord Krishna in or-der to boost up the morale of the depressed Arjuna went on with his discourse, comprising of eighteen chapters and this book offers a great counseling to all who enter the world of management, profes-sionally and personally. The modern management sciences believe in choosing the available resourc-es wisely and utilizing it optimally. Before the bat-

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tle of Kurukshetra began, both Arjuna and Duryo-dhana seek help from Lord Krishna, who oblige both the parties.Duryodhana choose the huge army of Sri Krishna while Arjuna feel elated to win his lord as his charioteer on whose able leadership begin the great battle of Kurukshetra..Duryodhana failed to realize the role of a charioteer, but the world of management believe that the charioteer is the captain who steers the ship amidst a tornado or a tempest to reach the harbor safely. Our man-agers are the modern charioteers who lead their organisations and of course the nation in different fields: educational, agricultural, industrial.political or social. Bhagavat Geeta guides one to work com-mitment by practicing detachment which could be gained through self control by conquering the passions or desires. The mind is the repository of thoughts that shape our personality. A demotivated mind can damage both the person and the work place environment. As says Lord Krishna to Arjuna in chapter VI verse 36:

Asaḿyatātmanā yogo Duṣprāpa iti me matiṣVaśyātmanā tu yatatā Śakyo ‘vāptum upāyataṣ

For one whose mind is unbridled, self-realization is difficult work. But he whose mind is controlled and who strives by appropriate means is assured of success. That is my opinion”All of us who strive to mange ourselves and team need to do our duty without seeking any reward. This detachment would enable us to develop a sound mind to ensure a sound body. Work cul-ture then is ensured in an organization where all perform without any conflict for the betterment of his or her own, as well as of the others, as did Ar-juna with Lord Krishna’s advice. We are all like Arjuna torn and tossed in the battlefield of life, but can manage ourselves better if raise our spirits to overcome our weakness and open the door of op-portunities awaiting us.

IMPORTANCE OF ARTHASHASTRA IN THE WORLD OF MANAGEMENT

Two thousand and four hundred years ago, Vishnu Gupta, popularly known as Chanakya or Kautilya wrote a political treatise entitled ‘Arthashastra:’ a book of politics and the art of good governance. The book stood the test of time and still it enjoys


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as a helping guide for our leaders .In chapter two of ‘, Arthashastra’, Chanakya advices the king and those in the administration to avoid extreme deci-sion and apply soft actions.Sovereignty can only prevail with mutual cooperation of others. The King and his administrators he affirmed are consid-ered as the servants of the people and answerable to the public. .They too be paid for their service to mankind and not for their ownership of any-thing, No doubt Chanakya emerged as a visionary who paved the way to democracy as said Abra-ham Lincoln in his famous statement: ‘Govern-ment of the people, by the people ,for the people. Chanakya had the foresight to believe the welfare of the king lie in the welfare of his people. As says Chanakya;’Sukhasya Mulam dharma’-, that is; the basis of happiness and prosperity is righteousness (ethics)-“-Kautilya’s Arthashastra in the context of Management: An exercise in Hermeneutics by Bal-akrishnan Muniapam, Curtin University of Tech-nology, Malaysia.”

we would then be better performers, as have learned the art of management.

CONCLUSION

Our ancient wisdom literature is the Vedas, Vedan-ta, Upanishads, Ramayana, Mahabharata Bhaga-vad Geeta or the Arthashastra are a storehouse of comprehensive and powerful philosophy to be ap-plied in all ages for the benefit of mankind. Since Indian Philosophy extols unity amidst all diversi-ties, believe in tolerance, quest for freedom we can perceive the kingdom of heaven if adhere to the belief of Vedanta ‘Thou art that’, as said Swami Vivekananda ‘religion is the manifestation of di-vinity already in man”. The Vedanta teaches us to transform our life from mediocrity to excellence.”If we understand the pristine glory of the supreme self and feel the presence of the hopeful .blissful consciousness everywhere and in every being, we all could realize our goals for a better world. The Supreme Soul residing within us then would

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destroy all that is evil to unleash all that is pure and create, again recreate to bring down a millen-nium of prosperity on our earth. We would then be better performers, as have learned the art of management. The Divine Spirit in our heart would motivate us to chant these often quoted lines of Bhagavat Geeta, where Lord Krishna speaks to Ar-juna, his disciple, chapter IV line 7 and 8:

“YadaYadaHiDharmasya GlanirvaBhavathiBhara-tha, AbhyuthanamAdharmaysya TadatmanamSri-jamiAham’. PraritranayaSadhunam VinashayaCha-Dushkritam Dharamasansthapnaya Sambhavami Yuge-Yuge.

The English translation goes on to say “Whenever there is decay of righteousness O! Bharatha and a rise of unrighteousness then I manifest myself for the protection of the good, for the destruction of the wicked and for the establishment of righteous-ness, I am born in every age.The message of Lord Krishna we can accept is that of a leader who aims to lead his organization amidst despair or anarchy to the road of prosperity with a right approach, condemning the vices and upholding virtue to establish ‘Dharma ‘or right-eousness In the modern world of management we thus die and are reborn again hoping to give our-selves and our next generation a blissful world by implementing our ancient Indian ethos. A better corporate governance in this 21st century modern world of management would lead the nation to prosperity when all of us; self actualized, transcend the barriers of gender discrimination,caste,creed ,religion,, region, community, country , reaching out to the world as global citizens glorifying our higher selves for the betterment of humanity. Our mother Earth would then turn into a Paradise we dream of.


REFERENCES

1. The Vedas: the Gospels of India Tarini Kamal Pandit Publisher: Late BhajanlalIndrakumar Agarwala, Kurseong-All India Press, Pondi-cherry

2. The Gospels of Selfless Action3. The Gita according to Gandhi: MahadevDe-

sai, Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmadabad4. Human Values: A.N Tripathi New Age Inter-

national Publishers. New Delhi5. Principles and Practices of Education: Dr.B.R

Purkait, New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd Kol-kata

6. Kautilya’s Arthashastra in the context of Man-agement: An exercise in

7. Hermeneutics by Balakrishnan Muniapam, Curtin University of Technology, Malaysia.

8. Summary on Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Its Con-temporary Relevance, Published by Indian Merchants’ Chamber(2004) www.google.com


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THE CRISIS AND EMANCIPATION

OF THE MODERN CORPORATE

EXECUTIVE: HOW THE

BHAGAVAD GITA REINFORCES

EDWARD FREEMAN’S

STAKEHOLDER THEORY

Shreyans Parekh

Key Words

CSR, Bhagavad Gita, The art of war

Abstract Business leaders are looking towards corpo-rate social responsibility as a critical means to satisfying their stakeholders, while facili-tating their firm’s long-term sustainability. As part of this holistic trend, more manag-ers are looking towards the Bhagavad-Gita for lessons on leadership and character de-velopment in place of the classic Sun Tzu’s Art of War. Companies that currently lack strong CSR initiatives must follow suit in de-veloping socially responsible products and projects due to the tremendous value that such actions can unlock for stakeholders. The Gita requests leaders to be the sattvic frame of reference for ethics and moral-ity that the corporate world has lacked for many years. Important implications of CSR are the cooperation of corporations and NGOs with like-minded social objectives, and the creation of new firms and careers dedicated towards the research and devel-opment of socially responsible projects. With the greening effect sweeping across the United States, CSR will be a crucial moving force in the corporate world, and business executives must acknowledge that social value can be an amplifying force for corporate value.

The author is a junior in the University of Pennsyl-vania’s Huntsman Program in International Studies.

He may be reached at [email protected].

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Companies that currently lack strong CSr initiatives must follow suit in developing socially responsible products and projects due to the tremendous value that such actions can unlock for stakeholders responsible products and projects due to the tremendous value that such actions can unlock for stakeholders


Introduction

It is the year 506 B.C. and Sun Tzu’s armies are descending upon the ancient Chinese city of Ying to claim victory over the warring Chu Em-pire. Near the same time, during the climactic

Kurukshetra War in ancient India, Prince Arjuna of the Pandava clan is faced with a dilemma on the battlefield and turns to his revered mentor and godly incarnation Krishna for advice. The enemies that Arjuna faces on the battlefield are similar to the foes that Sun Tzu encounters. For Arjuna, they are his own friends and family members who hap-pen to be part of the rival Kaurava clan. For Sun Tzu, they are his fellow compatriots who have grown up in the rebellious southern state of Chu.Faced with parallel situations, Sun Tzu and Arjuna approach their battles with contrasting ideologies. Sun Tzu devises clever tactics to conquer the en-emy at all costs and institutes “iron discipline” in order to train his troops1. Arjuna feels that enlight-ened leaders should be compassionate and fair. He hopes to concentrate more on the purity of his thoughts and actions, rather than on solely achiev-ing victory.Today, it is the year 2007, and many corporate boardrooms are experiencing a transformation. Managerial styles have evolved from the era twenty years ago when Gordon Gekko argued that avarice was the only way to survive in busi-ness, in the movie Wall Street. Nowadays, more executives are adopting a more corporate social responsibility-minded approach when generating profits instead of the ruthless, bottom-line model. They are realizing that a firm can only persist in the long-run if it satisfies needs of all stakeholders, and not solely the shareholders.

In the modern-day corporate battleground, the “generals of the private sector” are faced with a similar dilemma as Prince Arjuna; there are many other factors involved in a corporation’s wellbeing than solely the end goal of “victory” by achieving profits. Some business leaders who once adopted their management style from Sun Tzu’s The Art of

1 Foo Check Teck and Peter Hugh Grinyer, Sun Tzu on Management:

The Art of War in Contemporary Business Strategy. (Singapore: Butter-

worth-Heinemann Asia, 1994) 63.

War, and subsequently, Gerald Michaelson’s The Art of War for Managers, are now turning towards the ancient Indian text Bhagavad Gita for strate-gic advice. The text that leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and scholars such as Ralph Waldo Emer-son considered to be a practical guide to living a prosperous life is now transforming the way busi-ness is conducted globally.2

For Arjuna, the “corporation” consisted of not only his own Pandava clan, but all of his loved ones, including those who would not be on the glorious end of battle. He could have adopted the same ap-proach as Sun Tzu, with victory at all costs as his sole ambition, but instead wished to take all factors of his “corporation” into account when achieving his end aspiration. From today’s business manage-rial perspective, this dilemma surfaces when ex-ecutives must decide whether the objectives of the corporation should include all stakeholders in the firm, or just its shareholders, who have tradition-ally been the primary focus4.

this trend must continue, however, even for firms that do not see the stakeholder approach as a priority to conducting business.

This transition from Sun Tzu’s Art of War, which relates to the late Milton Friedman’s Shareholder Theory, to the Bhagavad Gita, which is associ-ated with Edward Freeman’s Stakeholder Theory of the Modern Corporation, is evidence that more business leaders are adopting a holistic approach to business – one that takes into consideration all the factors that may influence a company’s out-come. This trend must continue, however, even for firms that do not see the stakeholder approach as a priority to conducting business. “The best way to describe it is inclusive capitalism,” says C.K. Pra-halad, a professor at the University of Michigan’s

3 Stephen Mitchell, Bhagavad Gita (New York: Harmony Books, 2000)

13.

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Ross School of Business. “It’s the idea that corpo-rations can simultaneously create value and social justice.”3 The success that these firms have had over the past few years with their examples of cor-porate social responsibility (CSR) and a more uni-versal stakeholder approach should be evidence that more firms should include CSR as part of their operations because it would reap tremendous re-wards for them. Furthermore, companies must take a proactive, offensive-minded approach in imple-menting CSR instead of hiding behind community actions as a defensive mechanism.With the many scandals that have sullied the cor-porate world in the past decade, today’s modern corporate executive faces a crisis. The ideology of the relentless pursuit of the bottom line that has propelled the business world for so long has been tainted by many forms of unethical behav-ior.4 More business leaders should follow the foot-steps of those who have already crossed over, and should look towards the Bhagavad Gita’s lessons as spiritual and mental guides for leadership. The greening effect that is taking hold on many firms today is not a fad; it is a testament to the fact that many corporate executives acknowledge that long-term sustainability for a firm depends on so-cially responsible action today. Analogous to the philosophy of Arjuna, this mindset will lead to a sense of personal emancipation for the manager and satisfaction of all stakeholders in the organiza-tion.

COMPARISONS BETWEEN BHAGAVAD GITA AND FREEMAN’S STAKEHOLDER THEORY

Work for the common good without selfish inter-ests; the rewards of selfless work will take you to a supreme state.Krishna, The Bhagavad GitaToday’s global com-panies are taking a more holistic approach to the notion of “green” than solely meeting the bottom line. Business leaders are faced with the chal-lenge of how to achieve a competitive advantage while promoting the prosperity and wellness of their stakeholders. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is the idea that organizations are responsible

4 pooja Roka, Bhagvad Gita on Effective Leadership (New York: IUni-

verse, Inc, 2006)27

for considering the interests of not just sharehold-ers, but also of customers, employees, communi-ties, fellow businesses and the local environment that is affected by business practices. Organiza-tions must consider the social and environmen-tal ramifications of their business activities. By integrating CSR into core business processes and stakeholder management, companies can achieve their ultimate goal of creating both corporate and social value.

work for the common good without selfish interests; the rewards of selfless work will take you to a supreme state

Central to both Edward Freeman’s Stakeholder Theory of the Modern Corporation and the Bhaga-vad Gita is the theme that managers bear a syn-ergetic relationship to stakeholders, who are all groups who have a stake in or claim on the lead-er’s decision making and the fruits of the corpora-tion. Freeman argues that this relationship is based on a fiduciary duty while Krishna asserts that this is relationship is based on karma yoga. A leader who practices karma yoga thinks less of personal advantage and more of the fulfillment of the com-mon good. As Krishna advises in chapter 2 of the Gita, “the righteous one who accepts and shares the rewards of his actions is freed from sins, while he who works for self-interests incurs sin.”5 Tak-en from a managerial perspective, an executive should be concerned with the best interests of the entire corporation, and not solely on pursuing prof-its. Opponents of this theory point out a major flaw in the Stakeholder Theory about conflicting inter-ests. After all, a company cannot surely please eve-ryone involved with its operations: what should a firm do if stakeholder interests conflict? There have been many studies proposed regarding analysis of

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the Stakeholder Theory and Conflict Management. Stakeholder analysis is the answer to critics. This analysis has been developed by experts in fields of study ranging from business management to inter-national relations, policy development, ecology, and natural resource management. It is used to dif-ferentiate and study an organization’s stakeholders on the basis of their attributes and the criteria of the analyst during the assessment of a specific situ-ation to a range of tools for the identification and description of stakeholders of a firm on the basis of their attributes, interrelationships, and interests related to a given issue or resource.When interests in a firm collide, as they often do, managers need to implement stakeholder analysis within their organization to resolve these conflicts. This analysis answers the following questions: the relative power and interest of each stakeholder, the importance and influence they have on the firm’s operations, the multiple “hats” they wear and the networks and coalitions to which they belong.6 Ri-cardo Ramirez of the University of Guelph in On-tario, Canada, divides stakeholders in an organiza-tion into four major categories: those with claims to legal protection, those with political clout, those with power to block negotiated agreements, and those with moral claims to public sympathy. The stakeholder analysis described by Ramirez con-siders nine major propositions that are organized under a conceptual framework. A manager must proceed through the framework step-by-step to re-

solve conflicts between stakeholders.

When interests in a firm collide, as they often do, managers need to implement stakeholder analysis within their organization to resolve these conflicts

One of the propositions that managers must ad-dress in their analysis is the notion that three stakeholder attributes merit the most attention in conflict resolution: a stakeholders’ power, urgency

“ “and legitimacy. This proposition follows that stake-holders with two or more attributes are likely to be noticed and participate in the firm’s decision-mak-ing first, while those without them will be on the fringes of the decision-making process. The analy-sis proceeds to describe this and other propositions in intricate detail.Certain dilemmas arise when Ramirez’s analysis is taken to its logical extremes. For example, if the company’s most powerful and legitimate stake-holder wants the firm to employ tactics that could be harmful to the firm or to society, such as the de-struction of the environment, inhumane employee treatment or even human slavery, what should a corporate executive do? In Ramirez’s model the needs and concerns of stakeholders that match two attributes, should be addressed first, but that does not necessarily indicate that they will always have to be met by corporate executives. For example, if a stakeholder wants to implement an idea that would cause harm to the firm’s image, such as one of the three extreme examples provided above, a manager has the right under Ramirez’s model to modify or even negate the stakeholder’s claims if he feels that they are not rational. According to Ramirez, it is important to acknowledge that, “these attributes are variable over time, are so-cially constructed rather than objectively real, and the resulting influence may or may not be willfully or consciouslyexercised.”7 Hence, a manager has the flexibility to be rational in his decision-making and implementation of a stakeholder’s needs and desires. According to the typology of the model, if stake-holders possess two attributes, they are grouped under the heading Expectant stakeholders. Among these, those having power and legitimacy are called Dominant while those that have legitimacy and urgency are deemed Dependent. The most poign-ant description in the model is that of stakeholders that possess power and urgency; these are called Dangerous stakeholders. Ramirez recognizes that stakeholders who possess only power and urgency may want the firm to engage in activities that are hazardous to the firm’s wellbeing and image, and are thus considered “dangerous” to the firm. After all, they have tremendous influence in the firm,


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and salience in the minds of managers. However, according to Freeman’s original stakeholder mod-el, stakes change depending on the strategic issue under consideration. It is unlikely that a manager would abide by a “dangerous” stakeholder with dangerous implications, because this would not be advantageous to the strategic planning being im-plemented at the time. By putting this useful and successful tool to practice in the workplace, man-agers can decide the best paths to take when stake-holders’ interest collide. The analysis is structured, but flexible enough for managers to use their own personal judgment and acumen during turbulent times for a firm. Nowhere in the stakeholder anal-ysis does it claim that shareholders take priority above all other stakeholders in a firm, as a share-holder theorist such as Friedman would articulate. Instead, the model views the shareholder as being equally weighted to all other stakeholders in the firms, and if a shareholder falls into a category that takes priority over another at the time, then his or her needs should be tended to first. One caveat to this rule is that since shareholders play such an important role in the decision- making processes and management of the firm, they will often take priority, but the key point is not all the time. Stake-holder analysis presents many opportunities for managers to tend to the needs of other stakehold-ers before shareholders. Ed Freeman claims that when comparing the stakeholder and shareholder models, one should not view them as completely contradictory theories.8 Instead, Freeman states that the stakeholder approach can be implemented to produce an end result as profitable as or even more profitable than the shareholder approach. For Krishna, this objective is the highest level of consciousness and self-awareness that transcends the physical world and physical senses. In the con-text of management and business, this “supreme state” refers to a higher level of leadership con-sciousness and firm value. Thus, if firms have the capability to “balance the interests of the firm,” as companies such as P&G claim to do in their mis-sion statement, they could utilize acts of CSR to further the interests of the firm while still benefiting their communities. Krishna would view the theory through a holistic approach, seeing it as a way to

bring out the best in each individual who is impor-tant to the wellbeing of the overall organization.9 Analogous to the “Feminist Standpoint Theory” in Freeman’s Stakeholder Approach, Krishna claims that actions must be taken with high priority in so-cial awareness and relationship management, be-cause these are the factors that drive profits within a firm.10This view returns to Krishna’s central mes-sage that if managers concentrate on their actions and all those that influence their actions, positive effects will inevitably ensue. For example, Proctor & Gamble’s mission statement states announces: “We will provide branded products and services of superior quality and value that improve the lives of the world’s consumers. As a result, consumers will reward us with leadership sales, profit, and value creation, allowing our people, our shareholders, and the communities in which we live and work to prosper.”11 P&G believes in satisfying all individu-als valuable to the firm, not just their sharehold-ers. As a result, consumers reward them with sales, profit, and value creation that allow the communi-ties in which its employees live and work to pros-per.12 Thus, P&G’s primary focus is social respon-sibility both within the firm and in its local and global communities: P&G contributes to the eco-nomic and social well-being of their employees, shareholders and the local communities in which they operate. On a larger scope, the company is involved in regional, national and international development. Achieving a desirable rate of return for its shareholders is one end goal for companies such as P&G in order to fund its social mission.15

achieving a desirable rate of return for its shareholders is one end goal for companies “

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The late London Business School professor Suman-tra Ghoshal believed that the corporate scandals of a few years ago in the U.S. were offshoots of the shareholder theory of capitalism that were be-ing proposed by economists and emphasized at business schools. He believed that corporations are not solely profit-generating robots reacting to market forces; “they are managed by and for humans, and have a symbiotic relationship with the world around them.”13 Similarly, social re-sponsibility does not have to be the “cloak” that Friedman once described, but instead, could be the key to greater value generation for all firms, especially those who have been weighed down by their prominent shareholder focus. The quest, says Prahalad, is to “develop a capitalism that puts the individual at the center of the universe,”14 thus positioning suppliers, employees, customers, and other stakeholders of the firm first so that they can benefit shareholders.

all warfare is based on deception. hold out baits to the enemy. Feign disorder and crush him.Sun tzu, the art of war

CONTRAST BETWEEN SUN TZU’S THE ART OF WAR AND KRISHNA’S BHAGAVAD GITA

All warfare is based on deception. Hold out baits to the enemy. Feign disorder and crush him.

Sun Tzu, The Art of War

Be fearless and pure; never waver in your determi-nation or your dedication to the spiritual life. Culti-vate vigor, patience, will, purity; avoid malice and pride. Then, you will achieve your destiny.

Krishna, The Bhagavad GitaWhile the Bhagavad Gita and Art of War both ad-

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dress a leader’s decision-making and resolve dur-ing a time of great tribulation, their original pur-poses differ immensely. The Art of War was written to be a manual for strategy in battle while the Gita was composed to present war as just one of the manifestations of struggle that individuals have to overcome in their daily lives. Even the titles of the texts themselves reveal the differences in their intent. The Bhagavad Gita literally means “Song of the Blessed One,” alluding to the teachings of Krishna, who is a sage that has reached a higher level of enlightenment.15 The Art of War refers to the beauty and craft of decision-making and or-ganization in the circumstance of war.In the times of Sun Tzu, warfare was prevalent and consisted of burning cities, reading signs of favora-ble and unfavorable weather patterns, interpreting the disturbance of birds as the enemy advanced, and motivating troops to fight with resolve and valor. If generals strayed from their strategy and their end focus, they failed. At times, even decep-tion was needed to achieve victory. For Friedman, the business environment was as ruthless and un-yielding. In his opinion, any firm whose motives strayed from increasing shareholder’s profits had no reason to exist.In the Gita, whether or not Arjuna should fight is a secondary question. The real question that he faces and that managers should acknowledge from the text is: how should individuals live their daily lives.16 For Krishna, battle was more a spiritual quest than a physical display of brute strength and domination. When Arjuna consults his guide on the battlefield, Krishna emphasizes that he should not look towards the opposing army as his friends and family, because he will then get attached to his relationships with these individuals instead of his duties. It is what Gandhi called “renunciation of the fruits of action”17 that propels Arjuna to shed his weaknesses and accomplish his tasks with em-phasis placed on the purity of his actions over the end result. Similarly, for Freeman, it is this desire to focus on the intermediate steps of a goal that prompted him to form his six principles of the Doc-trine of Fair Contracts. Freeman hopes to redefine


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the purpose of the firm with these principles, by revealing that an emphasis on stakeholders brings new dimensions of decision-making and leader-ship that a purely stockholder-centric approach lacks21.The gravitation towards The Art of War as the man-agerial leadership text of choice in the past seems logical. After all, for years, people have regarded Sun Tzu’s Art of War as a manual of intricate strat-egy with tactics for victory that can easily be im-plemented in the workplace. The Gita, on the oth-er hand, has been seen as purely a religious text. Only today are more leaders admiring the Gita as an ancient text of spiritual wellbeing and guid-ance. “To me, most aspects of Hindu philosophy such as the Gita, the Vedas or the Upanishads are nothing but scriptures of knowledge and lessons of leadership,” says Dipak Jain, dean of Northwestern University’s Kellogg School of Management.22

“The Art of War brings leadership that is unidimen-sional and completely focused on victory. To me victory with a huge social cost is not a victory,” says Jain. “You have to ask yourself is life just about winning, or winning subject to constraints?”18

The key perception today is that executives are seeing the corporate world less as a physical bat-tlefield that justifies sly tactics and deception, and more as an internal challenge of leadership ability, accountability and organizational values. The basic idea proposed by Sun Tzu remains the same: “he whose ranks are united in purpose will be victorious.”19 Furthermore, today’s CEO is more a cooperating value-generator than a money-mon-gering warrior, and his “troops” entail all stake-holders, not just those who are attached to wealth generation. The holistic approach used by some managers today is “paying dividends” in many forms, and if more corporate executives conduct-ed business operations in this manner, more firms would experience the long-term value generation associated with CSR.

SHIFT FROM SHAREHOLDER TO STAKEHOLD-ER FOCUS

By pursuing his own interest [an individual] fre-quently promotes that of the society more effectu-

ally than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good.Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (1776) In recent years, business ethics and the stakehold-er theory has become a popular area of study in academic literature and implementation in the corporate setting. According to Wharton profes-sor Thomas Donaldson, “The focus on corporate stakeholders has become the symbol of the mod-ern effort to redefine the corporation.”25

An important element of the shift to the stake-holder approach has been the effort to promoting corporate social responsibility both inside and out-side of the workplace.26 In articulating his ortho-dox view of free market capitalism with the 1970 article “The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits,” economist Milton Friedman balked at capitalists who claimed that business is not concerned “merely” with profit but also with promoting desirable “social ends.”27 Even today, noted economists such as Arthur Laffer, known as the “father of supply-side economics,” claim that “there is no positive correlation between CSR and business profitability” based on an analysis of 28 companies that were among Business Ethics mag-azine’s “Top 100 Corporate Citizens” every year

from 2000-2004.28

the focus on corporate stakeholders has become the symbol of the modern effort to redefine the corporation

However, proponents of CSR including Proctor & Gamble CEO Alan Lafley and Dipak Jain, dean of the Kellogg School of Management, strongly disa-gree. Lafley would argue that Friedman’s view could not apply to modern-day firms and today’s free market capital system because there are nu-merous external factors that play a role in a firm’s decision-making today that did not exist when Friedman devised his argument decades ago. For example, firms no longer utilize CSR as a “cloak” for short-sightedness but rather as a strategic tool to enhance their image, and in doing so, their prof-

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its. Corporate social responsibility reflects a shift in society’s priorities: civil society has increasingly turned to the private sector to address critical needs including disease prevention, provision of potable water supplies and educational opportunities.This shift has also reflected claims on large corpo-rations. In Lafley’s opinion, Friedman’s view can be viewed as a modern-day interpretation of Sun Tzu’s exploitation of an enemy’s weaknesses in or-der to further one’s own quest towards a supreme goal. In today’s society, this mentality towards run-ning a firm will not suffice. Lafley would propose that his company’s rapid global growth can be at-tributed to its firm stakeholder model, and this is evidence that caring about more than just share-holders means good business overall, even for businesses who do not use CSR just to attract and retain customers and employees.Jain cites the Bhagavad Gita as the text that has of-ten guided his actions in satisfying all stakeholders of his organization, the Kellogg School of Manage-ment, including the students, faculty, alumni and media. “Shareholders are primarily focused on out-come,” says Jain. “The Bhagavad Gita teaches us that you don’t control the outcome of your actions, you only control the efforts. Thus, if you focus on your efforts, you have to focus on all stakeholders

and not just the shareholders.”29

Corporate social responsibility reflects a shift in society’s priorities

For both Lafley and Jain, profits are the means to value generation, and not the end in itself. This sense of “enlightened capitalism” has been one of the main reasons that managers have transitioned from The Art of War to the Bhagavad Gita. Times have changed since it was considered wise for companies to pursue only their own economic self-interests, and managers now feel the need to balance relationships within the firm. It is no sur-prise that the management guides linked to both the shareholder and stakeholder approach have shifted as well. V. Responses to Critics of the Stake-holder Theory and Corporate Social Responsibility

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Critics of corporate social responsibility such as David Vogel, professor at the University of Califor-nia at Berkeley, claim that CSR only makes “busi-ness sense” for firms in niche markets, or those that have a “need” to pursue CSR to repair their reputa-tions that have been sullied in some way or pre-vent it from becoming a competitive disadvantage. For instance, Vogel would claim that based on em-pirical evidence, it does not make sense for Proctor & Gamble, the world’s largest consumer-products company, which does not cater to a niche market and has not had any significant internal crisis or media blitz in the past few years, to invest heavily in CSR projects. However, this is simply not the case. Vogel’s view that CSR provides advantages in terms of public relations and image enhance-ment falls short because there are other signifi-cant reasons why firms should pursue CSR. These reasons include opportunities for firms to tap into untouched international markets, prospects for the firm to stay on top of cutting-edge technology and open avenues for product development, and the pursuit of long-term value generation and sustain-ability for the firm. Each of these objectives has been a direct offshoot of CSR activities for major firms, such as P&G which will be described later in the section. None of these ideas have been incor-porated into Vogel’s limited definition of the ben-efits of the CSR, and thus his model is incomplete30

In response to critics like Vogel who argue that CSR has its shortcomings, Steven D. Lydenberg, chief investment officer of Domini Social Investments, a prominent socially responsible investing firm based in Providence, RI proposes that CSR should be a core element of corporate management. In his recent book entitled Corporations and the Pub-lic Interest: Guiding the Invisible Hand, Lydenberg proposes many strategies that executives should employ to integrate CSR into the fabric of a com-pany. For Lydenberg, “CSR is ‘a major secular de-velopment, driven by a long- term reevaluation of the role of corporations in society.”31 Lydenberg’s main argument is that corporate social responsibil-ity is an excellent and viable method of creating long-term wealth for companies such as P&G.Lyndenberg cites that a significant development on the horizon, is guidance from the Internation-al Organization for Standardization (ISO) for im-plementing CSR programs. This standard will be called the ISO 26000 standard for social responsi-


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bility, and is expected to come out in 2008. This standard will contain guidelines, not requirements, and therefore will be used to be a certification cri-terion like the ISO 9000 standard for quality.It will continue to add value to firms who have already been employing CSR, and will reinforce the decision to implement CSR for those who have been thinking about making the appropriate deci-sions, but have not made the move yet. Lydenberg believes that companies that are concerned with sustainability issues will adopt the standard and ask their suppliers and vendors to follow suit.32

For public companies such as P&G, the complete and wide-ranging disclosure of social and environ-mental performance “has already passed the tip-ping point,” according to Lydenberg.33 So far, P&G and more than 700 other firms have published sus-tainability reports using part or all of the Global Reporting Initiative’s guidelines for reporting, in which companies disclose a “triple bottom line” of economic, social, and environmental perfor-mance. Lydenberg cites that such disclosure helps educate consumers and investors, who in turn help steer companies to the public interest. By making their CSR activities known publicly, these compa-nies boost their public image, an extra step towards gaining a foothold on competitors and tapping into further markets.This idea is prevalent in P&G’s ventures in CSR. Corporate social responsibility does not have to reap rewards solely for firms that utilize it as part of their identity, or for firms that do not want it to be-come a source of competitive disadvantage, as Vo-gel states. There are many firms that have the capa-bility, time and capital to invest in CSR, and thus should make an effort at some level. According to P&G spokesperson Terry Loftus, the company states that their efforts overseas are a clear link to their approach to understanding diversity, which

in turn is a “fundamental business strategy.”34 Vo-gel’s claim that the “international impact of CSR on brands has been negligible” is simply not valid today.20 For example, P&G offers over 300 brands

20. Edward Teach, “Two views of virtue: the corporate social respon-

sibility movement is picking up steam. Should you worry about it?”

CFO: Magazine for Senior Financial Executives, Dec. 2005, 10 Nov.

2006 <http://findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_m3870/is_17_21/ai_

n15999730>.

in more than 80 countries worldwide, and its suc-cess “depends entirely on our ability to understand these diverse consumers’ needs,”21 according to a company spokesperson. A main reason why the company has donated a significant amount of fi-nancial support and supplies to help disadvantaged youth in Vietnam, combat childhood malnutrition in India, and provide earthquake relief in Turkey, is to gain the insight and customer base needed to continue growing worldwide. P&G continues to invest in CSR year after year even though they already have such a reputable international image. CSR “makes sense” by such a brand name firm not only because it is at risk of being targeted by activ-ists, as Vogel claims, but due to the fact that every year such actions increases the company’s scope and awareness of the international community, al-lowing it to tap into markets worldwide.

Corporate social responsibility does not have to reap rewards solely for firms that utilize it as part of their identity, or for firms that do not want it to become a source of competitive disadvantage

Lyndenberg states that when companies recognize the need for CSR, they realize the immense poten-tial of “long-term wealth” generation. “Corpora-tions create long-term wealth,” he writes in Corpo-rations and the Public Interest, “when, in addition to generating productivity gains, they preserve nat-ural resources for future generations, create value in their relationships with their stakeholders, and do not externalize costs onto society.37 This notion of long-term wealth leads to future sustainability along with profits in the short-term, a point that is missing in the arguments of Vogel and other crit-

21. Eric Fernald, “100 Best Corporate Citizens for 2004.” Business Ethics

3 May 2004 <http://www.business-ethics.com/100best.htm>.

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ics who claim that CSR is only profitable for select companies.In the article, “Two views of virtue” published in the December 2005 issue of CFO magazine, Vogel himself claims that he will only change his argu-ment about CSR when “articles about companies in the mainstream business press regularly or even occasionally mention some aspect of CSR in terms of...understanding a company’s past or future per-formance.”38 This issue is directly addressed by Lyndenberg’s proposal of long-term value crea-tion, which supports addressing stakeholder needs in order to evaluate future value generation in comparison to past wealth, expansion and other value-generating opportunities for the firm. Vogel believes CSR will always remain “marginal and secondary,” to firms, but this is simply not the casein today’s corporate world. Without question, CSR is becoming part of the global corporate culture; today, more than 2,000 U.S. companies publish annual corporate social responsibility reports along with their financial statements compared to a few hundred just two years ago.39

An article published in The Economist magazine claims that “it would be a challenge to find a re-cent annual report of any big international compa-ny that justifies the firm’s existence merely in terms of profit, rather than ‘service to the community’.”40

According to the article, “The good company” deputy editor Clive Crook claims that signs of the “victory of CSR advocates” can be seen in the speeches of top executives and the diligent report-ing of CSR efforts in their published accounts. In addition, corporate social responsibility is now an industry in its own right, and a flourishing profes-sion as well. Consultancies have sprung up to ad-vise companies on how to do CSR, and how to let it be known that they are doing it. In a survey of the 1,500 delegates, which included mostly business leaders, attending the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland in 2004, fewer than one in five respondents stated that profitability was the most important measure of corporate success. While a little under five percent of the constitu-ency named CSR as the single most important cri-terion, it should be noted that an additional 24% said that the reputation and integrity of the brand, to which good corporate citizenship is a critical element, mattered the most to them.41

CSr will always remain “marginal and secondary,” to firms, but this is simply not the case in today’s corporate world

Critics of this model also assert that there many other cost-effective ways for firms to create “long-term wealth” than to just employ CSR. Also, a crit-ic may ask how it is possible for all firms to be able to abide by a “triple bottom line” when many are merely trying to maintain the single bottomline of profit generation for its shareholders. Other critics perceive corporate social responsibility as incurring unnecessary costs and being a waste of time for companies whose image does not rely upon it.The answer to these arguments lies in the fact that there are many levels to corporate social responsi-bility that managers often fail to realize. Compara-ble to Krishna’s ideology, corporate social respon-sibility could start at the individual level, ensuring that relations between managers and employees are open and good-natured. In addition, CSR is one means that is highly effective and can be cost-efficient for all firms if they employ it to address the unique needs of their individual firm, as P&G has done, according to Lyndenberg.Taking small steps to incorporating CSR in the workplace is the key for the modern corporate ex-ecutive. In 1999, the animal rights organization In Defense of Animals launched a vicious campaign against P&G to stop the company’s techniques of animal abuse due to product testing that occurred each year. They labeled their global campaign “P&G Kills” and stated that the company refused to switch to more humane and reliable alternatives

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due to extra costs involved.22 This campaign and boycott against P&G hurt the firm’s image tremen-dously. P&G decided to take action and invest in more humane measures, but they did not stop there. Today, they are known worldwide as a glob-al leader in providing animal alternatives and were recognized by the Humane Society of the United States for their efforts to find alternative methods to test their products.

CSr Strategic includes firms that develop business strategies within one or two aspects of CSr around which they can develop a competitive advantage and have a significant impact

P&G could have restricted its CSR initiatives to modifying its animal testing practices, as Vogel would have recommended to repair its image,but P&G continued to take larger leaps to enhance its community and to be on the cutting edge of environmentally sound technology. P&G took an aggressive offensive-minded approach, rather than just settling with the “primarily defensive” display of corporate virtue as Vogel advocates. P&G’s risky investment to be on the forefront of animal rights issues has enabled the company to tap into a large market of ecologically-cognizant consumers that was previously accommodated by smaller brands.In 2002, Vancouver-based Standberg Consulting conducted a study entitled “The Future of Corpo-rate Social Responsibility,” in which it created a CSR continuum open to all firms, not just those in limited and narrow positions. The consulting group intended to pinpoint any firm on the contin-uum, based on the scope, or lack thereof, of their CSR agenda. The firm identified five levels of CSR:

22. In Defense of Animals, “In Defense of Animals Condemns P&G’s

Hypocrisy on Animals Tests,” PandGKills.com. 19 Nov. 2002. 4 Dec.

2007 <http://www. pandgkills.com/alerts/memo.html>.

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CSR Lite, CSR Compliant, CSR Strategic, CSR Inte-grated and Deep CSR. CSR Lite includes firms that are primarily concerned with responsiveness to complaints, not CSR, and thus their business mod-el will not be changed. This category also includes firms that have been forced into compliance with CSR objectives, but do not show any commitment

to social or environmental progress.43 The consult-ing firm stated that all companies need to make the leap to at least CSR Compliant, in which firms keep abreast of emerging standards of CSR and ensure they are compliant with those standards. The next level is analogous to Vogel’s viewpoint on CSR. CSR Strategic includes firms that develop business strategies within one or two aspects of CSR around which they can develop a competitive advantage and have a significant impact.The last two levels of CSR include firms that are the most committed to incorporating CSR within their business plans. While it is may not be in the best interest of every firm to operate at the last two lev-els of CSR, more firms should make the leap from the CSR Lite category for the benefit of the firm and society as a whole. All firms do not have to be heroic by pursuing societal and environmental im-provements with alacrity, but as P&G has shown, a gradual focus on CSR efforts can make a tremen-dous difference for a firm.44

BHAGAVAD GITA ON LEADERSHIP CHARAC-TER: SATTVIC VS. RAJASIC

A sattvic person performs actions with a firm belief in his or her responsibilities and without attach-ments to results.

Krishna, The Bhagavad Gita

Throughout the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna and Ar-juna discuss the virtues and vices of human char-acter. Today, these same personal qualities can be seen driving decision-making in the workplace. In chapter 7 of the Gita, Krishna describes two main types of human character: sattvic and rajasic.23 Sat-tvic leaders are driven by the harmony between the self and the surroundings and are repelled from provoking confrontation or disparity.

23. Julius J. Lipner, The Bhavagad Gita for our Times (New Delhi: Oxford

Univer- sity Press, 1997) 72.


In addition, they do not hesitate to accept suffering if such hardships cause peace and harmony for the people in their organizations.46

Applying Krishna’s philosophy, Proctor & Gamble announced in 2005 that it will launch its Chil-dren’s Safe Drinking Water initiative in order to help distribute its low-cost PUR Purifier of Water technology to developing countries around the world. P&G aims to transform contaminated water sources to meet World Health Organization stand-ards for safe drinking water. P&G has already in-vested millions to provide safe and clean drinking water to children in Africa and around the world, because such sustainability is instrumental to the company’s values and policies. Executives at P&G know that such decisions do not directly affect po-tential consumers of their products; nevertheless, they continue to maintain their humanitarian focus because corporate social responsibility has been part of their business identity for years.24 It is this commitment to their community that has helped P&G’s brand shine for decades.

Sattvic leadership radiates calmness, purity, and righteousness. it embodies happiness and knowledge

“Sattvic leadership radiates calmness, purity, and righteousness. It embodies happiness and knowl-edge,” says Krishna.48 Leadership character should thus incorporate integrity and a focus on people and competency. The central leadership message of the Gita directs people to become satvic leaders who put the interest, needs and wants of others ahead of themselves. When leaders act with purely selfish motives, they tend to emit negative energy to those within their firm. This negative energy can have grave ramifications in the workplace. Krishna calls this type of leadership character rajasic. Ra-

24. Proctor & Gamble, “Corporate Philanthropy.” 2007. <http://www.

pg.com/company/our_commitment/community.jhtml>.

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jasic leaders “create chaos and darkness in their organizations”25 by their egotistical desires.“If you look at the world of business today, the biggest challenge we face is on the front of lead-ership,” says Jain.50 This theme is clearly relevant for company executives who are more inclined to put company profits and the shareholders’ interests over the overall value of the corporation. Financial incentives for business leaders are often based on aggressive financial goals that focus less on cus-tomers and employees than on the bottom line of profit generation. Unfortunately, company value is often equated with purely shareholder’s profits and according to the teachings of the Gita, this should not be the case.

FUTURE IMPLICATIONS OF CSR

CSR has become a subject of great importance when companies assess their strategic plans. Many of the world’s leading corporations are already in-tegrating socially responsible solutions into their business models, while making great strides to-wards social and environmental responsibility. Companies are finding that “corporate value and social virtue not only are mutually exclusive but can be mutually reinforcing.”51 While many com-panies acknowledge that the benefits of CSR are great today, those that are not currently engaging in CSR should realize that the future implications and amplified effects of CSR are significant.With the dramatic shift in corporate attitudes to-ward CSR that has occurred in the past decade, more companies will utilize CSR as an offensive rather than defensive tactic employed to protect oneself from negative publicity. Many companies today engage in CSR, “because they believe that being socially responsible is good for their busi-ness -- whether it’s through building their brand reputation, mitigating risk or improving employee retention and productivity, just to name a few ben-efits,” says James Viray, director of the State Depart-ment’s Office of International Labor and Corporate Social Responsibility. Other companies engage in CSR, he added, “because they just believe that it’s the right thing to do,” while “others may do it for

25. Pujan Roka, Bhagavad Gita on Effective Leadership (New York: iU-

niverse, Inc., 2006) 115.


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a combination of those reasons.”26 Companies will progressively turn to CSR as employees, customers and government bodies continue to demand for businesses to maintain and be more open about their business practices.

Companies with similar green goals in mind may collaborate to create positive branding for all parties involved.

Companies with similar green goals in mind may collaborate to create positive branding for all par-ties involved. A recent collaboration between Greenpeace and Coca-Cola demonstrates that or-ganizations with similar goals in mind for a pro-ject involving CSR, can collaborate to extend the scope of their actions. To alleviate the egregious impact that Coca-Cola’s over nine million coolers and vending machines had on the global climate, both organizations worked together to create a more sustainable energy technology. Due to the overwhelming success of this project, Coca-Co-la became more open to cobranding efforts and joint advertising campaigns.53 Likewise, CSR has opened the door for many full-service sustainabil-ity consulting firms like DOMANI, which helps to “engage multinational clients with stakeholders and NGOs for mutual benefit.”54 Firms like DOM-ANI understand that engaging in common green projects is a common denominator for companies to work together and utilize synergies to boost stakeholder value. They have helped firms achieve “new bottom line value through precise, market driven sustainability strategies.”55

Along with the advent of new firms focused on helping companies engage in constructive CSR ac-

26. Eric Green, “Corporate Social Responsibility Seen as Smart Busi-

ness Move.” USInfo.State.Gov International Information Programs. 7

Aug. 2007. 4 Dec. 2007. <http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.

html?p=washfile-english&y=2 007&m=August&x=200708071138371X

EneerG0.5274622>.

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tivities, the potential for job creation in the field of CSR has surged, as larger companies are beginning to add CSR departments or include CSR functions within particular divisions including communica-tions, investor relations, finance and operations. CSR can be seen as an emerging profession due to the complexity of roles and responsibilities of a CSR practitioner. For companies in the emerging stage of establishing a CSR agenda, managers with experiences in socially responsible projects will be essential. Once considered a budgetary burden for many companies, CSR now holds tremendous long-term potential for value creation. Companies may decide to adopt the “bottom of the pyramid”strategy, based on the notion that low-income mar-kets present excellent opportunities for investment by global corporations. This idea suggests that de-veloping nations represent 4 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, on average. DuPont is a prime example of a company that has been able to generate value by participating in developing nation markets. In 2003, it launched its “BOP” pi-lot programs in Latin America. DuPont research-ers screened ideas to meet the triple bottom line – each idea, “must make a positive contribution to society, be good for the environment, and be an attractive business opportunity.”56 DuPont brings together government officials and NGOs to help in product development to alleviate starvation. Such projects have included hybrid corn seeds that are more robust than conventional seeds, and an af-fordable product that fuses soy protein and chick-en. The company hopes to expand its successful model to other developing regions of the world, and has demonstrated that, “it is possible to inte-grate sustainability into one’s business model as a driver of value creation.”57

Engagement in CSR must not be commonplace and generic, but needs to have a unique angle to have a profound impact. In a June 2007 panel at Georgetown University entitled, “Principles, Profits, and Politics: The Rise of Corporate Social Responsibility,” former U.S. Senator Jim Talent stated that most corporations are already actively engaged in creating value beyond profit genera-tion, but just need to communicate more clearly the specific ways that they are creating value for particular groups of stakeholders. Findings from a national survey by Fleishman-Hillard and the National Consumers League were released at the


panel, showing that that a majority of Americans believe that the most important thing a company can do to be viewed as socially responsible is to “treat their employees well.”27 Hence, CSR does not have to entail huge donations of money or the establishment of multi-millionaire dollar centers of learning, to leave a lasting impression on its stake-holders and the public.

Business executives must assess the potential affects of CSr on overall value creation for their firm.

Business executives must assess the potential af-fects of CSR on overall value creation for their firm. Current and future drivers of corporate ocial responsibility include: ethical consumerism, glo-balization and market forces, social awareness and government regulations. In his response to The Economist Survey of CSR published on January 22, 2005, Jeremy Moon, director of the Nottingham University Business School’s International Centre for Corporate Social Responsibility states that, “the proper business of business includes investment in the social conditions for its own success and in its legitimacy. This is a complement rather than an al-ternative to other vehicles for business success.”59

CSR AND PUBLIC POLICY

Governments are beginning to view CSR as a cost-effective and efficient means to enhance sustain-able development strategies. Social responsibility is now being seen as an integral component of na-tional competitiveness strategies. During the 2003 e-conference “Public Policy for Corporate Social Responsibility,” hosted by the World Bank Insti-tute Series on Corporate Responsibility, Account-ability and Sustainable Competitiveness, scholars from around the world shared ideas on ways the public and private sectors can work in conjunction

27. Jim Talent, “Beyond the Bottom Line: Redefining Corporate Social

Responsibility,” 10 June 2007, 2 Dec. 2007 <http://www.huffingtonpost.

com/sen-jim- talent/beyond-the-bottom-line-r_b_51449.html>.

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to promote CSR activities. Participants agreed that the public sector must work to create a business environment that promotes CSR, as well as imple-ment the appropriate regulatory structures.60

Government involvement in CSR must be transpar-ent and pervasive. Governments around the world must clarify their expectations of business with re-gard to CSR, and develop ways to measure their responses to these expectations. The public sector may decide to include tax exemptions for compa-nies that build social capital within their commu-nities. Governments may also decide to encourage CSR within small and medium-sized enterprises, which lack the impetus to participate in such ac-tivities on their own.While CSR will continue to be attractive at the na-tional level due to its beneficial effects on a na-tion’s economic competitiveness, there will need to be a great emphasis on defining CSR at a local level. Since CSR is viewed differently around the world depending on cultural and historical con-ditions, approaches to CSR by different countries, “would depend on the orientation of the govern-ment and on the level of business influence on policy.”61 More research and consideration needs to be placed on research on country-level agen-das that affect the role of business in society and the redefinition of the sectors of public and private policies. Responsible business activity will inevita-bly create a favorable environment for conducting business and promoting social development both locally and nationally.

CONCLUSION

In the text of the Bhagavad Gita lies the “crisis and emancipation”62 of the modern corporate execu-tive. Like Prince Arjuna, today’s business leader has to overcome both an internal and external di-lemma: whether to ceaselessly pursue the bottom line for the sole benefit of shareholders or whether to broaden the scope of the firm by balancing the relationships of all stakeholders who are impacted by the firm. The challenge for today’s business executive is to place individuals before profits, so that employees and customers can inevitably benefit shareholders. The Gita requests leaders to accept this challenge and be the sattvic frame of reference for ethics and morality that the corporate world has lacked for many years.


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As the world moves forward to combat interna-tional issues during our global green revolution, companies are expected to be good corporate citizens in their communities not only by govern-ments and shareholders, but by their customers and communities. For firms planning ahead, build-ing partnerships and cultivating a culture of social entrepreneurship “both within the company and around the brand,” will inevitably have a posi-tive impact on stakeholders.63 Creating a sustain-able future will involve making conscious choices about business strategies, and a sustainable future is one in which a company’s social and ecologi-cal consequence will be of critical importance in the boardroom. In order for company executives to succeed in their CSR ventures, they must under-stand how the intersection of business and society is evolving, and must shape these changes in ways that deliver business value that is viable for the firm and for society.

REFERENCES

1. Asmus, Peter. “Corporate Social Responsibili-ty: Designing a Sustainable Future.” New York Times Special Advertising Section. 2007.

2. Cohen, Mark A. “Does Corporate Social Re-sponsibility Make Sense?” Vanderbilt

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069

WOMEN AND WORK-FAMILY INTERFACE: INDIAN CONTEXT

Vinita Chandra

Key Words Gender, Work, Family, Feminism, Social Division, La-bour

Abstract The social division of labour set the role of pri-mary bread earner for the man while ascribed the role of home-manager and caregiver to the woman. This arrangement has been ques-tioned for having given rise to gender inequal-ity and having generated gender role stereo-types for man and woman. The traditionally organized workplace is also predicated on the assumption that families with male bread win-ners and nonworking housewives constitute the predominant family form. This is no more true since the last few decades have seen a significant number of women coming out of the private sphere of domestic life to enter the public domain. The problem of balancing work and family together has given rise to what is called the ‘work-family conflict’, which has evoked serious scholarly concern in the last few years. The questions that have surfaced need a sincere rethinking over. The present paper seeks to study work-family conflict in the context of women entering the workforce. However, this does not imply that work-family conflict is a ‘women’s problem’. Studies in the US and elsewhere have amply borne out that men face as much work-family conflict as women do. However, even this phenomenon stands pronounced with women entering the workforce as in the earlier arrangement, men had to worry little for the household respon-sibilities. Resultantly, there was less negative spillover from the work to family domain and vice versa.

The author is a Senior Distinguished Fellow of the Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences

as well as an Assistant Editor of the Journal of Social Science (India).

“ “the traditionally organized workplace is also predicated on the assumption that families with male bread winners and nonworking housewives constitute the predominant family form.


WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT AND THE SPILLO-VER THEORY

Kahn et al. (1964) have provided the follow-ing definition of work-family conflict: a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family do-

mains are mutually incompatible in some respect. This implies that participation in the work role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family role and vice versa. The competing, or even conflicting demands made by work and fam-ily interfere and thus, are the source of work-family conflict. Three major forms of work-family conflict have been identified (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985, p 77): (a) time-based conflict, (b) strain-based con-flict, and (c) behaviour-based conflict. The model proposed by Kahn et al. also proposes that role pressures (and hence work-family conflict) are in-tensified when the work and family roles are sa-lient or central to the person’s self-concept and when there are strong negative sanctions for non-compliance with role demands.Kelly and Voydanoff (1985, p 368) propose an in-ductive model of work-family role strain that ac-knowledges “multiple levels of social structure and process”. According to the model, work-family role strain is the result of the combined influence of demands and coping resources derived from in-dividual, family and work-related sources.A work-family substantive theory called spillover theory was proposed by Zedeck (1992), among others. A strong work- family mesosystem is pro-posed and assumes that the work microsystem and the family microsystem significantly influence one another through a permeable boundary (Bromet, Dew & Parkinson, 1990). Spillover from work to family affects the family by impairing both indi-vidual and family functioning. Spillover from the family to work often takes the form of lower pro-ductivity, higher absenteeism, and greater turnover (Glass & Estes, 1997, p 294).The Indian ContextThe entry of women in the jobs is not accompa-nied with a simultaneous shift in the social division of labour. The sex role ideology emphasizing upon the separate spheres of activity for men and wom-en still exerts considerable influence on the public psyche. Even most of the dual earner wives con-tinue to view themselves primarily as homemak-

ers, and their work status did little to alter their sex role orientation (Rajadhyakasha & Smita, 2004, p

women are thus confronted with the challenge of playing the dual-role, to excel at home, as well as at the workplace

1677). Thus, women still consider it their primary duty to look after the household affairs and care for the family, while men find earning for the family as their primary, or may be, the sole responsibil-ity. Women are thus confronted with the challenge of playing the dual-role, to excel at home, as well as at the workplace. In a bid to prove her com-petence on both the fronts, women are facing the problem of overwork and are often being stressed out or drained of their energy. Even then, they find themselves unable to match the expectations at any of the two places. Not only the women, but even men are confronted with a role-conflict in the present situation. Further, with both the spous-es working, there is also the problem of what is called work to family spill-over and vice versa. Again, since the tasks done by women at home for the nurturing of family have been of great sig-nificance, their underfulfilment may lead to further problems in the society. While the women have themselves remained dissatisfied and overbur-dened, the children and elders of the family have remained undercared in a dual- earner set up. The problems have burgeoned with the coming of the MNC culture of work characterized by long work-ing hours, deadlines, competition, lesser holidays, negligible number of leaves, frequent tours, job transfers, increasing work pressure and so on. This has further posed challenge to the marital qual-ity of the dual-earner couples; sometimes even threatening the sustenance of a happy marriage. This stands true for the Western societies. Hughes and associates showed that non-specific job/family incompatibility decreased marital companionship and increased marital tension (Hughes, Galinsky &

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Morris, 1992). The problems have also multiplied with the breaking up of the joint family and the concomitant withdrawal of support system within the family; even though this may have accorded greater independence to many of the working cou-ples. A rethinking over some issues of significance is imperative in this context.Overwhelmed by the enormity of these and such other problems, the advocates of traditional val-ues have strongly questioned the new social reality where women wish to come out of the confines of the domestic lives to enter the public realm.

SHOULD WOMEN WORK OR REMAIN STAY-AT-HOMES?

The strongest plea made in favour of women re-maining stay- at-homes is the question of care-giv-ing. Women have actually been the sustainers of the “Care-giving Institution” in Indian society. The most important component of care giving is rear-ing up of children. Caring for the diseased, disa-bled and the old is, though, considered to be of no less importance. The second argument posed while rejecting women’s entry into careers is the management of the household, without which it is believed, the healthy and happy family life is sure to meet its end very soon.Getting into this domain of discussion, it has to be admitted that the ‘work’ women have been doing is of no lesser significance. Nurturing of children, care-giving to the elders or the diseased, as well as proper management of the household are vital to the health of a society. Also, once the children are brought into the world, the parents cannot shrink back from the responsibility of providing them with conditions healthy for the holistic de-velopment of their personality. It is the right of the children to be given due care and attention. The inclusion of women into the workforce, shall not be accompanied with the systematic ‘exclusion’ of children. Studies have demonstrated that lack of sensitive, responsive, and consistent care from overworked parents or substitute providers can lead to decreased cognitive and social skills (Par-cel & Menagham, 1994) and can promote attach-ment insecurity in children (Belsky, 1990).In the same way, looking after the elders and the diseased in the family is of mighty importance from the perspective of preservation of human val-

ues. The right of individuals to be cared for when inneed is of no less importance than the right to get opportunity to progress professionally. The rise of an atomistic individualism where every individual starts asserting one’s rights irrespective of one’s so-cial and familial roles and responsibilities is bound to bring the same kind of problems in the Indian society which the West is struggling with today.

there is a lot of potential in some women which remains latent and awaits its complete expression and use

However, a question as big as those posed above is that should the onus rest inequitably on the women? It may be argued that men also bear the responsibility by earning for the family. This is true but it has to be admitted that somehow, the mech-anism of responsibility sharing is such that it has left women with lesser degrees of independence, power and financial resourcefulness. These stand as strong arguments in favour of women to enter the domain of work. While independence, power and financial resourcefulness are all important in proportionate measures, it can be systematically argued that the most important factor which goes in favour of women to move beyond the confines of domesticity is the question of the latent potential of women. The works traditionally ascribed to the women, though require merit, do not offer suffi-cient scope for the full potential of women to be used in many cases. There is a lot of potential in some women which remains latent and awaits its complete expression and use. Such a potential is sure to give rise to inner frustration on remaining untapped and unrealized. The society today is un-der a flux. Perhaps this flux has arisen as the earlier arrangement, though having provided a very neat division of labour, remained unable to answer this one very significant question.The following points can be made out of the above discussion- Women are now rejecting the traditional roles as-

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cribed to them and coming out to get into the do-main of ‘paid work’ and thus are getting involved in what is called ‘productive labour’, is the con-temporary social reality.The latent potential argument establishes that women should work.An alternative division of labour shall be estab-lished and other solutions shall be sought for in or-der to avoid the negligence of issues that are perti-nent for the health of the family and society; while operating within the work-family interface. A race against time without slowing down to answer sig-nificant questions shall result in chaos.

SOLUTIONS

Change is the only constant in life. Creation evolves by making adaptations to change. Confronted with a stage of social change, adaptations are the de-mand of the day- adaptation at the level of individ-ual, family, society, governmental policies and the workplace. More importantly, such adaptations need to be backed by a firm and clear understand-ing of the aim of life. The latent potential argument itself is based on the understanding that the aim of human life is to evolve. This also implies seek-ing solutions for the problem away from both- the alpha and the beta bias (Hare-Mustin, 1988). Relo-cation to the frame of values propagated by Indian philosophical systems can provide an alternative.

RELOCATING TO THE PLANE OF INDIAN PHI-LOSOPHY

The problem of women and work-family conflict in the Indian context has been viewed in the con-text of two frames of reference. The first frame, adopted by the traditionalists and conservatives, suffers from an alpha bias. It re-emphasizes the sex role ideology and strives to maintain the status quo by rejecting the fact of women entering the domain of work, stepping out of the domestic life. The fundamentalists have resented the blurring of the ‘private-public divide’. The Mahila Morcha writes, for example:“We conceptually differ from what is termed as the women’s liberation movement in the west. We re-quire a sort of readjustment in the social and eco-nomic set-up. No fundamental change in the val-ues is desirable. Women in India ever had a proud place within the household, and the society. That

has only to be re-affirmed.” (Mahila Morcha, 1991)The second frame seems to be the only other pos-sible view point to those who find it imperative and a matter of right for women to move out of the confines of domestic space to the domain of work. This frame of reference suffers from the beta bias in that it overemphasizes similarity and denies all gender differences, thus adopting a minimalist stance. Aggressive manifestation of atomistic indi-vidualism has become the dominant feature of this frame of reference. The present paper proposes relocation to an alternative frame of reference per-petuated by the values enunciated by the Indian philosophical systems.

the ethics of the market impart value only to those things, relations and conditions which have an exchange value in the market

Redefining ‘success’ and ‘progress’: Moving from the pravritti marga (path of the pursuit of pleas-ure) to the nivritti marga (path of renunciation/detached active functioning)

It may be argued that work-family conflict in the Indian context today is actually a product of the materialist consciousness perpetuated by the glo-balizing consumer culture. This culture defines progress, growth and success in terms of material achievements/ gains. Consequently, it has given rise to a material centric, profit oriented individu-al, family, society, and the workplace. Market has permeated social relations and has hegemonized human consciousness. The ethics of the market impart value only to those things, relations and conditions which have an exchange value in the market. Accordingly progress implies more and more material accomplishment, growth implies more production and consumption of goods, and success implies acquiring ever-increasing degrees of exchange value in the market. This marginalizes

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all other realms of human endeavour. According-ly, ‘work’, as it is defined by the market, has start-ed taking precedence over family and everything else. This also accounts for the non-recognition of care giving (including child rearing, care giving to the elders and diseased) and home management as effective contributions to the society. Several women wish to enter the field of work as they seek for ‘social role enhancement’ and self esteem. The entire rhetoric seems to be misplaced as for both men and women, caregiving is indeed a meaning-ful social role. ‘Working’ seems to provide social role enhancement as it provides one with an ex-change value. In fact, with paid work being valued above all else, unpaid care work by implication is increasingly devalued. But the emerging global crises of care are particularly challenging because while the demand for care is rising due to demo-graphic factors, the supply of care is falling due to people’s financial desires and the growing sense of identity and esteem people increasingly derive from paid work.

ambition should certainly remain a motivating force and provide fuel to move on, but it should not burn the machinery out

As noted above, the capital-based, liberal consum-erist culture has defined all the concepts within the framework of the market. Insatiable greed for ‘profit’ and ‘pleasure’ is the force behind this cul-ture. With such definitions of progress and suc-cess, the individual, couples, families, society and the workplace; all are running behind profit-making. ‘Earning’ more and more exchange value has become the motive behind human existence. Most of the companies in the private sector try to make their employees work maximum number of hours. There is cut-throat competition in the cor-porate world and all the companies are running after making maximum profit. Employees, on their turn, are trying to match the expectations of their employers and thus get quicker promotions and higher pay scales, and thus are running for pro-

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gress. Many of the women are getting into jobs only because they want themselves and their fami-lies to be more comfortable financially and thus ‘progress’. This world view lacks the understand-ing that ‘pampering’ of the senses by providing them more and more pleasure and an attempt at satisfaction of unending desires of the senses actu-ally results in bondage of the self. Real happiness is unattainable for a bonded self, who eventually becomes a slave of the market. A reversal from this path- the pravritti marga, i.e., the path of pursuit of pleasure, is imperative towards the nivritti mar-ga, i.e., the path of detached active functioning. Progress and success as defined by the market do not ensure real inner happiness. Nor does it have the potential of taking humanity or human life to any better footing. Success and progress shall be redefined in order to find solutions for complica-tions that have arisen out of a misinterpretation of these. All of us actually have to stop running for progress as we define it, at the expense of eve-rything else. Ambition should certainly remain a motivating force and provide fuel to move on, but it should not burn the machinery out. Studies have proven that individuals considered to be success-ful are not the ones who are invariably happy or satisfied. Thus, either we have to assume that suc-cess and happiness are not compatible, or we shall look for another definition of success. Korman and his colleagues have asked why so many “success-ful” managers are apparently alienated from them-selves and/or others (Korman and Korman, 1980; Korman, Wittig-Berman, & Lang, 1981). Their data suggest the inability to meet personal needs (be-cause of disconfirmed expectations and contradic-tory role demands) and the loss of affiliative satis-faction (perhaps due to an extensive commitment to work at the expense of family) produce social and personal alienation (Korman et al., 1981). Also, several studies have revealed positive rela-tionships between an employee’s Type A behav-iour and work-family conflict (Burke et al., 1979, 1980a; Werbel, 1978).One has to go back to the ancient Indian wisdom which says that he is a winner (and so is success-ful) who has overcome his senses, rather than one who, being enslaved by the senses, remains con-stantly in the pursuit of pleasures. Perhaps both women and men need to understand that a suc-cessful life is one which is more balanced and in-


tegral in the sense that it offers scope for ‘every-thing else’ also, that, as McKenna has pointed out, which is found missing in a life running behind material success alone. Such changes can occur with gross changes in societal perceptions of suc-cess and progress. This brings us to the definition of success and progress as that of having mastered the senses and using them as instruments for hu-man evolution rather than becoming slaves and instruments in their hands.

MOVING FROM THE CONCEPT OF ‘PRODUC-TIVE WORK’ TO ‘KARMA’

The material centric world view judges the produc-tivity of work on the basis of the financial returns (and hence again, the purchasing power) it gener-ates for the individual. Resourcefulness is defined in terms of power and money (purchasing power). Work is defined as instrumental activity intended to provide goods and services to support life (Pi-otrkowski, Rapoport & Rapoport, 1987). Work typically entails membership in a market or em-ploying organization that compensate the worker for his or her contributions (Burke and Greenglass, 1987; Kabanoff, 1980). Work may provide in-trinsic rewards (Deci & Ryan, 1985), but its pri-mary goal is to obtain extrinsic rewards (Locke & Latham, 1990).These definitions of productivity and resourceful-ness effortlessly exclude women and what was tra-ditionally considered to be ‘women’s work’ from their purview. Women have been really resource-ful in terms of emotional and spiritual strength. Can a resourceless person impart care and support to others? Gaining ‘resourcefulness’ as defined by the market economics, women’s inherent re-sourcefulness should not be undermined or lost. This demands a moving ahead of the ‘modernist’ definition of productive work to the concept of karma provided by the ancient Indian scriptures which implies performance of ‘dutiful’ activity in a detached manner. This does not mean going on carrying out what is considered to be duty, thus making life ‘burdensome or boring’. To arrive at a correct definition of duty, away from the much ro-manticized (mis)definition prevalent among many Indians, detachment is the most essential prereq-uisite. The path of duty or dharma, according to the ancient Indian scriptures, is that which pro-

vides nurturance to the self/soul. The evolution of the spirit/consciousness is the goal of human exist-ence according to the Indian philosophy, and not the attainment of material pleasures. In fact, the unending pursuit of material pleasures is believed to result in ‘bondage of the self’. Such karma (or work) is to be performed which leads to a realiza-tion of one’s inherent potential, which results in the release of productive forces within one’s self, which nurtures one’s soul and results in the evolu-tion of one’s spirit. In this light, the aim of women while entering the domain of the so-called produc-tive work is not to attain only material resourceful-ness, but the realization of their ‘latent potential’ and thus, an optimum use of their inner resource-fulness.

Desire and indulgence are the buzzwords of the consumer culture. and this culture desires individuals to keep on desiring.

FROM UNREGULATED DESIRE TO SANYAM-NIYAM

Desire and Indulgence are the buzzwords of the consumer culture. And this culture desires individ-uals to keep on desiring. It preaches ‘indulgence’ and more and more ‘indulgence’, which means working tooth and nail towards the satisfaction of desires of the senses of one’s being. It seeks to nur-ture a consciousness that is solely pleasure- orient-ed. Such pleasure is derived from the consumption of goods- both material as well as symbolic. Mar-ket commodifies everything and makes it avail-able in abundance- food, sex, health. Mass media propagates to have these ‘more and more’. In the context of the globalization era, accelerated pro-duction can only deliver greater profits and growth if it is matched by accelerated consumption. For some products, this could be achieved by increas-ing the pace of product deterioration, thus shorten-ing replacement time; but for most products and services it could only be brought about by engen-

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dering a perpetual state of dissatisfaction in the psyche of the consumer. The gratification yielded by one consumption experience had to give way in the shortest possible time to the desire for an-other. Indeed, the ideal consumer would forego satisfaction altogether- and desire only desire (Bennett, 2001, p 161). This is helpful in further-ing the profit motive of the market. Mass media is also working towards giving rise to ‘dissatisfaction’ and insatiability of desire amongst the people. This is characteristically represented by Pepsi’s famous punch line- Yeh dil maange more (this heart al-ways yearns for more...).Indian wisdom taught freedom from desire. Vari-ous philosophical systems in India have experi-mented with and devised varied means of getting freedom from desire. In fact, desire is said to be the root of all miseries. As mentioned earlier, one who conquers desire is considered to be victorious, and hence successful, in the Indian scheme. Only such a truly ‘free and independent’ functioning can re-sult in cultivation of human faculties, expansion of the horizons of human consciousness, and thus, it is only such an active functioning which is capable of resulting in true inner happiness.Indian philosophy teaches the opposite of indul-gence- sanyam and niyam, i.e., self-restraint and discipline. Human beings are distinguished from others in the creation because they have ‘choice’. They can choose to accept and also reject. They can choose to restrain their senses. However, again, ‘choice’ is also being attempted to be de-fined by the market. In the consumerist jargon, choice is a function of purchasing power or ex-change value. Women and men ‘work’ more and more as ‘earning’ more and more is tantamount to ‘acquiring’ more and more purchasing power, which they consider to be ‘enhancing their choic-es’. In the case of women, the entire rhetoric of ‘empowerment’ is built upon such choice and re-sourcefulness. Earning is important in proportions. However, going ‘excessive’ is tantamount to bond-age rather than choice and freedom.Few things need consideration regarding the rheto-ric of choice in a consumption-oriented cultural setting. It is said that modernity gives us the choice: the freedom to select from diverse possibilities. In this sense it may also be seen as ‘imparting some agency’. However, is consumption really a human activity rife with agency? It needs to be understood

that there is a limitation to these ‘diverse possi-bilities’ themselves. In the contemporary society, these diverse possibilities are generated by and for the market. Also, our choice is being constantly conditioned by the agent of capitalism and con-sumerism- the mass media. So we no more have the choice given by modernity (i.e. criticality of our own consciousness), but we have choice given to us by the commodity Market. Is such a choice, real choice? Choice and ‘diverse possibilities’, be-ing hijacked by the market forces, no more remain choice and possibilities. In fact, choice cannot be given or taken, it is within oneself. People need to ‘choose’ to reject the false choice given by the market, to opt out of it, and thus ‘choose’ to reject the enslavement of their minds and spirits at the hands of the commodity market.The philosophy of restraint shall motivate individ-uals, families and also the Workplace, to set limits to the desire for profits. Once this desire is brought under control, the work- family conflict arising out of lack of time, perpetual strain etc. is bound to dis-sipate. In the frenzy to acquire more and more ex-change value, agency, choice and empowerment (as defined by market), Indian women shall not loose the hold of inherent Indian wisdom which defines all these in a different perspective, which alone has the potential to provide effective solu-tions. In fact, on that plane, problems like work-family conflict do not exist per se.

indian wisdom taught freedom from desire

FROM ACQUISITION TO APARIGRAHA

Market ethics dictate more and more ‘acquisi-tion’ and ‘possession’, and equate resourcefulness and empowerment with these. However, Indian philosophy laid emphasis on aparigraha, i.e., ab-stinence from possession. This also accounts for the faith of Indian philosophy in flow, rather than stock. Everything that is stopped from flowing, gets stale, be it money or knowledge. The principle of

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aparigraha is thus, actually the principle of flow, which sustains life. On the contrary, the overem-phasis on ‘productive work’ is directed towards possessing more and more. Once this principle of aparigraha is understood by individuals and the workplace, work-family conflict shall dissipate.Possessing less also implies simplification of living, where much lesser time is required for tasks asso-ciated with maintenance of possessions. This is of mighty significance as a lot of time of the women in traditional societies goes in household main-tenance activities. In a situation where both men and women wish to be engaged in higher realms of activity, mundane possessions have to be done away with in order to save time from being lapsed in mundane activities.

FROM WANTS TO NEEDS

Indian philosophy is deeply grounded in moral principles. The great Indian philosopher Gandhi said that there is enough in the world for every-one’s needs, but the whole world is not enough for one man’s greed. He considered one who con-sumes more than his/her needs as a thief. There is no end to desiring, and fulfillment of wants only multiplies them. Men, women and workplace; all have to understand this principle and make deci-sions in its backdrop. This is sure to provide effec-tive solution to work-family conflict. Why should I work and how much should I work shall be guided by such wisdom.

ABILITY TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MEANS AND ENDS

Material world has been considered to be the means for the realization of reality in the Indian philosophy. Hence material world is not the end by itself. Money and material possessions thus become the facilitator. However, the consumerist culture has made money and material possession, an end in itself. As observed earlier, thus, all con-cepts are defined in material terms. This gross fal-lacy is the genesis for all sorts of conflict.An example shall substantiate this contention. The positive aspect of technological advancement in the modern era is that “for the first time in human history, it is possible for man to be free from the necessities, and enter the domain of freedom. In-deed Marx could think of his whole man- a man

cultivating all the faculties of his being- only in the modern age. Because science is power, and tech-nology promises to rescue man from routinized and time-consuming manual labour” (Pathak, 2006, p 27). But instead of remaining a tool aiding the cultivation of the faculties of the being of man, technology is now becoming the end in itself. Re-sultantly, men and women have started loving the ‘comfort’ that technology brings, instead of the ‘freedom to cultivate one’s faculties’ that comes with it. Thus, the more modern we are, the more comfort-loving we become. In fact, it is also vice versa, modernity is now being judged by the de-gree of comfort (and thus the degree of technologi-cal usage) one has in his or her life. Thus, quality of life is equated with status of living which denotes the degree of material comforts and luxury one has. Increasing and rather seemingly irreversible dependence on technological advantage is ren-dering human existence at the mercy of technol-ogy, and hence the market. This situation is like “trapped in modernity”. In this sense, technology has rather gained an oppressive character and lost its liberating potential. It oppresses as in the sense that it causes excessive indulgence, makes us ter-ribly dependent on the ever-changing needs it cre-ates, and hence paralyzes many important human faculties (Pathak, 2006, p 43).

material world has been considered to be the means for the realization of reality in the indian philosophy

Freeing oneself from the consumerist conscious-ness and grounding in the aforementioned con-cepts has the potential to have profound influ-ences on the society as far as work-family conflict is concerned. At the first place, it shall prevent the ‘branding’ of some activities as inferior, e.g. housework, to others which are considered to be superior, like paid work. It thus saves women from a sense of inferiority, and prevents men to feel su-perior. This approach rather accords primary value to the emotional and spiritual realms of human en-deavour, areas to which women’s contribution has

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been far more greater than men’s. However, this does not imply perpetuation of gender role segre-gation. A recognition of non-market ‘work’ as sig-nificant can motivate more men to undertake ac-tivities in the household realm. This approach also saves men and women from becoming aggressive-ly and atomistically self-seeking, thereby limiting their involvement with paid work. Rewards shall no more be measured only in monetary/ material terms. Rather than seeking pleasure in aggressive rights-seeking, individuals may get an opportunity to taste the inner contentment that comes with due fulfilment of duties. Indian philosophy also teach-es ‘measures’ and proportions. The principles of self-restraint and discipline- sanyam and niyam, can profoundly influence human course of action. Mastery over one’s senses and freedom from the fetters of desire incorporates the golden rule for both men and women to rise above conflicts. Also, this philosophy has the potential to direct the soci-ety as well as the workplace to ‘move slowly’ so as to not to disrupt the melody of life. The resolving of the work-family conflict demands gross changes at the workplace. The workplace cannot change un-til it keeps on functioning within the consumerist paradigm. It at least needs to take some cue from the aforementioned concepts, in order to become more family responsive.Besides the grounding in Indian philosophy, some adaptations at the level of individuals, couples, so-ciety and the workplace seem imperative. They are discussed below.

ADAPTATIONS AT THE INDIVIDUAL/ COUPLE LEVEL

Changes at the level of the individual or the couple include changing ‘gendered perceptions’ of one’s familial and societal roles, scaling back, moving from the concept of ‘productive work’ to the con-cept of ‘karma’, and thus moving ahead of con-sumerism (pravritti marga) to the path of detached active functioning (nivritti marga).Care giving and home management are traditional-ly thought to be women’s work. Accordingly, girls are conditioned to play effective roles to carry out these responsibilities. However, with the changing scenario, the gendered perception of familial and societal roles needs to be changed. Care giving and home management shall be shared by both,

the female as well as male members of the fam-ily. There is an indispensable need of grooming up the contemporary generation of sons to prove effective care-givers and home- managers along with carrying out other potential tasks. Also, the daughters need to be equipped well to be able to shoulder multiple responsibilities. Also, they need to be freed of the belief that care-giving and home-management is solely their responsibility.Scaling back includes strategies that help reduce and restructure the couple’s commitment to paid work during life-course, and thereby buffer the family from work encroachments (Becker & Moen, 1999. Three separate scaling back strategies have been revealed in the study:• Placing limits• One job-one career marriage• Trading off : readjusting from a one job one ca-reer marriage to a two carrier marriage.

Care giving and home management are traditionally thought to be women’s work.

While a limit has to be placed on the work by both the man and the woman; in the case of the next two strategies, sex role ideology may dictate or at least partly influence the decisions made by couples regarding who will pursue job and who will pursue career and at what stages in the life- course. For a decision to be balanced, it should be free of both the alpha bias as well as the beta bias. Freedom from the alpha bias would prevent the decision from being governed by an overemphasis on the sex role ideology, which assumes separate spheres of work for men and women, and shall therefore, prompt decisions like ‘job for the wom-an and career for the man’, in case it fails to stop women from entering paid work. That the job ver-sus career strategy tended to be gendered, is borne out by the study conducted by Becker and Moen (1999), which found that in case of over two-thirds of the couples in their sample, the woman had the job and the man the career. Freedom from beta bias shall imply that women do not shrink back from adjustments when it is needed by virtue of

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being different from men, for example, if parent-hood is opted for, it is the woman who needs to scale back till the child is born and is in the initial stages of her life when she needs mother’s feed and proximity.In fact, the strategies used to make such adjust-ments can be renamed, as the term ‘scaling back’ seems to have some negative connotations at-tached to it. It is not regressive, as few may take it to be, rather, it is tantamount to drawing lines when and where necessary. Drawing lines is an important step in human decision making during the lifecourse. Lines have to be drawn not only in the case of career, but also in other significant ac-tivities like in case of decisions regarding limiting the number of children, reducing social commit-ments, setting limits to community work as well as leisure time etc. Measures and proportions are im-portant for human life. When, how, what and how much; all these questions need balanced answers for ensuring the overall well being of an individual life. Scaling back, far from being regressive, is just finding out the exact proportions.

ADAPTATIONS AT THE LEVEL OF THE FAMILY AND SOCIETY

For adaptations to be made at the level of the fam-ily, firstly, the identification of family as a constant has to change to a locus of strategic actions that may shift and change during the life-course. Famil-ial roles of different members need to be redefined while adopting a more gender neutral approach in the context of a changed familial structure and setting. In the new structure of the family, since every member would be carrying out multiple tasks and equitably shouldering multiple responsi-bilities, training for time management shall be im-parted to all the family members. More practical ways and means of home management based on a more focused approach towards the purpose of life will have to be adopted. Parasitism needs to be countered at the level of the family. In every fam-ily, there are some members who have very less or no sharing in the family duties, while there are others who are made to shoulder excess burden. In the Indian context, rest of the family members have been parasitic on the daughter-in-law. In fact, the romanticized version of the definition of duty defines it to be the duty of the woman (in roles

of mother, wife, daughter-in-law, etc.) to carry out mundane tasks for every other member of the family. Such a ridiculous division of labour has to change to give equitable space to every member of the family. Adaptations at the level of family need to be carried ahead at the level of the soci-ety at large. Also, the society needs to gain a spir-itual orientation moving away from the materialist, consumerist and market oriented approach of the present times.

ADAPTATIONS AT THE LEVEL OF GOVERN-MENTAL POLICIES

Some gender- friendly policies may be made man-datory like the provisions for child and elder care facilities close to the workplace, reduced number of work hours, maternity and parenting leaves etc. In fact, all the adaptations needed at the workplace (to be discussed subsequently) can be enforced by the governmental policy.

ADAPTATIONS AT THE WORKPLACE

The most significant part of adaptation is to be carried out at the workplace.

The most significant part of adaptation is to be car-ried out at the workplace. Various studies around the world have proposed that workplace can play an important role in assisting employees with the coordination of employment and family roles (Warren and Johnson, 1995; Bowen, 1988; Kamer-man and Kahn, 1987; Voydanoff, 1987; McCros-key, 1982). The present day workplace is predi-cated on the assumption that families with male bread winners and nonworking housewives con-stitute the predominant family form. As Gitanjali Prasad (2006) has commented in her recent work, “The workplace functions on what I call the Buy One Get One Free Syndrome”. She further says, “Five years of reflection helped me understand

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that the real source of work-family conflict lay not in the ‘ambitious career women abandoning her traditional responsibilities’, nor in the ‘chau-vinistic Indian male caught in a time warp’, but in the workplace which has not adapted enough to a new reality where every adult member of the family would be working”. If women also want to work, the expectations and conditions at the work-place will have to be shaped in a way that they allow every individual to look after both his or her professional commitment and personal respon-sibility. With both women and the men playing multiple roles, ‘we need to invent a new clock-work that keeps time for families as well as careers’ (Christ, 2004). The types of family needs addressed through workplace initiatives fall into three gener-al categories: (a) policies and benefits that reduce work hours to provide time for family caregiving through the provision of leave for vacation, illness, childbearing, and emergency child care or through reduction in average hours worked per week, (b) policies designed to give workers greater flexibility in the scheduling of work hours and the location of work hours, and (c) policies designed to pro-vide workplace social support for parents, includ-ing forms of child-care assistance (Glass & Estes, 1997).

Flexplace is broadly defined as giving employees varying degrees of control over where their work is done

The workplace needs to move from the ‘face time business culture’ to a ‘results-oriented business culture’, even if results to be measured in the form of profits are the sole motive towards which all business enterprises are directed. However, the workplace shall not incorporate adaptations until there is a certain degree of value orientation and a sense of social responsibility, while moving away from a total consumerist and market oriented ap-proach. It is to be noted here that ‘corporate social responsibility’ is a rather fashionable term these days. However, the social responsibility of the cor-

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porate world is not over with making charities or maintaining quality standards of products. Social responsibility of the corporate world lies more in stop misguiding the humanity towards a raw ma-terialist consciousness making them slaves of the market. The corporate world can play a more so-cially responsible role by being less aggressively profit-oriented and competitive, thereby also per-mitting some space for the workers’ emotional, so-cial and spiritual lives.It was found that the variable paid work hours was strongly and negatively correlated and perceived flexibility was strongly and positively correlated with work-family balance (Hill et al., 2001). Ex-cessive number of working hours may leave the employees as ‘money minting machines’. Flexibil-ity in the timing (flextime) and location of work (flexplace) are two characteristics that are repeat-edly seen as a way to achieve balance in work and family life in this challenging environment (Hill et.al., 2001; Christensen & Staines, 1990; Galin-sky, 1992; Galinsky & Johnson, 1998; Zedeck, 1992). Several studies indicate that the individual and family have a lot to gain from flexibility, the possible benefits including less marital conflict, better monitoring of children, increased period of breast feeding after the birth of an infant, less de-pression, and so forth (see Beatty, 1996; Bumpus et al., 1999; Crouter et al., 1999; Lindberg, 1996).Flextime is broadly defined as the ability to rear-range one’s work hours within certain guidelines offered by the company, directed towards a bet-ter balancing at the level of work-family interface. Flexplace is broadly defined as giving employees varying degrees of control over where their work is done. Flexplace includes telecommuting, which is the option for employees to work from another, fixed location, usually the home. It also includes virtual office, where employees are given portable means to do their job whenever and wherever it makes sense. The individual, the society and the workplace- all have much to gain from flexibility. Flexibility in family processes diminishes potential family stresses, while flexibility in work processes helps manage contemporary stresses situated at the work-family interface. Workplace social sup-port systems include on-site and near site child and elder care referral services, compressed work- weeks, meal-time flexibility, online and call-in parenting assistance, personal and parenting leave


policies, domestic partner benefits etc.To conclude, before we go ahead whole-heartedly towards revolutionizing the existing social order,all of us have lessons to learn and make adapta-tions- women, men, family, society and the work-place. Without these adaptations, the path ahead is sure to be fraught with difficulties, may be, even failures. Any change brought on the external plane, without a change on the internal plane, cannot be successful. Life has to be a melody and not a per-petual struggle with conflicting situations. Life can be that only when one refuses to struggle! This is not to negate the need for working towards positive change, but that there is an art in resisting. Women have to work towards change but in the process do not have to disrupt the rhythm of the melody of life. Love and non-violence are the ways and means towards a melodious and artful resistance. Both of these have no space for atomistic indi-vidualism and constant self-seeking, however. So, women have to work, but not to an extent where it amounts to neglect of children or the elderly or the diseased. There is no gender dimension to it. It stands the same for men too. Men and women are not machines. The emotional and spiritual lives have to be lived as much as the material, even if not more. So measures are important, and so cau-tion has to be exercised while making decisions. This is the only way to overcome all conflicts.If women are all set to transcend the limitations ex-ternal world has seemingly imposed on them, they have to transcend the limitations within too. They have to go inside themselves to search for the right direction and save themselves from any fallacies.

Love and non-violence are the ways and means towards a melodious and artful resistance

The only final solutions lie in redefining progress, value orientation, and adoption of the path to ‘truth’. The only answer lies in ‘spirituality’. As a young reader of spiritual literature, I once read Sri Aurobindo answering someone’s question that for all the questions and problems of the world, there

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“is only one answer, and that is spirituality. I could not understand it then. I have started coming to that conclusion now.

REFERENCES:

1. Beatty, C.A., ‘The stress of managerial and professional women: Is the price too high?’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 17, 1996, pp 231-251.

2. Becker, P.E. and Moen, Phyllis, ‘Scaling Back: Dual-Earner Couples’ Work-Family Strategies’ in Journal of Marriage and the Family, No. 6, November, 1999, pp 995-1006.

3. Belsky J., ‘Parental and nonparental childcare and children’s socioemotional development: a decade in review’, Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 52, 1990, pp 885-903.

4. Bennett, Oliver, Cultural Pessimism: Narra-tives of Decline in the Postmodern world, Ed-inburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2001.

5. Bowen, G.L., ‘Corporate Supports for the fam-ily lives of employees: A conceptual model for program planning and evaluation’, Family Re-altions, Vol. 37, 1988, pp 183-188.

6. Bromet E.J., Dew M.A. and Parkinson D.K., ‘Spillover between Work and Family’, in Eck-enrode & S. Gore (eds.), Stress between work and Family, Plenum Press, New York, 1990, pp 131-151.

7. Bumpus, M.F., Crouter, A.C., & McHale, S.M., ‘Work demands of dual- earner couples: Im-plications for parents’ knowledge about chil-dren’s daily lives in middle childhood’, Jour-nal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 61, pp 465-475.

8. Burke, R.J., Weir, T., & Duwors, R.E., ‘Type A behavior of administrators and wives’ reports of marital satisfaction and well-being’, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 64, 1979, pp 57-65.

9. Burke, R.J., Weir, T., & Duwors, R.E., ‘Per-ceived Type A behavior of husbands and wives’ satisfaction and well-being’, Journal of Occupational Behavior, Vol. 1, 1980 (a), pp 139-150.

10. Burke, R.j., & Greenglass, E., ‘Work and Fam-ily’, in C.L. Cooper & I.T. Robertson (eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organi-zational Psychology, Wiley, New York, 1987,


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pp 273-320.11. Christ, Carol T., Inside the Clockwork of

Women’s Careers, Speech to EPWN-Paris lunch, July 21, 2004.

12. Christensen, K.E. & Staines, G.L., ‘Flextime: A viable solution to work- family conflict?’ in Journal of Family Issues, No. 11, 1990, pp 455- 476.

13. Crouter, A.C., Helms-Erikson, H., Updegraff, K., & McHale, S.M., ‘Conditions underlying parents’ knowledge about children’s daily lives in middle childhood: Between and With-in-family comparisons’, Child Development, Vol. 70, 1999, pp 246-259.

14. Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M., Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour, Plenum, New York, 1985.

15. Edwards, Jeffrey R., & Rothbard, Naney P., ‘Mechanisms Linking Work and Family: Clari-fying the Relationship between Work and Family Constructs’, The Academy of Manage-ment Review, Vol. 25, No. 1 (Jan., 2000), pp 178-199.

16. Galinsky, E., Work and Family 1992: Status Report and Outlook’, Families and Works In-stitute, New York, 1992.

17. Galinsky, E., & Johnson, A.A.; Reframing the business case for worklife initiatives; Families and Works Institute, New York, 1998.

18. Glass Jennifer L. and Estes Sarah Beth, ‘The Family Responsive Workplace’, Annual Re-view of Sociology, Vol. 23 (1997), pp 289-313.

19. Greenhaus, J.H., and Beutell, Nicholas J., ‚Sources of conflict between Work and family Roles’, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan., 1985), pp 76-88.

20. Hare-Mustin, Rachel T., ‘Family Change and Gender Differences: Implications for Theory and Practice’, Family Relations, Vol. 37, No. 1 (Jan., 1988), pp 36-41.

21. Hill E.J., Hawkins A.J., Ferris Maria and Weitz-mann Michelle, ‘Finding an Extra Day a Week: The Positive Influence of Perceived Job Flex-ibility on Work and Family Life Balance’, Fam-ily Relations, Vol. 50, No. 1, 2001, pp 49-58.

22. Hughes D., Galinsky E., Morris A., ‘The effects of job characteristics on marital quality: speci-fying linking mechanisms’, Journal of marriage and Family, Vol. 54, 1992, pp 31-42.

23. Kabanoff, B., ‘Work and nonwork: a review of models, methods and findings’, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 88, 1980, pp 60-77.

24. Kahn, R.L., Wolfe, D.M., Quinn, R., Snoek, J.D., and Rosenthal, R.A., Organizational Stress, Wiley, new York, 1964.

25. Kamerman, S.B., & Kahn, A.J., The Responsive Workplace, Columbia University Press, New York, 1987.

26. Kelly R.F. and Voydanoff P., ‘Work/family role strain among employed parents’, Family Rela-tions, Vol. 34, No. 3, July,1985, pp 367-373.

27. Korman, A.K., Wittig-Breman, U., & Lang, D., ‘Career success and personal failure: Aliena-tion in Professionals and Managers’, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 24, 1981, pp 342-360.

28. ‘Women’s Decade: Mahila Morcha Response’ in Dashak ke Jharokhe Mein, Mahila Morcha, New Delhi, 1991, pp ?

29. Lindberg, L.D., ‘Women’s decisions about breastfeeding and maternal employment’, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 58, 1996, pp 239-251.

30. Locke, E.A., & Lantham, G.P., A theory of goal setting and task performance, Englewood Cliffs, NJ-Prentice Hall, 1990.

31. McCroskey, J., ‘Work and families: What is the employer’s responsibility?’, Personnel Journal, Vol. 61, pp 31-38.

32. Mckenna, Elizabeth Perle, Women, Work and Identity, Delacorte, U.S.

33. Parcel TL, Menagham EG, Parents’ Jobs and Children’s Lives, Aldine De Gruyter, New York, 1994.

34. Pathak, Avijit, Modernity, Globalization and Identity: Towards a Reflexive Quest, Aakar Books, Delhi, 2006.

35. Piotrkowski, C.S., Rapoport, R.N., & Rapoport, R., ‘Families and Work’, in M. Sussman & S. Steinmatz (eds.), Handbook of marriage and the Family, Plenum, New York, 1987, pp 251-283.

36. Prasad, Gitanjali, The Great Indian Family: New Roles, Old Responsibities, Penguin, In-dia, 2006.

37. Rajadhyaksha, Ujvala and Smita, Swati, ‘Trac-ing a Timeline for Work and Family Research in India’ in EPW, April 24, 2004, pp 1674-1680.


38. Voydanoff, P., Work and Family Life, Sage, Newbury Park, CA, 1987.

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40. 1995), pp 163-169. Werbel, J.D., ‘Work and Physical Health’, in A.K. Korman (chair), Man-agement Alienation, Symposium conducted at

the annual meeting of the Eastern Academy of Management, New York, 1978.

41. Zedeck S., Work, families, and organisations, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1992.


083

RELIGION, CULTURE AND

ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN INDIA

David B. Audretsch, Nancy S. Meyer

Key Words

Religious beliefs, Entrepreneurship, Caste System, Hin-duism.

Abstract Scholars have long speculated that religious beliefs and practices significantly influence the economic behavior of societies. How-ever, statistical analysis had not been applied to empirically establish the relationship until recently. New research in India analyzes the effects of religion and culture on an individu-al’s choice to engage in entrepreneurial activi-ties. Hinduism and its lingering caste system seems to engender a focus on casual labor for individuals under its religious influence, while Muslim and Christian populations are more likely to start their own small enterprises. These findings indicate the need for innova-tive social programs and policies to mitigate the effects of religious perceptions in order to foster entrepreneur-led economic growth.

LINKING BELIEFS TO ECONOMICS

A person’s decision to engage in entrepreneurial activities can be attributed to a broad spectrum of individual-specific characteristics, ranging from risk aversion, to personality attributes,

education and human capital, and unemployment. Reli-gious beliefs are usually not linked to economic activities such as entrepreneurship; however, scholars dating back to Adam Smith and Max Weber assert that religion plays a fundamental role in shaping economics. It has been argued that values and attitudes are as much a part of the economy as its institutions and policies. As a home to a number of influential religions, India pro-vides an interesting context in which to evaluate the re-

The first author is a distinguished professor of public and environmental affairs and chair of economic

development, Indiana University. The second author is MPA Candidate 2009 School of Public and Envi-

ronmental Affairs, Indiana University.

“ “ Scholars have long speculated that religious beliefs and practices significantly influence the economic behavior of societies


lationship between religious culture and econom-ic behaviors. The main religions of India include Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism. Compared to the other main religions of India, Hinduism provides little encouragement to change one’s situation in terms of material well-being. According to Hinduism, the purpose of life is to attain liberation and freedom from re-birth and the chain of cause and effect, which means living to understand reality and not for the pursuit of material things. It is also important to note that Buddhism and Sikhism have historical links to Hin-duism, and therefore have similar belief systems. The Varna or the caste system is another aspect of Hindu culture that shapes individuals’ values and beliefs. According to ancient scripture, Hin-dus were classified into four major castes—Brah-mins were the intelligentsia and spiritual leaders of the community, Kshatriyas were kings and no-blemen, Vyshyas were traders and businessmen, and Shudras encompassed all other IPAA 2009 In-ternational Public Affairs Conference occupations. Initially, a person’s occupation determined their caste, and then this caste affiliation was passed on to future generations. Thus, the Varna system be-came a major influence on occupational choice among Hindus for centuries to follow. Although the caste system was formally abolished by law in 1950, perceptions of the caste system still exist at a cultural level and continue to influence occupa-tional choice.

IMPEDIMENTS TO ECONOMIC GROWTH

Societies strive to help people move forward by promoting opportunities for economic and com-munity development; however, cultural norms can present barriers to these goals. Current research links entrepreneurial activities of people in India to their religious and social affiliations. The re-sults of recent research indicate that the culture of India’s caste system combined with the religious tenants of Hinduism may discourage individual economic behavior, specifically in their decision to engage in entrepreneurial pursuits. While it is not this brief’s focus to address whether India or any other country should have more or less en-trepreneurialism, many scholars assert that entre-preneurial activity is central to economic growth in the modern economy. Therefore, the impor-

tance of understanding the relationship between religion and an individual’s economic decision-making process helps societies unveil poten-tial opportunities for growth and development.

Although Indian law no longer enforces the Varna System of caste stratification, its influence remains prevalent in the consciousness of modern Hindus. This influence is the strongest over the “backward classes,” who are typically less educated and more inclined to maintaining traditional cultural norms. The caste system belief that only Vyshyas (the merchant class of the caste system) are suited and intended to engage in business appears to cause statistically significant numbers of Hindus in low-er classes to avoid entrepreneurial pursuits. Such thinking may also be rooted in the Hindu concept that an individual should do his duty as dictated by the scriptures and should not forsake spiritual liberation to focus on material pursuits.

alternatively, religions such as islam and Christianity emphasize a spiritual redemption that is attainable while leaving room for worldly affairs.

Alternatively, religions such as Islam and Christi-anity emphasize a spiritual redemption that is at-tainable while leaving room for worldly affairs. Those religions that foster individual responsibility and activism beyond their spiritual foundations are said to have “transformative potential” and tend to encourage social openness and flexibility. It is thought that religions with greater transformative potential tend to facilitate entrepreneurial behav-ior, while religions with less transformative poten-tial such as Hinduism do not.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

A large-scale data set of nearly ninety thousand workers was used to conduct an empirical anal-ysis in 2007 on the effects of religion and caste membership on entrepreneurship. The results of

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the analysis reveal that Hinduism, as well as be-longing to a lower caste, negatively influences an individual’s decision to become an entrepreneur. This research suggests that Hindus in India are 8.6 percent less likely to be self-employed compared to individuals of other IPAA 2009 International Public Affairs Conference religions, while individ-uals of backward classes are also less likely to be entrepreneurs. Muslims are 7.9 percent, Christians 2.9 percent, and Jains 27 percent more likely to be self-employed than Hindus. Individuals of other minor religions and those without religion are 13.4 percent more likely to be entrepreneurs compared to Hindus. Buddhism and Sikhism have historical links to Hinduism, and study reveals similar effects

for all three religions (see Figure 1).

In a comparison of both caste and religious affilia-tion, findings suggest that individuals who are both Hindu as well as a member of a backward class are less likely to be self-employed; those who af-filiate themselves with the Scheduled Caste are 14 percent less likely to be self-employed, and those affiliated with the Scheduled Tribe are 19 percent less likely to pursue entrepreneurial interests (see Figure 2). The findings of this study suggest that class structures are binding regardless of political enforcement and influence occupational choice, particularly with respect to becoming an entrepre-neur.

Figure :1

ENTREPRENEURSHIP & RELIGION

ENTREPRENEURSHIP & CASTE SYSTEM IN HINDUISM

Figure : 2


Note: Individuals of backward classes belong to one of the three categories: Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Class-es (OB).

CONTEMPORARY EFFECTS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

While the caste system was abolished in 1950, its effects on people’s perceptions in India persist. The typical path of a “backwards class” individual en-tering the workforce is often an under considered drift towards casual labor employment. This path is reinforced by religious influences and attitudes about the appropriate livelihood for specific class-es of people. The effects of these attitudes are more pronounced for the less educated underclass. A son of a modern Brahmin family is less constrained from entrepreneurship by expectations of becom-ing a spiritual leader, while a son of a Dalit family is more likely to follow religious tradition into a life of labor as an employee. A broad range of fac-tors creates this social conditioning, but research shows that a person’s religious understanding is a significant factor in the decision to become an en-trepreneur.

FOSTERING AN ENVIRONMENT OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITY

In the current fast-paced, knowledge-based econ-omy, India and other developing countries cannot afford to have social structures impeding their po-tential for growth and development. While Hindu-ism’s emphasis on higher concerns is admirable and likely has many positive social consequences, its effect on people’s propensity for entrepreneuri-alism should be considered. If Indian policymakers decide that encouraging entrepreneurialism is an important social goal, they should examine the ef-fects of religion demonstrated here and determine contextually appropriate responses to address those effects. While it is not feasible to diminish the influence of Hinduism in Indian society, it may be possible to implement policies and programs that can counteract the specific effects it may have on economic decision-making. Policy tools can be used to create an environment of equal opportunity for all citizens. Such strate-gies may include policies that encourage small

enterprise development in “backwards classes” through a targeted approach to education and training. The Hindu philosophy of living a life of spiritual progress is not inherently opposed to liv-ing as a self-employed person. Societies seeking to encourage entrepreneur-driven growth should acknowledge the possibility that segments of their population may be hobbled by cultural and reli-gious constraints. In response, it is up to policy-makers to generate innovative social programs to mitigate those effects and foster economic growth.

in the current fast-paced, knowledge-based economy, india and other developing countries cannot afford to have social structures impeding their potential for growth and development.

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087

SPIRITUAL SCRIPTURES IMPACT

ON SIX ETHICAL MODELS

INFLUENCING ORGANIZATIONAL

PRACTICES

Waymond Rodgers Susana Gago

Key Words

Decision-making, Ethics, Religion

Abstract Moral issues greet the business community constantly, confronting us with problems on handling accounting rules that can determine a company’s future. We are bombarded with news regarding fraudulent activities in compa-nies that mishandled accounting rules leading to undermining the confidence of customers, employees, suppliers, shareholders and the community. Dealing with ethical issues is of-ten perplexing and without the benefits of a decision making model underlined by ethi-cal positions we may be apt to repeat our old ways. Further, value and belief systems are often times absent and not connected to a de-cision making model in a useful manner. We argue for a modification of decision-making models that has been accepted in companies with stronger links with ethics and morality. With this aim we propose a return to the base values of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam by scriptures, underlying six dominant ethical approaches that drive practices in organizations.

INTRODUCTION

Now, with recent revelations of quite a few companies’ fraudulent activities, it has be-come obvious there was an appalling amount going on beneath the surface. Corporate gov-

ernance and ethical decision making has quickly be-

The first author is professor at Anderson Graduate School of Management. University of California, Riverside, he

may be reached at [email protected].

The second author is professor at Social and Law Sci-ences School. University Carlos III of Madrid and Univer-

sity of Santiago de Compostela. She may be reached at [email protected].

“ “Now, with recent revelations of quite a few companies’ fraudulent activities, it has become obvious there was an appalling amount going on beneath the surface.


come a number one topic in management circles around the world. A Throughput Model (Rodgers, 1997) is proposed in this paper to help explain de-cision makers’ different processing phases as well as influencing their ethical based choices. The Throughput Model depicts an individual’s percep-tion (problem framing and biases), information (available to the individual), judgment (analysis), and decision choice. This modeling approach is instrumental in stressing the influence of ethical behavior in the model dominant pathways to a decision (Brass, Butterfield, & Skaggs, 1998; Don-aldson, 2003; Jones, 1991; Kahn, 1990). For each pathway to a decision, an ethical position will strongly influence which pathway is taken. The four dominant concepts in the model are: (1) Per-ception (P), (2) Information Gathering (I), (3) Ana-lyzes of Information and Processing (i.e., judgment - J), and (4) Decision Choices (D) (Hogarth, 1987; Simon, 1957).

Based on Figure 1, we can establish six general pathways:

P→D (1)P→J→D (2)I→P→D (3)I→J→D (4)P→I→J→D (5)I→P→J→D (6)

Six ethical positions are presented in this paper as the drivers for these pathways in the model (rodgers & Gago, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2006).

Six ethical positions are presented in this paper as the drivers for these pathways in the model (Rodg-ers & Gago, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2006). These six ethical positions of ethical egoism, deontology,

“ “utilitarianism, relativism, virtue ethics, and ethics of care are traced to scriptures from Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam for clarity and support. That is, spiritual scriptures help illustrate the importance and/or pitfalls of ethical positions on corporate behavior (Rodgers & Gago, 2006). Weaver & Agle (2002) advocated that in-dividuals internalized religion. That is, religious self-identity influences their ethical behaviors. Al-though, the above-mentioned religions have vari-ous differences, we center on the aspects related to ethical decision making (refer to Ridenour [1984] for a more detailed examination of the similari-ties and differences among the religions). In short, Buddhism offered four main principles, which have come to be called the Four Noble Truths: (1) suffering universal, (2) the cause of suffering is craving (selfish desire), (3) the cure for suffering is to overcome ignorance and eliminate craving, and (4) suppress craving by following right: living, viewpoint, aspiration, speech, behavior, occupa-tion, effort, mindfulness, and meditation (Berkwitz, 2001; Buddhist Churches of America, 1967). The backbone of Christianity is Christ. That is, who He is and what He did for us, mankind’s sin nature, and the truth and reliability of the Bible— divine inspiration of Scripture (Bible, 2002). There are two core beliefs of Hinduism1 (Yamamoto, 1998): reincarnation and karma. Reincarnation is the belief Hinduism is not a religion under Western standards about what a religion should be. It con-sists of pluralist groups of monotheistic, dualistic, and polytheistic religions. Sweetman (2001) ad-vocated that “In recent scholarship on Indian reli-gions there has emerged a consensus on the inad-equacy of the concept ‘Hinduism’. ‘Hinduism’ is assumed by contemporary scholars to be a West-ern concept, one not found among that the atman, an individual’s eternal soul must continuously be recycled into the world in different bodies. Karma (action) relates to the law of cause and effect, or in other words ethical or unethical considerations. The history of the Jewish nation is contained in the Old Testament, which is the only Scriptures recognized by the Jewish people. Of specific sig-nificance is the Torah—the Law contained in the first five books of the Old Testament (Bible, 2002). Islam is a religion of self-reliance and self effort. Followers put their salvation squarely on their own shoulders (or on kismet), attempting to do their


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best and hoping that Allah might have mercy on them (Qur’an, 1413).

This paper is organized by describing the Through-put Model, with supporting organizational exam-ples. Second, we link this model with six ethical positions with the Throughput Model. Third, we provide a nexus with ethics, spiritual scriptures and the Throughput Model. Finally, a summary of the benefits of our approach on organizations is discussed.

THEORETICAL MODEL

The Throughput Model is helpful in uncovering pathways that individuals use before arriving at a decision. The Throughput Model is useful in deter-mining the steps and strategies that decision mak-ers emphasize before they make a decision choice. Those who are supposed to adhere to the religion it designates, which religion in fact does not exist, or at least did not exist prior to its invention by Eu-ropean scholars.” The six dominant pathways that influence decisions are buffered by ethical posi-tions. Each of the ethical positions provides alter-native ways of categorizing and classifying a prob-lem, thereby allowing certain types of information to be analyzed and implemented. The four major concepts of perception, information, judgment and decision choice in the Throughput Model are discussed next.

FIRST CONCEPT: PERCEPTION

This first processing stage (see Figure 1) involves the categorization and classification (or framing) of the decision environment. This means relying on training, education, and experience and heuristic

deviations to the decision environment. The dou-ble-ended arrow in Figure 1 represents the inter-dependency between perception and information. Further, the coherence between perception and information is paramount in pinpointing heuristics or biases resulting in subjective judgments and/or decisions. That is, previous research (Rodgers 1991) suggests that a decision maker’s lack of co-herence between perception and information pro-duces various cognitive shortcuts (i.e., heuristics) that may result in efficiencies or biases in the deci-sion making process.. Information-processing limi-tations, complexity, and lack of discernment are at least three reasons why this may happen (Kleindor-fer, Kunreuther & Schoemaker, 1993). First, infor-mation-processing limitations occur since decision makers may be confronted with information over-load. Second, complexity may occur as a result of how the problem is presented and the nature of the task. Third, a lack of discernment how to use the information may occur (Rodgers,1997).

Further, the coherence between perception and information is paramount in pinpointing heuristics or biases resulting in subjective judgments and or decisions.

SECOND CONCEPT: INFORMATION

Individuals and organizations rely upon financial and non-financial information sources. Financial information pertains to the liquidity, profitabil-ity and risk features of an operation or company. Non-financial information can be grouped as eco-nomic and managerial information. Economic information relates to events outside the control of management. These events generally include changes in government policies, purchasing hab-its of customers, union contracts, emerging tech-nologies, etc. Management information deals with

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how management and their assistants are fulfilling the company’s overall objectives and goals. For example, performance rewards covers appropri-ate objectives to monitor both organizational and employee performance, and how to put systems in place to provide the information to monitor these objectives. Without reliable and relevant informa-tion, however, it is inappropriate to have objectives without some way of checking whether they have been achieved. Relevant and reliable information need to be in place in order to determine whether the objectives have, or have not, been met. Infor-mation in its presented form is highly depended upon the context in which it is used. For exam-ple, audited financial statements requires much more detail in order to be reported to investors and creditors than for information used in planning and controlling the operations for managers.

THIRD CONCEPT: JUDGMENT

A significant element of the judgment concept is the application of knowledge structures, which is referred to as schemata. Rumelhart & Ortony (1977) advocated that schemata are generalized concepts underlying what is stored in memory. This stage is where information is analyzed and weighted in order to compare alternatives or the criteria across the alternatives. The decision maker employs explorative and exploitative precepts to assess the cause of the problem. Deductive as well as inductive reasoning are required for effective assessment, and direct information gathering as portrayed by the direct arrow leading from infor-mation to judgment in Figure1. The judgment con-cept also includes the development of alternative explanations or courses of action. Decision makers can retrieve from their knowledge structures ideas and suggestions; examine concepts and essential information while employing their capability and creativity. The evaluation of alternatives may be based upon a single principle, methodology, or an aggregation of objective criteria or methodolo-gies such as compensatory or non compensatory weighting schemes (Rodgers, 1991).

FOURTH CONCEPT: DECISION CHOICE

The fourth concept includes the selection of the best alternative solution or course of action (see decision choice in Figure 1). During this stage,

decision makers execute their abilities to ensure that a decision is carried out according to plans. Moreover, Yates (1990) suggested three types of decisions: choices, evaluations, and constructions. A choice scenario is where an individual is faced with a well-defined set of alternatives, and the typ-ical task is to choose one of them. For example, based on several different organizations’ profit re-cord, an investment analyst can decide on which company to include in a portfolio. Next, evalua-tions indicate value of decision makers’ alterna-tives. An Art Dealer values and ranks paintings based on a set of criteria. Finally, constructions are choices whereby a decision maker attempts to put together the most satisfactory alternative possible. A company may purchase inventory based on sup-pliers’ record of being environmentally friendly.

SIX ETHICAL POSITIONS TIED TO THE THROUGHPUT MODEL

it is important to realize that everyone has a particular ethical viewpoint whether or not an individual can recognize or explicitly state it.

It is important to realize that everyone has a par-ticular ethical viewpoint whether or not an indi-vidual can recognize or explicitly state it. Further, even though one may not think about his or her ethical viewpoint when making decisions, it influ-ences thoughts, feelings and actions (Rodgers & Gago, 2001). There are many ethical philosophies, which are complex in nature. This paper refers to scriptures from Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam that relate to ethical positions. The following represents an integration of the six prominent ethical approaches depicted in the Throughput Model six general pathways.P→DThis pathway represents an ethical egoism posi-

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tion, which dictates that decision makers should do what is best for them (Regis, 1980; Pojman, 2002). Hobbes’ view (1660) claimed that human nature is depicted by selfishness and that human behavior is primarily driven by self-interest.P→j→DThis particular pathway depicts the deontology po-sition that asserts the rights of individuals and on the judgments connected with a certain pathway rather than on its choices. Kantian’s view (1787, 2002) connotes practical reasoning in forming ab-solute moral rules, which follows the principles of reversibility and universality. Rawl’s theory of jus-tice (1971) is related to the just allocation of lim-ited societal resources.I→J→DThis pathway represents the utilitarian position that is concerned with outcomes, as well as the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Adam Smith (1776) argued that every individual is constantly exerting himself or herself to find out the most advantageous employment for whatever capital he or she can command. Hence, this leads an individual to prefer that employment which provides the most advantage to society.I→P→DThis pathway accents the relativist position that in-fers that individuals use themselves or the people around them as their basis for ascertaining ethical standards. That is, this standpoint permits indi-viduals to change their moral beliefs based on the situation. In Chapter 18 of The Prince, Machiavelli (1513) provides reasons that the prince should know how to be deceitful when it suits his pur-pose.P→I→J→DThis particular pathway stresses the virtue ethics position that is the classical Hellenistic tradition represented by Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC), and Plato (427 BC - 347 BC), whereby the cultivation of noble traits of character (outwardly) is perceived as morality primary function.I→P→J→DThis pathway exemplifies the ethics of care posi-tion that focuses on a set of character traits that are deeply highly regarded in close personal re-lationships, such as sympathy, compassion, fidel-ity, love, friendship, and the like. Each of these six pathways is viewed as the most commanding and significant for decision making motivated by

a particular moral position. Other pathways in the Throughput Model may also contribute to the above philosophical positions. Our reasoning, however, is that the corresponding pathway to each particular philosophical view is the most dominant (Rodgers & Gago, 2001). One simplifying point to make regarding the interaction between perception and information is that the pathway shown as P→I is a continuous forward and backward path (see Figure 1).

Moreover, this pathway suggests that perception dominates information. Hence, when the path di-rection is P→I, it is implied that P dominates I in an individual’s actions toward reaching a decision. However, when the direction of the arrow is re-versed: P←I, it denotes that I dominates P and an individual’s primary method of decision making is via information (Rodgers, 1997).

SPIRITUAL SCRIPTURES UNDERLYING THROUGHPUT MODEL

Psychological egoism is a subset of the teleological theories of ethics, sometimes called consequentialist theories

In pathway (1) P→D indicates that all information from I is ignored and a decision is made with-out any detailed analysis (judgment). Lipshitz & Strauss (1997) recommended that there are three fundamental issues encompassing data sources, namely those reflecting incomplete information, inadequate understanding, and undifferentiated alternatives. These fundamental issues may mini-mize an individual use of information during the first stage of processing. Psychological egoism is a subset of the teleological theories of ethics, some-times called consequentialist theories. These theo-ries claim that the moral value of an action or prac-tice is resolved exclusively by the consequences of

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the action or practice. Moreover, the use or misuse of accounting and organizational rules (i.e., greed) may justify egoist decisions in the business world. Such egoist decisions may Rodgers (1997) per-formed a covariance structural analysis with latent variables, based on a quasi experimental design of loan officers’ and auditors’ decision processes in order to derive covariance between perception, information, judgment, and decision. The survey results indicated that the coefficients represent the influence from one variable to another. Boarder along illegality and fraud, thus violating account-ing and organizational rules. For example in The Tipitaka, Sacred Texts of Budda (566BC-486BC), Prince Siddhartha, married with Yasodhara, had palaces and a luxury life.

the yoga of renunciation is also a critic of the egoism

Out of the palace he saw sickness, old age and death (perception). He felt that his initial position was egotistical. He suffered for that and his search for a spiritual path was born out of that suffering. Figure 2 assumes that the decision maker choice is driven by his/her predispositions or framing of the problem. Problems arise placing low weights on information, and relying primarily on the percep-tion phase, for example in the Bible, Roman 13 focuses on this position by remarking that [9] Let love be without dissimulation. Abhor that which is evil; cleave to that which is good (Bible, 2002). In the Qur’an it states “And the firmament He has raised high, and He has set up the Balance (of Jus-tice) in order that you may not transgress (due) bal-ance. So establish with justice and fall not short in the balance (Qur’an 55:7-9). Finally, The Yoga of renunciation is also a critic of the egoism. That is, individuals must not act (D) guided by the fruits of their actions (P), however, they must concentrate on their actions. “The Holy One said--’Both aban-donment of actions and application to actions lead

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to emancipation. But of these, application to ac-tion is superior to abandonment. He should always be known to be an ascetic who hath no aversion nor desire. For, being free from pairs of opposites, O thou of mighty arms, he is easily released from the bonds (of action)” (Ganguli, 1896).

P→J→D (Figure 3) depicts the deontology position that underscores the rights of individuals. This posi-tion scrutinizes the judgmental effects on decision choices. In Figure 3, a decision maker patterns his or her perception without the use of any informa-tion, weighs the conceivable consequences before making any judgment and then reasons with a de-cision. A fundamental assumption to this position is that equal respect must be given to all individu-als. For example, Hinduism is under a set of rules (Dharma sutras) that guides (P) how judgments (J) must be done regarding actions. Thus, “A man elated (with success) becomes proud, a proud man transgresses the law, but through the transgres-sion of the law hell indeed (becomes his portion)” (Buhler, 1879). Therefore, the judgment stage im-plement decision rules that help guide individuals to a decision. Apart from egotists and utilitarians, deontologists advocate that there are certain things that we should not engage in, even to maximize utility. Deontologists also regard the characteris-tics of moral principles as permanent and stable, and that agreement with these principles defines ethicalness. Likewise, they give credence to that individuals have certain ideal rights, which in-clude: (1) Freedom of conscience, (2) freedom of consent, (3) freedom of privacy, (4) freedom of speech, and (5) due process (Cavanaugh, Moberg & Velasquez, 1981). God renders a set of rules for making judgments related to a moral decision


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making. The Lord rewards the behaviors accord-ing to His rules. For example, in the Bible, Roman 3 provides an example of individual rights: [19] Now we know that what things so ever the law saith, it saith to them who are under the law: that every mouth may be stopped, and all the world may become guilty before God. [20] Therefore by the deeds of the law there shall no flesh be justi-fied in his sight: for by the law is the knowledge of sin. In the Qur’an the concept of rules and justice are clear: And whenever you talk be just, even if a near relative is concerned (6:152). Finally, in his sermon known as Kalama Sutta, the Buddha sus-tained that deontology is not sufficient and may be the wrong pathway. To establish judgments (one’s beliefs) merely on hearsay, on tradition, because many others say it is so, on the authority of ancient scriptures, on the word of a supernatural being, or out of trust in one’s teachers, elders, or priests is not the best way for making decisions (The Tipi-taka, 566BC-486BC).

I→J→D (Figure 4) pathway resonates the utilitar-ian position, which is similar to ethical egoism in that it is concerned with outcomes, as well as the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Utilitarianism is usually traced to Jeremy Bentham (1789) who sought an impartial basis for making value judgments that would provide a common and publicly agreeable standard for determining social policy and social legislation (Velasquez, 1998). This position is delegated to the maximi-zation of the good and the minimization of harm and evil. In addition, this position advances that society should always produce the greatest pos-sible positive value or the minimum disvalue for all individuals affected. For example, The Tipita-

ka, Sacred Texts of Budda (566BC-486BC) states, “Then Anathapindika the householder went to the Blessed One and, on arrival, having bowed down to him, sat to one side. As he was sitting there the Blessed One said to him: “There are these five ben-efits that can be obtained from wealth. Which five? “Furthermore, the disciple of the noble ones -- us-ing the wealth earned through his efforts & enter-prise, amassed through the strength of his arm, and piled up through the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained -- provides his friends and associates with pleasure and satisfaction, and maintains that pleasure rightly. This is the second benefit that can be obtained from wealth.” In other words, the judgment (J) regarding wealth gained by effort and enterprise (I) is based upon their benefits on community (D).

accordingly, the utilitarian principle infers that the aggregation of benefits generated by an action can be measured and added and the aggregations of harm can be measured and subtracted.

Accordingly, the utilitarian principle infers that the aggregation of benefits generated by an action can be measured and added and the aggregations of harm can be measured and subtracted. That is, this method determines which action brings about the greatest total benefits or the lowest total costs. Mill (1863) is aligned with the new version of utilitari-anism (i.e., rule-utilitarianism) that serves the mor-al values of duty rights. That is, utility-maximizing principle is not directly applied to the action itself, but is only applied to an abstract rule that is to govern moral judgments as follows:1. An action is moral if it follows morally correct rules, and2. A rule is considered morally correct if the net utility produced when everyone acts on that rule is greater than the net utility produced when every-

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one acts on any other alternative rule.

Scriptures provide examples of resources benefiting the community. For example, in the Bible, James 3 states [17] But the wisdom that is from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, and easy to be entreated, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality, and without hypocrisy. In the Qur’an it states: Stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even as against yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it be (against) rich or poor (4:135). Finally, in Hinduism, there are four princi-ples that govern human lives: dharma (sacred du-ties and rules), artha (wealth, profit, and political power); kama (love, sensuality); moksa (release, liberation). Artha is subordinated to dharma. Grif-fith’s (1896) translation of HYMN VII. Agni, The Rig Veda states: “Agni, be thou our Guardian and Protector bestow upon us life and vital vigour. Ac-cept, O Mighty One, the gifts we offer, and with unceasing care protect our bodies.”

I→P→D (Figure 5) emphasizes the relativist po-sition, which deduces that individuals use them-selves or the people around them as their basis for defining ethical standards. An individual observes the behavior of members of some relevant group and attempt to determine the group consensus on a given behavior. Caste systems are an illustration of relativism. Depending on the caste (I), individu-als are perceived (P) as distinct in rights and du-ties. For example, in Hinduism it states: “in order to clearly settle his duties those of the other (castes) according to their order, wise Manu sprung from the Self-existent, composed these Institutes (of the sacred Law)” (Buhler, 1886). Relativism acknowl-edges that individuals live in a society in which

they have diverse views and positions from which to justify decisions as right or wrong. Accordingly, ethical relativists affirm that all ethical beliefs and values are relative to one own culture, feelings, or religion. For example, non-disclosure of contin-gent liability information (e.g., guaranteeing an-other company’s borrowed funds) could deceive investors and creditors regarding the company’s total debt.

through contact thought is born from sensation, and is reborn by a reproduction of its form. Starting from the simplest forms

In the Bible relativism exists only for preferential treatment for exalting those where honor is due. However, partiality due to one’s standing is not supported. For example, James 2 states the fol-lowing pertaining to relativism: [3] And ye have respect to him that weareth the gay clothing, and say unto him, Sit thou here in a good place; and say to the poor, Stand thou there, or sit here under my footstool. Also, the Qur’an advocates non-rel-ativistic behavior: that ye should remain steadfast in religion, and make no divisions therein (42:13). And they became divided only after knowledge reached them, ---being insolent to one another (42:14). Finally, in Buddhism, non-relativistic behavior is not recognized due to the changing nature of information and knowledge acquired: “Through contact thought is born from sensation, and is reborn by a reproduction of its form. Starting from the simplest forms, the mind rises and falls according to deeds, but the aspirations of a Bo-dhisattva pursue the straight path of wisdom and righteousness, until they reach perfect enlighten-ment in the Buddha” (Carus, 1894).

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P→I→J→D (Figure 6) lay stress on the virtue ethics position, which views outwardly character as part of an individual, similar to language or tradition. In his sermon known as Kalama Sutta, the Bud-dha pointed out the advantages of the virtue ethics (The Tipitaka, 566BC-486BC). That is, individuals must maintain an open mind and thoroughly in-vestigates one’s own experience of life (informa-tion). When one sees for oneself that a particular view (perception) agrees with both experience and reason (information), and leads to the happiness of one and all, then one shouldaccept that view and live up to it (virtue).

the virtue ethics position undertakes a disposition to act fairly as well as having a morally appropriate desire to do so.

The virtue ethics position undertakes a disposition to act fairly as well as having a morally appro-priate desire to do so. For example, an organiza-tion may spend millions of advertising dollars on presenting a incontestable self-image, although it may provide very support for its employees. In the Bible, Mathews 7 adds [15] Beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheep’s cloth-ing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves. The Qur’an comments on virtue: And swell not your cheek (for pride) at men, nor walk in insolence through the earth; for God loves not any arrogant boaster. And be moderate in your pace, and low-er your voice; for the harshest of sounds without doubt is the braying of the ass (31:18-19). Finally,

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as depicted in Hinduism, the virtuous individual has inner qualities. Under such qualities individu-als looks for knowledge and liberates themselves from negative aspects that might influence the judgments in decision making. Beck (2004) trans-lated the following Hindu verse: “The blessed Lord said, Fearlessness, purity of heart, perseverance in knowledge of union, charity and restraint and sacrifice, spiritual study, austerity, straightforward-ness, nonviolence, truth, no anger, renunciation, peace, no slander, compassion for creatures, no greed, kindness, modesty, no fickleness, vigor, pa-tience, courage, purity, no hatred, and no exces-sive pride are the endowment of the one born to the divine, Bharata.”

I→P→J→D (Figure 7) portrays the ethics of care philosophy (or stakeholder position) that focuses on a set of character traits that are deeply valued in close personal relationships, such as sympathy, compassion, fidelity, love, friendship, and the like. Figure 7, symbolizes the last possible segmented way for individuals’ pathway to a decision. In this arrangement, an individual reflects on the given information, categorizes and classifies the prob-lem set, and then continues to analyze the prob-lem before making a decision. In the Bible, 1 Pe-ter 2 [1] Wherefore laying aside all malice, and all guile, and hypocrisies, and envies, and all evil speakings. Whereby Roman 13 states [10] Love worketh no ill to his neighbour: therefore love is the fulfilling of the law. A vision of Hinduism is in agreement with the stakeholders view in that respect is given to all life forms. For example, in The Upanishads Sacred Books of the East (Muller, 1879), it states: “The essence of all beings is the earth, the essence of the earth is water, the essence of water the plants, the essence of plants man, the


essence of man speech, the essence of speech the Rig-veda, the essence of the Rig-veda the Sâma-veda , the essence of the Sâma-veda the udgîtha.” If individuals make their decisions based upon the Four Noble Truths of the Budda, they also follow a stakeholder position. Namely, suffering, caused by craving, born of the illusion of a soul, is present in individuals. Individuals may act based upon their desires (perception) but that causes suffering. If individuals decide to follow the Middle Way (or Eightfold Path), they will overcome the suffer-ing because they are not acting based upon their desires (perception) as motives for their decision making. Their judgments are based upon a percep-tion supported by information. Thus, they will ar-rive at the “Experience of Enlightenment” (Nibba-na). The Middle Way constructs their perceptions based upon right: Speech, Action, Livelihood, Ef-fort, Mindfulness, Concentration, Understanding and Thoughts. The first 3 are grouped in Sila (Mo-rality), the next 3 in Samadhi (Mental Culture) and the last 2 are grouped in Panna (Wisdom). Those rights involve the examination of ex ante and ex post information. The Buddha said “Just as the wa-ter of a river plunges into the ocean and merges with the ocean, so the spiritual path, the Noble Eightfold Path, plunges into Nibbana and merges with Nibbana” (The Tipitaka, 566BC-486BC). This stakeholder position can be viewed as a response to the existence of entities that are justifiably inter-ested in a company’s actions (Berman, Wicks & Donaldson 1999; Donaldson, 1999; Donaldson & Preston, 1995; Gray, Owen & Adams, 1996; Jones & Wicks, 1999; Moneva & Llena, 2000). For ex-ample, in the Bible, 1 Corinthian 13 adds that [4] Charity suffereth long, and is kind; charity envieth not; charity vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up, [5] Doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil; [6] Rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth; [7] Beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things. [8] Charity never faileth: but whether there be prophecies, they shall fail; whether there be tongues, they shall cease; whether there be knowledge, it shall vanish away. The Qur’an adds: to be steadfast in prayer and practice regular charity; to fulfill the contracts which you have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the God-

minded (2: 177).

the Qur’an adds: to be steadfast in prayer and practice regular charity; to fulfill the contracts which you have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic.

CONCLUSION

Modeling ethical positions explained by Bud-dhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam scriptures can address unethical activity in organi-zations. In addition, the Throughput Model may assist companies considering ethical considera-tions along one of the six major pathways. That is, which decision making pathway is the most ap-propriate for organizational problem solving that increases transparency and decreases harm. This paper introduced such a decision making model that connected six dominant ethical positions to biblical scriptures. The modeling of six ethical po-sitions assists in understanding how accounting information can be influenced, altered, and modi-fied to fit one’s moral beliefs. This perspective may assist organizations in better knowledge sharing, lower transactions costs, lower employee turnover rates, organizational stability in performance and

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increased productivity. Further scriptures inspired ethical pathways may provide a reliable source in guiding companies through advances in techno-logical growth as well as the ability to explore new activities of different types. Modeling scriptures supporting ethical positions in a single model may provide future directions in researching compa-nies’ issues of transparency in reporting financial accounting information.

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CORPORATE GOVERNANCE- ITS ORIGIN IN ANCIENT INDIA

Mr. CMA N Raveendranth Kaushik

Key Words

Governance, Vedic, Welfare, Corporate

Abstract Corporate Governance is not a new concept and this existed long back. The history of ef-fective Corporate Governance can be traced back to Ancient period. Lot of archeological evidences, scriptures and religious text give reference to the existence of effective Corpo-rate Governance practiced during our ancient times. Today the approach of Corporate Gov-ernance is talked more from of business per-spective but in Ancient India, it was about over all administration of state. In this paper, I tried to focus on concept of Corporate Governance which existed during Ancient times and how it was relevant during those days in proper ad-ministration and management of policy. For this purpose, ancient period is studied under three heads namely-Vedic period, Mauryan period and Gupta period. Special reference in this paper is made towards Mauryan period which was regarded as a period of good gov-ernance, as the structure of administration was so well established and governed which be-came model for lot of empires worldwide. A reading in Chanakya’s Arthashastra which was written in 4th century BC is worth mentioning here as it gives guidelines on administration and management practices which were to be followed in order to achieve the welfare ob-jectives. Study of Ancient system of Corporate Governance throws some light on the evolu-tion of the present Corporate Governance which is more specific to business approach. Lot of ideas practiced and the system in usage in governing business entity today has been borrowed from the ancient system and its rel-evance can be even seen today.

The author is a Consultant – International Taxation Bengaluru, Karnataka.

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Corporate Governance is not a new concept and this existed long back.


the Governance module in Ancient India, impor-tant periods are classified and shown according in Figure 1 below

Ancient India

Mauryan PeriodVedic Period Gupta Period

Figure: 1

King

Chief Priest(Purohit)

Steward

Army Com-mander

(Senanai)

Messenger

Treasurer(Samgrahit)

Charioteer(Suta)

Figure 2: Governance Model

GOVERNANCE DURING VEDIC PERIOD

Vedic Aryans who occupied the lands of five riv-ers were mainly tribal and they elected one person who was called as Leader. Usually, the person with strong personality who used to protect them from eventualities was elected as the leader. There ex-isted a simple set up of administration namely, the King and the general assembly’s of people called as Samithi and Sabha. Vedic King who was head of the state was charged with the maintenance of law and order. He used to employ the agency of spies in discharging his duties more effectively and efficiently. The administration was based largely on the household system. King used to collect nec-essary information for decision making from the Chief Priest and he used to involve all his reporting at time of taking vital decisions. So, there was col-lective decision making which was in place during Vedic period. Some of the Buddhist scriptures give the clear idea of how the king used to manage his

INTRODUCTION

British Rule in India resulted in two impor-tant changes. Firstly, it started changing the mindset of Indians by destroying various texts and scriptures on which our history

stood. Secondly, it tried to impart western thinking on Indians through changes in education policy. Some Indian Politicians also danced to their tunes and they shifted the focus from our rich traditional values and ethos to western ideas and thinking. In this process, our ancient texts lost its sanctity and more and more people started propounding western ideas in every walk of life. But, there were small group of thinkers, especially those who prac-ticed yoga, ayurveda and other forms of ancients system somehow got interested in revisiting our ancient texts for effective administration and deci-sion making. This resulted in successful revealing of lot of secrets about the ancient practices which are even relevant today. Among these one of the areas is Corporate Governance. Corporate Gov-ernance refers to effective Governance mechanism of king towards his Mauryan Vedic Period Period Gupta Period Ancient India subjects. It is more of welfare objectives of not only the king but also the entire state and his subjects.

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Corporate Governance, a term which is more commonly used in business today was a common term used for effective governance during ancient times.

Corporate Governance, a term which is more commonly used in business today was a common term used for effective governance during ancient times. Since, all the property of the state came un-der the king there existed a Governance module in which King was the head. For purpose of studying

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subject and the happiness and richness of the soci-ety during various king rule. This period was char-acterized by very good Centralized Administration under the leadership of the King. The king enjoyed supreme executive, judicial and military authority over the kingdom. Raja Dharma was to protect the people and kingdom from enemies. It was during the Vedic period that many invasions took place due to which there was destabilization of power to some extent in Northern India. After the departure of Alexander, the dismantled kings started estab-lishing their individual powers and resulted in lo-cal quarrels. It became very difficult for the kings to have effective governance as they were often busy fighting among themselves and there was no structured form of governance module introduced in to the system.

GOVERNANCE DURING MAURYAN PERIOD

The Mauryan period is regarded as the period of good governance. It was one of the largest em-pires in Ancient India and its administration was considered as one of the best administration over the entire world. The Mauryan King was the head of the state administration holding legislative, ex-ecutive and judicial powers. Judicial system was well organized and there was continues supervi-sion and inspection process which was installed in every walk of administration. Secret services played a major role in maintenance of law and order in the kingdom. Local authority was con-trolled by Parishad who in turn used to report to king. As the Mauryan empire extended almost to whole of India, it became very difficult for king to have proper control. So there were many provin-cial heads appointed by the king and the king used to take the updates from the provincials on regular basis. Functions of the states were defined under two main categories namely, Constituent functions and Ministrant functions. Delegation of power and authority on basis of law and order, security of the people and property, defense, welfare ser-vices, economic activities and moral development of individuals were carried our effectively and ef-ficiently. Administration was carried out on the basis of consultation and collective decisions and such decisions were implemented by centralized bureaucracy.

CHANAKYA - ARTHASHASTRA

Above all these it was Chanakya’s Arthashastra, written during the period of Chandra Gupta Maurya which made Mauryan Empire stronger in terms of administration. Arthashastra contains 6000 sutras divided in to 15 chapters and 18 subchapters’ in-structions about administration, management, law and justice, economy, foreign policy etc.. King is the central point in Kautilya’s Arthashastra.

it is mentioned in the arthashastra that “in the happiness of the subject lies the benefit of the king and in what is beneficial to the subjects is his own benefit.

It is mentioned in the Arthashastra that “In the hap-piness of the subject lies the benefit of the king and in what is beneficial to the subjects is his own ben-efit”. This clearly indicates the governance module which Chanakya insisted, it is more or same what we practice in corporate governance today, where in we say that the directors should act in such a way so as to benefit the stakeholders, investors, in-stitutions and other who work in the organization. According to Chanakya, good governance should avoid extreme decisions and extreme actions. He suggests to take Soft action (Sam, Dam) and also Harsh action (Dhand, Bhed) whenever there is a wrongful act. He goes on to explain the selection process to be followed to select right person for right jobs. According to Chanakya, King should appoint trusted people for administration purpose, while selecting the people he should be very cau-tious and should see in them qualities of high birth, wisdom, heroism and loyalty. He propounded few tests for selection and tests were conducted in ar-eas of judiciary, wealth, pleasure and fear. A min-ister would be selected if he successfully clears all the mentioned four tests. Selecting the right person through such tests will help in fighting corruption, better management and also will help in delivering good governance. Salaries were fixed based on the

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efficiency and high performers were recognized and rewarded with high incentives. Even King was regarded as servant and also he received salaries just like others. It was council which has powers to decide upon salary structure and salaries for all including King’s family members. According to Arthashastra, king should act according to Dharma and should stick on to the ethics and principles of what is to tell to him. Chanakya was very much against corruption and he is of the opinion that corruption will destabilize the king and country and as such the person who is involved in any act of corruption should be penalized severely. He in-sisted on accountability, sharing of work and del-egation as the key mantra for good governance. Unless and until a right person is given a right job the objective of clear and good governance can-not be achieved. A King should work towards the welfare of society and his subjects. He should also be part of the working class and the successor of king should also posses such qualities and should not be selected based on the dynasty rule. The ad-ministrative structure under Mauryan Empire was assigned in such a way that each of them had clear cut duty assigned and also the accountability and responsibility was clearly fixed. Delegation was left to each higher levels down the structure and they were given freedom of span of control and were at liberty to discharge duty as laid down un-der the Arthashastra. Megasthanese who visited during rule of Chandragupta Maurya in his Indika had mentioned and praised the administration set up during Mauryan Empire. Special reference was also made of Arthashastra and it is believed that even some western countries developed interest in the philosophy of Chanakya and they copied some of the styles of Mauryan administration.

GOVERNANCE DURING GUPTA PERIOD

The Gupta period is called as the Golden Period in the history of Ancient India. During Gupta period lot of reforms were carried out, the empire was di-vided in to several provinces each of which was headed by viceroy appointed amongst the mem-ber of Royal family. Local administration were given full powers to frame their own decisions so there were no controls from center except in few cases where they used to report to center. Villages

were governed by Village heads that in turn used to report to district heads. During Gupta period, Urban and Rural administration were more decen-tralized compared to Mauryan Empire. So, each of them understood their responsibility and they worked towards achievement of welfare objec-tives. There was lot of integration among different levels of administration and all were clear about their duties and thrived to work for the well be-ing of the people and king. Salaries during Gupta period were given in the form of land, more ef-fective and efficient people were benefited with extra land which they can use for cultivation and earn extra income. Gupta period had good contact with outside world; they had good communication system and also well developed foreign policy. Fa-Hein, a Chinese traveler who visited the court of Chandragupta II has praised the administration system and governance of Gupta period. As Kings of Gupta period embraced Buddhism, they were kind enough to the subjects. They worked for the welfare of the society and were part and parcel of the development initiatives for poor and needy.

the Gupta period is called as the Golden Period in the history of ancient india.

ANCIENT GOVERNANCE - HOW RELEVANT TODAY?

As discussed earlier, we can see that the princi-ple of good governance what was talked of during the ancient period is what which is gaining more prominence today. In today’s competitive world of business, the question of survival depends on effective corporate governance. The concept is slowly shifting towards welfare objectives, it can be welfare of stakeholders, investors, environment, society, nation etc which the business should try to achieve. This is exactly what it was told in an-cient period. According to Chanakya “The King-dom should be enjoyed by all”. The delegation of

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authority and span of control discussed in Maurya and Gupta period is what it is propounded today in business. Today’s Management Principles fo-cuses mainly on delegation of authority, respon-sibility and span of control as the main principles for better performance of duties. Discharge of du-ties according to professional and business ethics which is much talked about today can be traced back to Ancient period. According to Arthashas-tra, the king should discharge his duties in the best manner keeping in mind his responsibilities and ethics and he should not do anything for his own welfare. This shows that he is bound by his duties and ethics which are driving force today to run the business effectively and efficiently. There is much weightage given today for selecting right person for right job, he is evaluated based on certain cri-teria for appointing him as Director or CEOs of the Company, this is same as what is mentioned in Arthashastra. A person who assists King should be a right person and he should be selected based on series of test. One of the important areas in corpo-rate governance is decision making. A collective decision making is what it is talked out today and such decision should be taken keeping in mind not only to help the promoters and owners but also to benefit those who rely and depend on the company. In Mauryan and Gupta period also the major decisions relating to welfare of the kingdom was taken on collective basis. Each of district and provincial heads were involved and consulted be-fore taking any decision at central level. Mauryan Empire was the appointment of spy’s to monitor and control illegal activities and corruption in the administration. This can be related to appointment of internal auditors today in business. Internal Au-ditors almost perform the same duties, they check the areas where there is chances of embezzlement and corrupt practices and warns management to take appropriate decisions. To sum up, govern-ance module under the Above periods can come as a big relief and can help in providing solutions to some of the problems faced today in business. The key areas where we can use the ancient period governance in present day situation are -

1. Learning on Leadership qualities and skills

2. Selection or right person for right job (Chanakya’s Arthashastra gives lot of information on process of

selection)

3. Accountability and Delegation of Authorities

4. System of Spy and Intelligence agency to control corruption and monitoring of work.

5. Social welfare ideas of king and his team (which can be linked to present days Corporate Social Re-sponsibility)

it is good to see that some of the management institutes have taken up initiative to set up special cell to teach arthashastra and also have introduced in the syllabus a subject on arthashastra.

CONCLUSION

Governance module is not new to our country. Our ancient literature like Vedas, Manu Smruthi, Somadeva neeti stuti, Baharspatya Neeti stuti, Arthashastra etc gives more information of the type of governance which existed during ancient period. Even though some of the areas which were suitable during those days like caste and class sys-tem are not relevant today, it is wrong to say that the entire ancient texts are irrelevant today. With some modification according to present day re-quirement one can definitely make use of what is said in our ancient text and can apply those things in the governance module. It is good to see that some of the management institutes have taken up initiative to set up special cell to teach Arthashas-tra and also have introduced in the syllabus a sub-ject on Arthashastra. There is also a subject called as Pracheena Vanijyam which talks about ancient system of wealth management, accounting and taxation, weights and measurement etc which help in understanding the ancient practices and how

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that can be applied in today’s business. It is im-portant today, that instead of copying the western system or ideas in our business we can go back to our ancient treasures which have every solution to the problems and for which lot of research works need to be done.

REFERENCES

1.Arthashastra, Book I ,Chapter XIX2.Complete Chanakya Neeti, Manoj Publication, New Delhi3.Pracheena Vanijyam, Bharavi Prakashan, Ben-galuru4.R Shamastry, “Kautilya’s Arthashastra”5.U.,N. Goshal, “A History of Indian Political Ide-as”, Oxford University Press6.History of India, Tarachand


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The author may be reached at [email protected].

“ “the paradigm of republic vs. monarchy stems from the history of Europe, where revolt against monarchy led to the rise of republics.

REPUBLIC IN ANCIENT INDIA –NEED FOR A NEW PARADIGM IN POLITICAL SCIENCE

Anil Chawla

Key Words

Governance, Vedic, Welfare, Corporate

AbstractIt is generally presumed that the commonly prevalent system of Government in ancient India was monarchy and instances of repub-lic were either exceptions or aberrations. The paradigm of republic vs. monarchy stems from the history of Europe, where re-volt against monarchy led to the rise of re-publics. The situation in ancient India was very different because no King had any leg-islative powers. Legislative activity or Law making was done only at the Centres of Learning, which can well be called the Uni-versities of that time. The Kings were con-trolled by Universities. The paper proposes that Ancient Indian society was a GAN-TANTRA in the sense of GAN + TANTRA i.e. it was a society controlled by thinkers. The author proposes that GANTANTRA be recognized as a paradigm of political sci-ence different from the European concepts of monarchy and republic.ministration and management of policy. For this purpose, ancient period is studied under three heads namely-Vedic period, Mauryan period and Gupta period. Special reference in this pa-per is made towards Mauryan period which was regarded as a period of good govern-ance, as the structure of administration was so well established and governed which be-came model for lot of empires world wide. A reading in Chanakya’s


INTRODUCTION

it is generally presumed that the commonly prevalent system of Government in ancient india was monarchy and instances of republic were either exceptions or aberrations.

It is generally presumed that the commonly prev-alent system of Government in ancient India was monarchy and instances of republic were either exceptions or aberrations. The view is

based on the apparent perception that since there were kings in ancient India, the system was that of monarchy. This paper aims to contest this apparent view and seeks to argue that the system in ancient India was closer to a republic than a monarchy, though it differed from both in many essential mat-ters. The discipline of Political Science as taught in schools and colleges is based on a paradigm where a state is either a republic or a monarchy. This paradigm is inherently weak in understand-ing the system which was prevalent in ancient In-dia. This paper seeks to understand the concept of paradigm as developed by Thomas Kuhn1 and subsequently seeks to show that political scientists have suffered from a paradigm induced blindness that forced them to treat Indian system of govern-ance as a monarchy. An attempt has been made to analyze the system of governance that prevailed in ancient India. The system had distinct features but was closer to a Republic than a Monarchy. The author has sought to label this system as GANT-ANTRA – distinct from Republic as well as from Monarchy. Towards the end, author has made a very brief attempt to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of GANTANTRA of ancient India. The purpose is not to carry out a detailed and exhaus-tive study of merits and demerits but rather to ar-rive at a better understanding of the dynamics of the system as was prevalent then. This paper is an

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attempt to build a new philosophical framework for understanding of ancient Indian society. The proposed framework or paradigm will, of course, need to be “refined, extended and articulated” by future researchers.

REPUBLIC VS. MONARCHY

Oxford English Dictionary defines Republic as fol-lows:a. A state in which the supreme power rests in the people and their elected representatives or of-ficers, as opposed to one governed by a king or similar ruler; a commonwealth. Now also applied loosely to any state which claims this designation.

On the other hand Monarchy is defined as follows:

b . A state having a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in a single person. Formerly, also, a nation or state having dominating power over all other states. absolute or despotic m absolute or despotic m., a government by the ab-solute will of the monarch. constitutional m. (see constitutional a. 4 b). elective m., one in which the monarch is determined by election as opposed to heredity. hereditary m., one in which the sover-eign power descends by hereditary right. limited m. (see limited 2).

A look at the above two definitions makes a few points very clear –

1. Republic is defined in contrast to monarchy.2. Republic involves just one essential fundamen-tal condition – the supreme power does not rest with any single individual.3. Monarchy is based on the concept that the Sov-ereign power of the Crown is supreme. In a mon-archy, the King’s will is final and though the King may take advice from any person or body, the ad-vice supports the King rather than act as a control or check on the King, who retains complete free-dom to act as per his own will. Variations of mon-archy include constitutional monarchy and limited monarchy.

LIMITED MONARCHY IS DEFINED AS FOL-LOWS:

Limited monarchy: one in which the functions of


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the monarch are exercised under conditions pre-scribed by the constitution;It is obvious that a limited monarchy involves giv-ing up some of the essential characteristics of mon-archy and moving towards becoming a republic. A limited monarchy seems to be somewhat midway between a monarchy and republic. Historically when revolt against monarchy became strong, the monarch gave up his powers but retained the perks of office leading to a limited or constitutional mon-archy. Generally speaking, constitutional or lim-ited monarchy is no different from a republic and should be classified as Republic and not as Mon-archy. Governance of a country involves three institutions – Legislature, Judiciary and Executive. In a Monarchy, the King is the head of all three institutions. The King is the law-maker as well as the ultimate judge and is responsible for executive functions. On the other hand, the distinction be-tween the three institutions is an essential feature of republics. The supreme power which rests in the people and their elected representatives or officers in a republic is exercised through these institutions which are supposed to maintain an arm’s length distance among themselves. In a monarchy, the Crown’s will being Supreme, the distinction be-tween the three institutions (if at all present) gets blurred since a single individual acts as the head of all three. The two contrasting forms, Republic vs. Monarchy sum up the essentials of the presentParadigm of political science.

NATURE OF PARADIGMS

The word “paradigm” acquired its present status af-ter the pioneering work (first published in 1962) of Thomas S. Kuhn1 who postulated that the growth of science is a noncumulative process. The growth of any science can be divided into two parts (a) normal science and (b) scientific revolutions. Nor-mal Science is the period when a paradigm has been accepted by a large body of practitioners of the science and they make efforts to refine, extend and articulate the paradigm. Scientific revolutions occur when the old paradigm gives way to a new one. Kuhn defines paradigms as “ some accepted examples of actual scientific practice – examples which include law, theory, application and instru-mentation together – provide models from which spring particular coherent traditions of scientific

research. These are the traditions which the his-torian describes under such rubrics as ‘Ptolemaic astronomy’ (or ‘Copernican’), ‘Aristotelian dy-namics’ (or ‘Newtonian’), ‘corpuscular optics’ (or ‘wave optics’), and so on. The study of paradigms, including many that are far more specialized than those named illustratively above, is what prepares the student for membership in the particular scien-tific community with which he will later practice. Because he there joins men who learned the basics of their field from the same concrete models, his subsequent practice will seldom evoke overt disa-greement over fundamentals.

the growth of any science can be divided into two parts (a) normal science and (b) scientific revolutions.

Men whose research is based on shared paradigms are committed to the same rules and standards for scientific practice.” (emphasis added by author). “A paradigm is what the members of a particu-lar community share, and, conversely a scientific community consists of men who share a para-digm” A paradigm provides a ‘disciplinary matrix’: ‘disciplinary’ because it refers to the common pos-session of the practitioners of a particular disci-pline; ‘matrix’ because it is composed of ordered elements of various sorts, each requiring further specification.”Constituents of the matrix include “symbolic generalizations”, “shared commitments to beliefs”, “values”, “tacit knowledge” and “ex-emplars”. “Paradigms gain their status because they are more successful than their competitors in solving a few problems that the group of prac-titioners has come to recognize as acute. To be more successful is not, however, to be either com-pletely successful with a single problem or notably successful with any large number. The success of a paradigm – whether Aristotle’s analysis of motion, Ptolemy’s computations of planetary position, La-voisier’s application of the balance, or Maxwell’s mathematization of the electromagnetic field – is at the start largely a promise of success discover-

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able in selected and still incomplete examples. Normal science consists in the actualization of that promise, an actualization achieved by extend-ing the knowledge of those facts that the paradigm displays as particularly revealing, by increasing the extent of the match between those facts and the paradigm’s predictions, and by further articulation of the paradigm itself. Few people who are not ac-tually practitioners of a mature science realize how much mop-up work of this sort a paradigm leaves to be done or quite how fascinating such work can prove in the execution. And these points need to be understood. Mopping-up operations are what engage most scientists throughout their careers. They constitute what I am here calling normal sci-ence. Closely examined, whether historically or in the contemporary laboratory, that enterprise seems an attempt to force nature into the preformed and relatively inflexible box that the paradigm sup-plies. No part of the aim of normal science is to call forth new sorts of phenomena; indeed those that will not fit the box are often not seen at all. Nor do scientists normally aim to invent new theo-ries, and they are often intolerant of those invented by others. Instead, normal-scientific research is di-rected to the articulation of those phenomena and theories that the paradigm already supplies.” (Em-phasis added by author)

PARADIGMS IN SOCIAL & POLITICAL FIELDS

The above discussion of the nature of science ap-plies to all sciences including physical and biolog-ical sciences. In fact Kuhn makes use of examples only from physical sciences. It is indeed strange that in physical sciences, where there are no po-litical or racial considerations or biases, all scien-tific research is “a strenuous and devoted attempt to force nature into the conceptual boxes supplied by professional education.” One can well imag-ine the situation in social sciences where notions of racial supremacy and attempts at cultural im-perialism combine with the traditional intolerance and arrogance of scientists. It should come as no surprise that in social sciences, “tacit knowledge” which forms part of the “disciplinary matrix” in-cludes a tacit agreement over political and cultural issues and this has effectively stopped European Whites (and British & American Whites) to even see unique social structures of India and other de-

veloped cultures of the world except in terms of their own social paradigm. Indian social scientists have inherited the paradigms from their colonial masters and have hence turned blind to their own historical realities. The paradigm of republic vs. monarchy stems from the history of Europe. Rise of republics after the revolts against monarchs was a reaction to the earlier theory of monarch having divine power.

the paradigm of republic vs. monarchy stems from the history of Europe.

For century’s kings and nobles in Europe treated themselves as blue blooded and considered the rest of the population to be sub-human. Roman Catholic Church supported this world view of the nobles for centuries. Revolt against this world view and acceptance of every human being as intrinsi-cally valuable was a major revolution in European thought. However, this revolution created a para-digm which had a place for just two opposite sys-tems of governance and nothing else. All systems of governance had to be now fitted to one of the two inflexible boxes. White man could not even see any other system. To understand the devastating effects of this paradigm induced blindness, it will be worthwhile to take a small digression and look at the developments in American continents when the white man landed there. American aborigines had at that time a very well developed culture and a system of community living. They believed that all land belongs to the Spirit (a synonym for Al-mighty or God) and ownership of land was a sin. They considered land as one’s mother from whose lap one takes as much as one needs. They could not sell or buy land since it was just unimagina-ble for them and was tantamount to selling one’s mother. When whites landed in America, they wanted the aborigines to sell land to the whites. This was a typical clash of the paradigms. Whites were unable to even see the cultural paradigm of aborigines. The whites’ cultural paradigm treated

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individual ownership of land and assets as the ulti-mate value of life (notwithstanding all that Lord Je-sus Christ might have said). And here was a culture where the cultural paradigm did not even have a concept of private ownership of land and all land was community property. This clash of paradigms was not even seen by whites who in their arro-gance (and greed) declared themselves to be the owners of the land that in their view did not belong to anyone. The corollary of this declaration was that the aborigine became an encroacher on his own land and, of course, it was perfectly legal and moral to kill all encroachers and trespassers. The genocide that this led to is history. A similar story was enacted in the forest areas of India where the tribals had an identical system of community own-ership of forest land and the Britishers declared all forest land to be Government property. The dec-laration overnight transformed a rich community to a poor community struggling for survival. The above example illustrates the devastating effects of paradigm-induced blindness in the fields of social sciences.

ANCIENT INDIAN SYSTEM - GENERAL

Before we take up an analysis of the Ancient In-dian system, it may be worthwhile to specify the time period of ancient India. Some of the key dates are as follows:

2700 BC Harappa Civilization900 BC Mahabharata War550 BC Composition of the Upanishads544 BC Nirvana of Buddha327 BC Alexander’s Invasion322 BC Rise of the Mauryas272 BC Ashoka begins reign145 BC Chola King Erata conquers Ceylon320 AD Chandragupta I establishes Gupta dynasty405 AD Chinese traveller Fa-hein travels through India711 AD Invasion of Sind by Muhammad Bin Qasim1001 AD Defeat of Jaipal by Sultan Mahmud

There may be some disputes about the above dates but such controversies will not affect our argu-ments. It is obvious that the ancient India spans a time period of about 3700 years starting from Harappa civilization and ending with defeat of

Jaipal by Sultan Mahmud in 1001 AD. There is no other country that has such a long period of con-tinuous civilizational history. One of the key char-acteristics of ancient India was that though there was never one ruler who ruled the complete area which was known by the name of BHARATVAR-SHA or ARYAVARTA, the area had an identical system of governance that remained by and large unchanged throughout the period.

LAWS & LEGISLATURE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Contrast this with Europe where there have never been more than a handful of countries (say maximum fifty countries) and yet there has never been a common set of laws.

To understand the systems prevalent at that time, it is interesting to look at the nature and origin of Hin-du Law about which John Mayne said in July, 1878 “Hindu Law has the oldest pedigree of any known system of jurisprudence, and even now it shows no signs of decrepitude. At this day it governs races of men, extending from Cashmere to Cape Comorin, who agree in nothing else except their submission to it.”11 It should be noted that the British who have always (erroneously) prided themselves on uniting India were forced to admit that even after almost eight centuries of foreign rule, the country “from Cashmere to Cape Comorin” was governed by a common set of laws and this was when the country was said to have been divided into hun-dreds of small kingdoms. Contrast this with Europe where there have never been more than a handful of countries (say maximum fifty countries) and yet there has never been a common set of laws. Each European King made his own laws and his free-dom in this respect was said to be the concept of ‘sovereignty’. The situation in India was very dif-ferent because no King had any legislative powers in ancient India. Legislative activity or Law making was done only at the Centres of Learning which

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can well be called the Universities of that time. Varanasi, Ujjain, Nalanda, Rameshwaram and al-most all major temple towns were such centres of learning. The word Rishi used in Indian texts has often been translated as ascetic or sage but this cre-ates a confusion and lends to the term a super-hu-man aura, a sort of mysticism. An impression has often been created in public mind that the Rishis who framed laws did nothing else but sit meditat-ing under a tree or in some cave in Himalayas. Nothing can be more removed from truth. Almost all rishis were married and lived a healthy family life. The best comparison of a rishi can be to the modern day university professor who lives in his university campus far removed from the din of the city and devotes himself to intellectual pursuits. “The Smriti of Yajnavalkya gives a list of twenty sages as lawgivers, ‘Manu, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Yajnavalkya, Usanas, Angiras, Yama, Apastamba, Samvarta, Katyayana, Brihaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Sankha, Likhita, Daksha, Gautama, Satatapa and Vashishtha, these are the propounders of the Dhar-mashastras’. The Baudhayana and others are not excluded. Little is known about the authors and it is impossible to ascertain when they lived.” It is likely that the names of authors represent schools rather than individuals.

Dharma includes religious, moral, social and legal duties and can only be defined by its contents.

Formation of new smritis as well as making nec-essary modifications in the Smritis was carried out for centuries in the name of the founder of the school or in the name of the most illustri-ous member of the school. Laws in ancient India were codified in Smritis. It is interesting to look at Mayne’s view in regard to Hindu law – “Accord-ing to Hindu conception, law in the modern sense was only a branch of Dharma, a word of the wid-est import and not easily rendered into English. Dharma includes religious, moral, social and legal duties and can only be defined by its contents. The Mitakshara mentions the six divisions of Dharma in general with which the Smritis deal; and the di-

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visions relate to the duties of the castes, the du-ties of orders of ASRAMAS, the duties of orders of particular castes, the special duties of kings and others, the secondary duties which are enjoined for transgression of prescribed duties; and the common duties of all men. [Mitakshara on Yajn. I, 1(Setlur’s Edn., p4); Varnadharma, asramadharma, varnasramadharma, gunadharma, nimittadharma and sadharanadharma. …]”13 (emphasis added by author) The interesting feature that is central to our discussion is that the Smritis inter alia provided for the duties of Kings. This obviously implies that any king was governed by the Smritis that were drafted not by himself or by his predecessors but by bodies of intellectuals. A king was prohibited from becoming a law-maker or even interpreting the law. However after the 10th century, when the invasion of Islam led to a destruction of the famous Universities of India, some kings, as an at-tempt to safeguard knowledge, either took upon themselves or encouraged their ministers to take up the task of writing Commentaries and Digests of the Smritis. “A commentary on the Code of Manu was written in the 11th century by Dharesh-wava or King Bhoja or Dhara in Malwa. A little later, Vijnanesvara wrote his famous Mitakshara on the Smriti of Yajnavalkya under the auspices of King Vikramarka or Vikramaditya of Kalyan in Hyderabad. King Apararka of Konkan, wrote his commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti in the 12th century. Jimutavahana, the author of the Dayab-haga, which is as wellknown as the Mitakshara, was, according to tradition, either a very influen-tial minister or a great judge in the court of one of the Bengal Kings. Chandesvara, the author of the Vivada Ratnakara, was the Chief Minister of a King of Mithila in the 14th century. Madhavacharya, the great Prime Minister of the Vizianagar Kings, wrote his Parasara Madhaviyam in the same cen-tury. About the same time, Vivesvarabhatta wrote his Subodhini, a commentary on the Mitakshara and a treatise named Madana Parijata under the order of King Madanapala of Kastha in Northern India who was also responsible for the recovery of the commentary of Medhatithi on Manu. Lak-shmi Devi, a Queen of Mithila, caused Mitramisra to compose his Vivadachandra just about the pe-riod. In the 15th century, Vachaspatimisra, who was himself a descendant of King Harasinha Deva of Mithila, wrote the Vivadachintamani under the


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auspices of King Bhairavendra, a ruler of Mithila. King Pratapa Rudra Deva of Orissa wrote the Sar-asvati Vilasa. Nandapandita, the author of the Dat-taka Mimamsa, wrote a commentary on the Vish-nu Smriti, called the Vaijayanti under the auspices of an influential chief, Kesavanayaka alias Tam-masansyaka. Nilakantha, the author of the Vyavy-ahara Mayukha, composed it under the orders of Bhagavanta Deva, a Bundella chieftain who ruled at Bhareha, near the Jumna. Mitramisra composed his Viramitrodaya by the command of Virasinha, the ruler of Orchcha and Datia.”

The key points that emerge from the above ac-count are as follows:a) As late as 15th century, no Hindu King or his minister(s) in India would dare to make any laws.b) There is no commentary or Digest that is dated before 1000 AD. Apparently when the schools were still functioning and acting as constant refer-ence points for interpretation of the Law, it was not felt necessary to write a commentary.c) During the period that is classified as ancient in Indian history i.e. upto 1000AD Kings and their ministers had neither the power to make any Laws nor the power to interpret Laws.Surprisingly this tradition continued into the Islamic period. Islamic rulers were apparently happy to let things con-tinue smoothly as they were going, although they destroyed the schools of learning in the name of religion. To once again quote from Mayne’s “Even after the establishment of the Mohammadan rule in the country, the Smriti law continued to be fully recognized and enforced. Two instances will serve. In the 16th century, Dalapati wrote an encyclo-paedic work on Dharmasastra called the Nrisim-ha-prasada. He was a minister of the Nizamshah Dynasty of Ahmednagar which ruled at Devagiri (Dowlatabad) and wrote his work, no doubt, under the auspices of the Mohammadan ruler, who is ex-tolled in several stanzas. Todarmalla, the famous finance minister of the Moghul Emperor Akbar, compiled a very comprehensive work on civil and religious law known as Todarananda.”

JUDICIARY IN ANCIENT INDIA

“Both the Arthasastra and the Dharmasastras es-tablish the fact that the King was the fountain of justice. In addition to the King himself as a court

of ultimate resort, there were four classes of courts. The King’s court was presided over by the Chief Judge, with the help of counsellors and asses-sors. There were three other courts of a popular character called PUGA, SRENI and KULA. These were not constituted by the King. They were not, however, private or arbitration courts but people’s tribunals which were part of the regular adminis-tration of justice and their authority was fully rec-ognized. PUGA was the court of fellow-townsmen or fellow-villagers, situated in the same locality, town or village, but of different castes and callings. SRENI was a court of judicial assembly consist-ing of the members of the same trade or calling, whether they belonged to the different castes or not. KULA was the judicial assembly of relations by blood or marriage. Kula, Sreni, Puga and the court presided over by the Chief Judge (PRADVI-VAKA) were courts to which persons could resort for the settlement of their cases and were a cause was previously tried, he might appeal in succes-sion in that order to the higher courts. As the Mi-takshara puts it, ‘In a cause decided by the King’s officers although the defeated party is dissatisfied and thinks the decision to be based on misappre-ciation the case cannot be carried again to a Puga or the other tribunals. Similarly in a cause decided by a Puga, there is no resort to Sreni or Kula. In the same way in a cause decided by a Sreni, no re-course is possible to a Kula. On the other hand, in a cause decided by Kula, Sreni and other tribunals can be resorted to. In a cause decided by Sreni, Puga and the other tribunal can be resorted to. And in a cause decided by a Puga the Royal Court can be resorted to’. These inferior courts had apparent-ly jurisdiction to decide all law suits among men, excepting violent crimes.”

Both the arthasastra and the Dharmasastras establish the fact that the King was the fountain of justice

From the above account of the judicial system in ancient India, the following points may be noted:

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a) King was supposed to be a fountain of justice in a figurative manner. The actual dispensation of justice was done by a complex system consisting of a hierarchy of people’s tribunals and the Royal Court headed by the Chief Judge.b) People at large participated in the dispensation of justice through Kula, Puga and Sreni.c) There was more than an arm’s length distance between the persons exercising the legislative function (the universities as discussed above) and the judicial system.d) King’s will had no role to play in the dispensa-tion of justice and it was neither possible for him to show any favours or disfavours in matters involv-ing justice. We have seen earlier that King’s will had no role in the legislative function also.

ROLE OF KINGS IN ANCIENT INDIA

From the above discussion as well as from other historical data, the following observations can be made about the role of Kings in ancient India.a) A King was supposed to be responsible for ex-ecution of the legislative will and administration in his kingdom.b) A King had no direct or indirect legislative pow-ers.c) A King was supposed to be the “fountain of jus-tice” but he had no direct role in the judicial pro-cess where an elaborate system of judiciary con-sisting of royal courts and people’s tribunals was operational.d) In ancient India, a King and his ministers could not even act as interpreters of law. However this changed in medieval times when Kings started pa-tronizing the writing of commentaries and digests.e) King was responsible for defence of his kingdom from external aggression.f) Providing of public services like education, healthcare etc. was not a duty of King’s employees but was done by persons who considered it their vocation or calling. Payment of charges for these services was a cess on agricultural and other pro-duce directly from the farmers & producers to the service-providers. The rate of this cess was not de-cided by the King but was decided by the Smritis.g) Rate of taxes (payable to King) was also not de-cided by the King but was fixed by Smritis. The royal machinery was responsible for collection of taxes.

h) A King was supposed to use the taxes in a man-ner provided by the Smritis but it is likely that the Smritis provided some freedom to the King in this. The picture that emerges from the above observa-tions is very different from the image of a King in Europe, where based on the theory of divine power of the King, ‘Sovereignty of the Crown is supreme’ and ‘A King is always right’ were the well-accept-ed rules. A ritual that was carried out at the time of coronation of any Hindu King (until very recently) illustrates the position of the King in ancient India. After the coronation, the crowned King declares that he is all powerful. As soon as he declares his acquired power, the Rajguru (the chief represent-ative of the University) hits him with a Dand (a wooden rod) and tells him that Dharma and not he is the most powerful. The act of hitting him with a Dand is a symbolic punishment to remind him of his subordination to the Law as decided by the intellectual class. This is unimaginable in the coro-nation of a European King.

ANCIENT SYSTEM & THE PRESENT PARADIGM

The system prevalent in ancient India may well be classified as a Limited Monarchy but it is obviously inappropriate to classify the system as Monarchy, since it lacked all the essential characteristics of a monarchy. On the other hand, it may be appropri-ate to classify the system as Republic since it had the following characteristics of a Republic:a) Sovereign power of the Crown was not supreme.b) The King’s will was not final.c) There existed a system of checks and balances to control the King, who retained a very limited freedom to act as per his own will.d) An independent legislaturee) An independent judiciaryf) Clear distinction between the Legislature, Judici-ary and Executive with more than an arm’s length distance between them.While classifying the system as republic, we must keep in mind that a republic need not always be democratic. Fascist and autocratic regimes have also been classified as republics. Compared to many of the modern day republics, the ancient In-dian system was a true republic and classifying it as monarchy is a mistake that social and political scientists must correct without any delay.On the other hand, there is an argument that the


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mere existence of a hereditary system of Kings means that the system cannot be classified as re-public. The proponents of this argument are likely to be willing to classify the system as Constitu-tional Monarchy but will not like to accord it the status of Republic. It may also be argued that since there was no constitution which ruled the conduct of Kings but an ever-changing body of Smritis, it is not appropriate to call the system as Constitutional. The fact is that the Kings were controlled by Uni-versities and a structure consisting of Brahmins that reported to the Universities and not to the Kings. It is difficult and may be impossible to force his-torical realities “into the preformed and relatively inflexible box that the paradigm”8 of republic vs. monarchy supplies. The traditional response of the academic world has been to refuse to look at the anomalies and to blindly classify the ancient In-dian system as Monarchy just because there were Kings. The distortions that this paradigm-induced blindness has caused are too numerous to report. This is a classic situation that calls for development of a new paradigm in the field of political science.

ROLE OF UNIVERSITIES

Before discussing about the new paradigm that is better suited to the ancient Indian system, it will be worthwhile to digress and have a peep at the history of development of democracy in modern world. The advent of democracy in modern world is often traced to French Revolution of 1789. Jus-tice, Liberty, Equality & Fraternity – the values de-clared by the assembly constituted after the French Revolution – have inspired generations of modern political activists across the world. Yet, the revolu-tion failed to secure for its people the values that it propounded. The leadership that the revolution produced led to devastation of Europe under Na-poleonic ambitions. Its ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity were quickly trampled upon. The evolution of a truly “liberal” democracy after the French Revolution involved a role of universities in governance. Wilhelm Humboldt, who is con-sidered as father of Classical Liberalism and who influenced thinkers like John Stuart Mill, founded the University of Berlin in 1810. The ideas ex-pressed in his book “The Limits of State Action” and his ideas about higher education became the turning point of the evolution of the concept of de-

mocracy as liberal democracy by providing for a role to universities in governance. It was virtually Humbodlt revolution. In all western democracies today, renowned universities – the seats of learn-ing or “think tanks”, to use a fashionable modern day term – play a key (though at times limited) role in various matters pertaining to state policies. The development of the role of universities in gov-ernance is less than two centuries old in Western world. However, this role was well developed and institutionalized in ancient India. Humboldt revo-lution produced (or at least intended to produce) a system where the key decisions of governance are taken at universities while the political class is responsible for implementation of the decisions. In other words, this means that the legislative and judicial functions are taken away from the politi-cal class. This is identical to the system of ancient India with just one difference that in the present western democracies, the persons who control the administrators are elected while in ancient India such persons acquired their positions either by he-reditary or were selected by some process or in some rare cases elected. The difference between the Humboldt system and the ancient Indian sys-tem is minor while the common ground (role of universities) is crucial and can be the defining ba-sis for our new paradigm.

Sovereign power of the Crown was not supreme

THE NEW PARADIGM

Republic is defined as “A state in which the su-preme power rests in the people and their elected representatives or officers” and Monarchy is de-fined as “A state having a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in a single per-son”. A new paradigm of governance will neces-sarily involve a system where the power neither rests with the people nor with a single person. The system that will sum up the Humoldt system as well as the ancient Indian system can well be de-fined as “A state in which law making and interpre-tation is influenced or controlled by independent

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institutions (and persons) of learning”. There can be various possible names for such a state where institutions of learning have an important and vital role in the public life. The author’s suggestion is to use the word “GANTANTRA” for the system de-fined above. GANTANTRA has been used as Hindi translation of the word ‘Republic’ in independent India without any etymological studies being car-ried out about the word. GANTANTRA is com-posed of two words GAN and TANTRA. Sanskrit Dictionary defines two different word GAN and GANAH. For the readers conversant with Devana-gari script – GAN has a halant at the end which means that the last letter is devoid of a vowel while GANAH has the vowel ‘:’ at the end. Both words are distinct and should not be taken as synonyms. GAN means to count, to think, to put in catego-ries, to pay attention, to apply mind, to estimate and to add. The word for mathematics in Sanskrit is GANIT which is derived from GAN. GANESH is also derived from GAN and it is well known that GANESH is the devata (Lord) of budhi (wisdom). On the other hand, GANAH means collection, group, followers, a community formed for a com-mon purpose and a division of the army consisting of 27 elephants, 27 chariots, 81 horses and 135 soldiers on foot. GANAH has also been used for the servants of Shiva who are under the supervi-sion of Ganesh. It is beyond the scope of this paper to carry out an etymological analysis of the con-nection between the two words GAN and GAN-AH. Yet, it is obvious that the two words have en-tirely different meanings and must not be confused with each other. When the word GANTANTRA is used as a translation of Republic, the sandhi-vich-hed (splitting of a word) of GANTANTRA is done as GANAH + TANTRA. This is obviously wrong and violates all rules of grammar of Sanskrit. The correct grammatical sandhivichhed (splitting of a word) of GANTANTRA is GAN + TANTRA. In the former case, GANTANTRA means collective rule of the group while in the latter case, it means a system where thinking and application of mind are the central theme of the society. The ancient In-dian society was a GANTANTRA in the latter sense of the term i.e. it was a society controlled by think-ers and not by hereditary monarchs. Adoption of the word GANTANTRA (in the sense of GAN + TANTRA) for the new paradigm will not only help us understand ancient India but will also give a

new direction to political science in the modern world – a direction that was just hinted at by Hum-boldt and in which the major democracies of the world have moved during the past two centuries.

GaNtaNtra has been used as hindi translation of the word ‘republic’ in independent india without any etymological studies being carried out about the word

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

It is not the subject of this paper to discuss in any detail the strengths and weaknesses of GANTAN-TRA. Yet, some brief observations about GANT-ANTRA in ancient India will help put the issues in perspective. a) The system remained in active operation for more than 3000 years upto the in-vasion and conquest by West Asian invaders who destroyed the institutions of learning and therefore destroyed the foundations of the system. Surpris-ingly, even after the foundation had been de-stroyed, the system continued to have a strong in-fluence upto the beginning of British rule. In 1878, Mayne wrote, “The Kings and subordinate rulers of the country, whatever their caste, race or religion, found it politic to enforce the law of the Smritis …” (emphasis added by author). There can be no stronger proof of the strength of the system that for centuries even Muslim Kings found it expedient to continue the traditions of the system.b) The system of GANTANTRA was a flexible sys-tem which allowed territorial expansion. Any King could accept to be a part of the GANTANTRA without giving up his status as a King. BHARAT-VARSH was the name given to that territory which accepted the authority of the GAN or the directions from the centres of learning. India as a country was not united by the British but by the common Law of Smritis since ancient times.c) The flexibility of the system allowed regional and community variations of laws while prescrib-

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ing some common laws. This can be seen by co-existence of city based communities, villages as well as forest dwellers – each following a different set of social practices.d) The system must have been immensely popular and would have led to all-round prosperity. There can be no other explanation for the comment by Mayne “At this day it governs races of men, ex-tending from Cashmere to Cape Comorin, who agree in nothing else except their submission to it.” The prosperity that the system generated was re-sponsible for attracting hordes of invaders initially from West Asia and later from Europe.e) GANTANTRA created the world’s first and pos-sibly the largest common market of ancient world where goods, services and men could move freely. The prosperity that this would have led to can well be imagined.f) GANTANTRA in India created a system which needed minimum centralized bureaucratic inter-vention. The system was highly efficient in terms of collecting and utilization of revenue for public ser-vices since the services were not provided by State but instead there was a direct relationship between the provider and users of services. This led to a low rate of taxes which spurred growth and prosperity.g) By reducing the role of Kings, a system was cre-ated where the person on the throne made little or no difference to the common man. Life continued unaffected even though there was change at the top. Wars were small affairs that affected the royal families but did not adversely affect the common man. This was a great advantage since this led to the country’s resources being used for productive purposes. However, this strength of the system proved to be its biggest weakness.h) Peace has a tendency to make people compla-cent. Absence of major wars led the Kings to ig-nore defence and development of defence related technology. Moreover, the centralization at the level of laws did not produce a unified army. This led to a weak defense against external aggres-sion. Moreover, there was also a case of paradigm-induced blindness. The common man took wars to be small games that were played by Kings and royals, which did not make any difference to his life. A war would generally lead to the person on the throne changing but would not mean any other change. This led the common man (and possibly the intellectual class) to erroneously presume that

even if an external invader conquered, it will not matter much. He failed to realize that the external invader was unlike anyone from the system. The inability to even see a different paradigm meant that the country was ill prepared to face it. These factors combined together to cause the country to lose its independence. The above observations are given without any historical data and references since the above are not central to the theme of this paper but are only intended to put the paradigm of GANTANTRA in a perspective.

CONCLUSION

Republic of India was not founded on 26th Janu-ary, 1950 and the British did not unite India. India has been a republic since times immemorial and if the academic world has failed to see the country as a republic it is because of the weakness of the paradigm of present day political science. It is nec-essary to define a new paradigm of state different from republic as well as monarchy. GANTANTRA has been proposed as the new paradigm of state where law making and interpretation is influenced or controlled by independent institutions (and per-sons) of learning. Ancient India was a GANTAN-TRA in true sense of the word.

GaNtaNtra in india created a system which needed minimum centralized bureaucratic intervention.

FURTHER WORK

“A paradigm is rarely an object for replication. Instead, like an accepted judicial decision in the common law, it is an object for further articula-tion and specification under new or more stringent conditions. To see how this can be so, we must recognize how very limited in both scope and pre-cision a paradigm can be at the time of its first ap-pearance.” (emphasis added by author). No one other than the author can be more acutely aware of the limitations in scope as well as in precision of

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the paradigm proposed in this paper. It will need substantial work by a large number (possibly gen-erations) of scientists and historians to substantiate the paradigm. The work will have to concentrate on “three classes of problems – determination of significant fact, matching of facts with theory, and articulation of theory” The author is neither is a historian nor a political scientist. As a person who considers philosophy as his vocation (calling), the author has taken a philosopher’s perspective. Sci-ence and history have to take over from philoso-phy and continue this exercise of building a new political paradigm.

REFERENCES

1. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, (The Master pieces of Science, New American Library, 1986).

2. Oxford English Dictionary, http://etext.lib.vir-ginia.edu/etcbin/oedbin/

3. Thomas S. Kuhn, ibid. The Route to Normal Science, pp. 8-9.

4. Thomas S. Kuhn, ibid., Postscript, pp. 145.5. Thomas S. Kuhn, ibid., Postscript, pp. 150.6. Thomas S. Kuhn, ibid., Postscript, pp. 150-

154.

7. Bernard Barber, “Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery”, Science, CXXXIV (1961), 596-602.

8. Thomas S. Kuhn, ibid., The Nature of Normal Science, pp. 19-20.

9. Thomas S. Kuhn, ibid., Introduction: A Role for History, pp. 4.

10. Chronology – Ancient India – BC to 1000 AD, http://www.itihaas.com/ancient/index.html

11. John D. Mayne, Mayne’s Treatise on Hindu Law & Usage, Revised by Justice Alladi Kup-puswami, Fourteenth Edition (Bharat Law House, New Delhi, 1998), Preface to the First Edition, pp. 11-13.

12. John D. Mayne, ibid., p.16.13. John D. Mayne, ibid., p.6.14. John D. Mayne, ibid., p.2-3.15. John D. Mayne, ibid., p.10-11.16. Waman Shivram Apte, Sanskrit-Hindi Kosh,

Second Edition 1969, Reprint 1997 (Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Private Limited, Bun-glo Road, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 110 007), pp.329-330.

17. Thomas S. Kuhn, ibid., pp. 28.


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The author is Director, Godavari Polymers Pvt. Ltd.

He may be reached [email protected]

THE BHAGAWAD GEETA AS A TREASTISE OF VISION AND LEADERSHIP

DR.C. RAJENDRA KUMAR

Key WordsLeadership, Vision, Bhagawad Geeta

AbstractIt has been seen that society tolerates only those organizational set-ups for which there is a felt need. No organization has been able to service unless society has held and appre-ciated the benefits of its existence. The leaders who are having the vision for organization which are benefitted for so-ciety are appreciated and still continuing. Those leaders vision made impact on soci-ety. Western Management which are talk-ing about leadership and vision may be a decades or century ago, which is mostly goal-oriented and materialistic orientation of its followers who looked superficially but could not and did not taste deep of the sweet springs of knowledge that followed under-neath. This article is an effort to explore the leadership and his vision as enshrined in the Bhagwad Geeta.So most of the people understand Bhag-wad Geetha means only birth and one day is death, but actually Four thousand years ago, one the battle field of Kurukshetra Lord Krishna enunciated the effective manage-ment of human purpose, which includes people management, time management, Karma Management, Knowledge manage-ment etc., includes leadership and vision which is enshrined in the Bhagwad Geeta. Bhagwad Geeta philosophy of management makes to understand and appreciate the secretes of life yielded the benefits of self-knowledge to right people at the right time and the right manner.

“Bhagwad Geeta philosophy of management makes to understand and appreciate the secretes of life yielded the benefits of self-knowledge to right people at the right time and the right manner

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The long relentless morals of time has been illuminated time and again by leaders who have shown in their geographical and in-tellectual spheres before becoming a part

of history. These have been statesmen who have dreamt of a lasting world order that would bring peace and prosperity to the people of their lands. The earth has trembled again and again under the tread of huge armies marching to realize the dreams of military conquests by great strategicians Again and again master strategies have sat down to play the game of Political Chess, deploying human pawns to achieve their dreams of material and so-cial gains. The moving force every time, was not just human wants and desires but vision, dreams of certain individuals, that spanned across the wide open spaces of imagination, searching for the even elusive Holy Grail of achievement.

Vision characterized the leaders of yore, vision marks out the leaders of today

Vision characterized the leaders of yore, vision marks out the leaders of today. In every day and age, vision has been the mark of God that set a part the leaders of men. The Lord in his exposition to Arjuna conceptualizes the paradigm of vision through his great and glorious manifestation.

The beauty and the moving cadence of the Lord’s sermon holds Arjuna enthralled. Never had he imagined that his dear mate, his closest friend and ally possessed such divine heights of virtue, knowledge and skill of expression like a man who has thirsted for long fears to move away from the source of water, Arjuna cannot bear to stop listen-ing to the sweet melody of profound knowledge – knowledge that is dennied to even the greatest of sages and philosophers. And so, Partha the great-

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est all was

Katham Vidyamaham Yogims tvam sada paricintayamkesu-kesu ca bhavesucintyosi bhagavanmaya 10.17

Even true to the disciple who seeks with his very being, the lord grants his desire for the super ordi-nate knowledge, but with temperance:

hanta te kathayisyamidivya hy atmavibhutayah Pradhanyatah krusresthana sty anto vistarasya me 10.19

To any student of business management, this verse is a revelation of the science of information man-agement. What is the extent of knowledge avail-able and how much does an individual need to know is order to perform effectively is two key parameters in handling information. Information minus need – based pruning is almost an bother-some as no information at all. It is only too often that managers and administrators find themselves grouping in the dark in an avalanche of notes, let-ters, memos data sheets and computer printouts. Trying to sift and sieve to pick out the essence is by itself a major undertaking. In today’s age of ac-celerated events, time saving is often thought to be a very necessary and important function. Agil-ity in decision making is at a premium but what determines the probability of the correctness of the decision? Information, qualitatively useable, quantitatively adequate, forms the base for sound decisions.The leader guides, the leader motivates. By fol-lowing robust management principles himself, he inspires his subordinates, as does the lord so the lord picks out that which can be easily grasped by the intellect of man and yet can convey an aura of his magnificence. He talks not of the mysteries of heaven and earth but of creatures and beings with whom Arjuna is familiar And comprehension is created within a limited span of time

yad – yad vibhutimat SattvamSrimad Urjitam eva vatad – tad eva vagachha tvamMama tejomsasambhavam 10.41


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In describing vibhuti yoga the Lord proves beyond doubt the communication is probably one of the most powerful tools that the leader manger has ef-fective communication skills and needed to frame a crisp concise yet lucid message that will create a commonality of understanding with the receiver. All the examples are dream from within Arjuna’s field of experience leading to swift comprehen-sions. The language and its melodious melliflu-ous rendering evokes an imagery in the listener’s mind, reinforcing the message. Again and again, the essence is cemented in that whatever is good, whatever is great is a manifestation of God. The Lord repeats, summarizes and encapsulates. Strive for the highest for the highest is god and that is the way to sublimate oneself with the Holy pres-ence. To draw a parallel, business managers can find their heaven within the temples of work and their God in trying to achieve excellence. Attitude plays a key role here and to create the right atti-tude, total psychological acceptance may become a precondition.

Arjuna has heard the discourse of vibhuti yoga with rapt attention. He thinks he believes yet asks for empirical evidence so he may see with his own eyes and measure with his own senses.

manyase yadi tacchakyammaya drastumilti prabhoyogesvara tato me tavamdarsaya tmanamavyayam 11.4

Once again, a lesson in communication. The sub-ordinate is not fully convinced, inspite of the supe-riors explanations. He desires to know more yet if his tone smacks of arrogant enquiry, the superior may not be favorably inclined. Arjuna uses great humility in framing his request for further proof. His mentor, being God head himself, is above pride and prejudice but in the general manage-ment context this interchange holds significance in how to query one’s boss.

A lesson in basic leadership also emerges from this simple request of Arjuna. When the message being given is generally beyond common understand-ing, when great sensitivity and depths of intellect are required to perceive the fundamental truth in

the message, it may not be enough to only hold and erudite discourse on it. Credibility can be cre-ated equally well with a demonstration. True un-derstanding would originate from both seeing and believing.

The curious students of management may well query the nature of this divine vision. What is it and how can we relate it to the study of business management?

Credibility can be created equally well with a demonstration. true understanding would originate from both seeing and believing.

The complexities of life often obscure simple fun-damental truths. Events occurrences the interplay and conflicts of emotions, motives, desires and needs create a screen, a painted veil that mas-querades for reality in the consciousness of the superficial, the inherently lazy and the mentally bankrupt. Too often managers spend a life time counting trees but without even getting a holistic view of the forest of life. For that it is necessary to step back, keep emotions bay and rationally ex-amine the issues at stake, Examination not only in the rigid, hidebond commonly established ways but in manners new, free and flowing. jusetapos-ing ideas and thoughts, till suddenly all the pieces fall into place and the pattern is there clear lucid and beautiful in to stark simplicity. This ability, so rare, in the ethereal quality called vision that sets leaders apart from men and managers. Vision is ephemined. What brings is within mortal reach is insight ,the divine sight, that the lord bestows on Arjuna

tvamaksaram paramam veditavyamtvamasya visvasya param nidhanamtvamavyayah sasvatadharmagoptaSanatanastvam purusu mato me 11.18

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Yet Arjuna is afraid. Truth is dispassionate. It de-molish fondly held beliefs ruthlessly unless they are founded on truth. In the blazing in candes-cence before him ,he seeks all the symbols of mor-tal stability and security hurtling themselves into oblivion. All that remains is truth, aloof, fire-pure and shining through the velvety darkness of time.

In his insecurity, the subordinate appeals to the superior for help, for more guidance. Too much knowledge, too stark a version may shake under-standing, simply because the limitations of human understanding cannot encompass the vividness and magnificence of what is beholds.

Under all circumstances, leadership must retain its balance, its ability to think clearly and take far-seeing action to achieve near -at-hand goals. The Almighty once again establishes a cannon of ef-fective leadership .Even at the moment of supreme revelation, the lord has not forgotten the immedi-ate goal, that Arjuna must be enthused to fight and destroy the Kauravas.

human psychology creates its own mechanisms for wiping out or lessening the impact of disturbing events where the message is of deep- rooted significance, it must be re enforced.

Arjuna is now in need for reassurance. The leader senses when his forces have to be motivated and when they need to be reassured , to be made to feel secure. So the Lord withdraws his awesome appearance and resumes his tranquil, beautiful hu-man form .Arjun is soothed

drste’dam manuasam rupamtava saumyam janardanaidanim asami samurttahSacetah prakrutim gatah 11.51

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However the message must not be forgotten. Nor taken in lighter perspective. Human psychology creates its own mechanisms for wiping out or less-ening the impact of disturbing events where the message is of deep- rooted significance, it must be re enforced.

Leadership is a quality that is assumed to be inborn or capable of being developed. Vision is a distin-guishing feature of effective leadership. Vision is actualized through insight, dealing deep into hu-man consciousness in true search of understand-ing. Managers who develop into leaders assidu-ously try to understand their people, comprehend the contextual configurations and dynamic pat-terns, draw linkages between and the potential of their people and the opportunities in their environ-ment .Insight to realize , examples to motivate and flexibility to provide different styles of leadership according to the needs of the people are the three major lessons that management learns from the Vishwaroop darshan yoga of the song of the Lord.

THE VISION

Leaders see beyond the events of the moments in the life of their organizations to glimpse what the organization and its team members can become. This vision is rarely the product of other words in-spiration, although it may prove inspiring indeed. Instead the leaders vision is a rational projection or forecast of the organizations best hopes and ca-pabilities.

The vision role is played out through six distinct leadership activities.

• Vision statementsThe leader puts his or her vision into written and oral form that can be grasped by all the organiza-tion’s stake holders

• Visionary ActionThe leader translates visionary words into actions that confirms and support the vision

• Goal SettingThe leader sets specific goals that contribute di-rectly to the attainment of the vision


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• MotivationThe leader encourages organization members to think and act in ways that make the vision an even-tual reality

• Conceptual architectureThe leader makes sense out of the various aspects and aspiration of the organization’s parts. The leader understands and communication how the various parts of the organization interact

• ProphecyFinally, the leader challenges the best talents of group members by making bold pronouncements about problems and opportunities in the organiza-tion’s near term and long term future.

Yatra yogesvarah krisnayatra partho dhanur-dharah tatra srir vijayo bhutir dhruva nitir matir mama 18.78

Where there is vision combined with action, there will be success, wealth and justice.

Yogeshwara Krishna reprsents the Vision Arjuna represents Action

So the important core qualities a leaders should have are vision, mission and knowledge, which are driving the business revolution.

REFERENCES:

1. Pravir Malik, ’’The Flowering of Manage-ment’’, Sri AuroBindo institute of Research in social sciences, Pondicherry 1997.

2. Sai Beridu, ’’Scientific Mangement Spiritual Way’’, Jayalakshmi Publications, Bangalore 1999.

3. DR.G.P.Gupta,’’Management By conscious-ness’’, Sri AuroBindo Institute of Research in social sciences’’, Pondicherry 1994.

4. Ajanta E.Chakravarty, ’’The Geeta and the Art of successful Management’’, Harper Collins publishers India 1995.


The Author is Research Scholar, Institute of Manage-ment in Kerala, She may be reached at

[email protected]

RETHINKING ARTHASASTRA: AN APPROACH TO CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

MS. AGGI JEEMON

Key WordsArthasasthra, corporate governance, Kautilya, leader

AbstractIt is imperative to redefine the norms and principles of corporate governance since the fallout of economic downturn continues to devastate the global business arena. Ensur-ing profitability not at the cost of sustainabil-ity is a major challenge before the research-ers and practitioners. In order to resolve the inevitable gap existing in present corpo-rate governance policies, there emerged a paradigm change by embed- ding modern management ideas with the ancient wisdom roots. This paper reviews Arthasasthra au-thored by Kautilya, a pioneer in the field of economics. Arthasasthra, literally known as ‘Scripture of Wealth’ is one of oldest books available that provides a systematic treat-ment of management by presenting logical policies and procedures. The paper explores the lessons in corporate governance from Arthashastra, highli ghting the contribution of Kautilya in ancient India towards organi-zational science. The relevance of Arthasas-thra in the context of corporate governance is analyzed. This is an exploratory study based on secondary data.“ “Ensuring profitability

not at the cost of sustainability is a major challenge before the researchers and practitioners


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CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

As defined by the Organization for Eco-nomic Cooperation and Development (OECD) - “Corporate governance is the system by which business corporations

are directed and controlled. The corporate govern-ance structure specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities among different participants in the corporation, such as, the board, managers, shareholders and other stakeholders and spells out the rules and procedures for making decisions in corporate affairs. By doing this, it also provides the structure through which the company objectives are set and the means of attaining those objectives and monitoring performance.” The key points of interest in corporate governance therefore in-clude issues of transparency and accountability, the legal and regulatory environment, appropriate risk management measures, information flows and the responsibility of senior management and the board of directors.It is a broad concept and has been defined and un-derstood differently by different groups and at dif-ferent points of time. The Cadbury Committee re-port defines it as “the system by which companies are directed and controlled”. It is generally under-stood as the framework of rules, relationships, sys-tems and processes within and by which author-ity is exercised and controlled in corporations.”

CURRENT SCENARIO

Over the last two decades, corporate governance has attracted a great deal of public interest because of its apparent importance for the economic health of corporations and society in general. Falling stock markets, corporate failures, dubious accounting practices, abuses of corporate power, fraud, crimi-nal investigations, mismanage- ment, excessive executive compensation indicate that the entire economic system upon which investment returns have depended is showing signs of stress that have undermined investors’ confidence. Some corpora-tions have grown dramatically in a relatively short time through acquisitions funded by inflated share prices and promises of even brighter futures. In others, it seems as if the checks and balances that should protect shareholder interests were pushed to one side, driven by a perception of the need to move fast in the pursuit of the bottom one. While

some failures were the result of fraudulent ac-counting and other illegal practices, many of the same companies exhibited actual corporate gov-ernance risks such as conflicts of interest, inexperi-enced directors, overly lucrative compensation, or unequal share voting rights (Anderson and Orsagh, 2004). In the face of such scandals and malprac-tices, there has been a renewed emphasis on cor-porate governance.

ETHICAL DIMENSION OF CORPORATE GOV-ERNANCE

An economic strategy is humanized and made at-tainable in a living organization by deciding on the character the company is to have, the values it espouses, and its relationships to its customers, employees, communities, and shareholders. The personal values and ethical aspirations of the company leaders, though probably not specifically stated, are implicit in all strategic decisions. Com-mitment to quality objectives - among them com-pliance with law and high ethical standards - is an organizational achievement (Kenneth Andrews, 1989).

Over the last two decades, corporate governance has attracted a great deal of public interest

Harshbarger and Holden (2004) point out that while many of the governance issues that organiza-tions face are not new, the environment in which they confront them is more challenging than ever. Studies (Trevino, Weaver, Givson and Toffler, 1999) have found that specific characteristics of le-gal compliance programs matter less than broader perceptions of a program’s orientation toward val-ues and ethical aspirations. They found that what helped the most are consistency between policies and actions as well as dimensions of the organi-zation’s ethical climate such as ethical leadership, fair treatment of employees, and open discussion of the current business environment provides an

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excellent opportunity to establish an organiza-tional culture that goes beyond mere legal compli-ance. Seidman (2004) observes that in suggesting an organization promote a culture that encourages a commitment to compliance with the law, it is im-portant to understand the nature of what culture is and how it informs human decisions and actions. In other words, we have a culture of compliance unless we have a culture of ethics (Arjoon, 2005).

KautIlya and arthasasthra – an overvIew

Vishnu Gupt known by the names Kautilya and Chanakya belonged to the Magadh State, which corresponds to present day South Bihar in India. Kautilya studied at one of the world’s oldest uni-versities, Takshasila University. He was later the Pro- fessor of Politics and Economics in the same university. He joined Chandragupta Maurya’s em-pire and served as the Mahaamatya; a post similar to the present day Prime Minister and, thus, pos-sessed rich experience in political administration and defence matters. Kautilya was credited with bringing down the Nanda Dynasty and influencing the defeat of Alexander in India when the warrior was on his way to conquer the world. As a politi-cal thinker, he was the first to visualise the concept of a ‘nation’ in human history. He brought all the small split up kingdoms together under one ‘Cen-tral Governance’, thus creating a nation called ‘Ar-yavartha’, which later became India.For ages, rulers across the world have referred to the Arthashastra for building a nation on sound economics, based on spiritual values. Arthasasthra was written as a treatise for the king Chandragupta Maurya and stated in its preface that it has been written as a guide for “those who govern”. Arthasas-thra consists of 15 books, 380 Shlokas and 4968 Sutras. The first book in the Arthashastra addresses itself to the effective and appropriate conduct of top management, to the problem of how decisions should be made, to the importance of the effective use of information, and to the delegation of gen-eral or topical authority. The importance of several managerial skills, such as the delegation of author-ity and the importance of information systems are clear from the titles of the chapters in the book. The intent of these chapters is to help organize a small central core of managers which will run their

respective areas of concern with reference to the goals set by the top management of the organiza-tion, using the data to be had from an extensive information gathering system which is set up for this purpose, and which is strictly accountable di-rectly to the top management.The second book generally deals with the allo-cation and control of resources, production, and expenditure, as well as the development, quality control, and distribution of agricultural, manu-factured or processed goods. It also deals with the extension of the control, decision-making sys-tems, and information systems, to the level of the common person’s everyday life. The third book of Arthashastra deals generally with what could be classified as legal matters, such as the nature of contracts, legally binding agreements, loans, de-posits, recovery of debts, and the laws concern-ing purchase and sale.

arthasasthra was written as a treatise for the king Chandragupta maurya and stated in its preface that it has been written as a guide for “those who govern

The fourth and fifth books of the Arthasasthra are basically concerned with the subject of protecting the general public and the leader’s position against the detrimental and unenlightened economic moves of special-interest groups in society and against the antisocial or criminal element of soci-ety. It also deals with motivation theories, ways of ensuring loyalty and /or compliance with the law, and punishment. The remaining books deal with the complex, predictive description of the relationships that exist between variously related states or corporate bodies. This includes consideration of these states’ possible relationships with each other, their possible relative strengths and weak-nesses, the various types of relationships that these various states could have with other states of vari-ous strengths, the relative advantages to each of

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the states involved in any given relationship, and the corresponding most effective courses of action. (Shamasastry, 1956)It is essentially on the art of governance and has an instructional tone. The main focus of the book is on creation and management of wealth. The book is a masterpiece covering wide range of top-ics like politics, military, trade, statecraft, legal and accounting systems, civil rules, fiscal poli-cies, taxation, selection and training of employees, leadership skills, medicine, metallurgy, measures of length, weight, time, gemology, etc. The earli-est glimpses of Arthashastra can be found from the Ayodhya Kanda of Valmiki Ramayana and in the Santi Parva of the Vyasa Mahabharata. Rig Veda also contains traces of Arthasasthra. Even though India and Indians never forgot the Arthashastra, the study and practical application of the book lost its importance since the British rule. Prof. Shama Shastry rediscovered the book in 1905, and he wrote its first English translation. However, apart from the scholarly work, this book needs to be once again represented for practical application.

ARTHASASTHRA AND MODERN ORGANIZA-TIONS

According to Arindam Chaudhuri, one of the preacher of Theory ‘I’ Management or Indian management, although India has some of the best management schools in the world, most Indian or-ganisations have not been able to do well interna-tionally. Among the reasons cited is the failure of Indian management to develop the indigenous management style, which revolves around Indian cultural roots and upbring- ing (Chaudhuri, 2003). Management is culture specific, also multidiscipli-nary: It applies the disciplines of psychology, so-cial psychology, sociology, politics, economics, cultural anthropology, law, finance and philoso-phy (Muniapan, 2005). The interest in religious and philosophical (also historical) studies in man-agement is increasing (Kale & Shrivastava, 2003). Chinmayananda (2003) asserted that ancient phi-losophies needs intelligent re-interpretation to ap-ply effectively in the context of modern times.Several studies have been done on various aspects of Arthashastra, however studies specifically in the context of business organizations is limited. Kumar & Rao (1996) conducted a study of value based

management from Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Naray-ana (2002) integrated Kautilya’s Arthashastra into strategic leadership, Muniappan (2008) into CSR perspective, Waldauer et.al (1996) into trade, taxa-tion and labour theory.Writing more than two thousand years before Hume, Smith, Ricardo and J.S. Mill Kautilya an-ticipated their thoughts on the importance of con-ducting trade in accordance with the principle of comparative advantage, that imports are as important as exports in promoting a nation’s economic development and growth, and that reciprocal de-mand will determine the value of commodities in bilateral and multilat- eral trade. His view of in-ternational trade is most clearly spelled in Book II, Chapter XVI which specifies the duties of the king’s superintendent of Commerce. Kautilya had a highly refined understanding of the law of de-mand and supply and the pernicious effects of gluts in the market.

the interest in religious and philosophical (also historical) studies in management is increasing (Kale & Shrivastava, 2003)

He also clearly anticipated Smith and Ricardo on the principles of effective taxation that will result in an ideal system of taxation: one which will pro-mote economic growth and development, ensure that resources are used efficiently, whose burden is borne fairly and which distorts economic decision-making as little as possible. Kautilya was far ahead of his time in developing a labour theory of value in trying to determine what was ‘just’ wage for workers. He explicitly recognized that the value of labour depends on the level of skills employed, time spent on the job, and the amount of output produced. He also was cognizant that the market value of labour also reflects the market value of the product created. (Waldaeur, Zahka, & Pal; 1996) The key operational words used in the Arthashas-tra are the same as those used by managers today:

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organization, delegation of authority, effective information systems, and a forward-looking policy of management by objective (Starzl & Dhir, 1986).Arthasasthra provides a comprehensive guide for the formation and control of organizations. While the particular terminologies used in the text may at first sound strange, a closer look reveals that the basic problems addressed are the same as faced by modern managers, namely, those pertaining to educational, organizational (structure and stand-ards of conduct), informational, and environmen-tal imperatives. In explaining the Arthashastra in the context of management, the term rajya (state) is interpreted to the organisation, the raja or king is the leader or the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), amatya or mantri (ministers) are the managers of various departments such as finance, marketing, human resources and operations, kosh refers to fi-nances, danda the administrative or the manage-ment system, durg, the security system and bal the work force (Muniapan and Shaikh, 2007).

RELEVANCE OF ARTHASASTHRA IN CORPO-RATE GOVERNANCE

The cardinal principle of economic administration was laid down in Kautilya’s Arthshastra in the fol-lowing words - “The root of wealth is economic activity and lack of it brings material distress. In the absence of fruitful economic activity, both cur-rent prosperity and future growth are in danger of destruction.” Arthasastra includes all aspects of administration such as establishing a governing hierarchy, selecting people, levying taxes, to lay-ing down laws, to decide punishments for break-ing the law, etc. (Muniapan and Shaikh, 2007). Arthashashtra has detailed policies for the society, individual industries, labour and employment, ca-lamities and control of vices.In Book 1, Section 1, Chapter 4, Statement 3, it is stated “. . . having for its purpose the acquisition of things not possessed, the preservation of things possessed, the augmentation of things preserved, and the bestowal of things augmented on worthy recipients” (Kangle, 1972). This statement of goals strongly represents the modern conception of the long-term survival and value maximization of the firm.Good governance is basic to the Kautilyan idea

of administration. Good governance and stabil-ity are inextricably linked. If rulers are responsive, accountable, recallable, there is stability. He states that the young leader should be trained in three specific areas: Arthashastra (economic adminis-tration), Nitishastra (foreign affairs) and Dandaniti (political science). Proper direction and guidance from the leader will ensure current prosperity and future gains. Inactivity of the leader in economic sphere will bring the kingdom close to destruction. A king with depleted treasury is a weak king and the easiest target for a take over. An ideal corpo-rate leader is the one who has the highest quali-ties of leadership, intellect, energy and personal attributes. The essence of leadership, he stresses, lies in its acceptance by the subjects. He there-fore, advises never to forget the two pillars of the art of governance: Nyay, the justice and Dharma, the ethics. Kautilya used the word ‘dharma’ and righteousness in personal and social conduct. He described the basic ethical (dharmic) values as, “Duties common to all - ahimsa (abstaining from injury to all living creatures); satyam (truthfulness); cleanliness; freedom from malice; compassion and tolerance.” He advises to introspect to identify leader’s atma doshas, i.e. deficiencies to improve or develop oneself. He further advises to study de-ficiencies of his cabinet members and take steps to improve upon them.

the root of wealth is economic activity and lack of it brings material distress

In Chapter I of Book XI, the author provides guid-ance as to how a chief executive should conduct himself: “The chief of corporations should endear himself to all the people by leading a virtuous life, by controlling his passions, and by pursuing that course of action which is liked by all those who are his followers.” In Chapter XV of Book 1, he gives advice to what can be considered board and audit committees: “All kinds of administrative measures are preceded by deliberations in a well-formed council. The subject matter of a council shall be

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entirely secret and deliberations in it shall be so carried that even birds cannot see them.”Radhakrishnan (2005) elaborated in 12 sutras (verses) of Kautilya with regards to self-control, which includes the importance of control over the senses by giving up kama, krodha, lobha, mana, mada and harsha, i.e. lust, anger, pride, arrogance and foolhardiness. The first teaching of Kautilya is to conquer the internal enemies before you con-quer the external enemies. According to Kautilya, by casting out the group of six enemies the leader should acquire control over the senses, cultivate his intellect by association with elders, keep a watchful eye by means of spies, bring about secu-rity and well-being by activity, maintain the obser-vance of their special duties by carrying out duties, acquire discipline by instruction in the sciences, attain popularity by association with what is of ma-terial advantage and maintain behaviour by what is beneficial (Muniapan and Shaikh, 2007).Kautilya seems to have given a lot of thought to human resource development for the government machinery. He is specific about the qualities or qualifying standards for appointment of a Mantri. These qualities are: Drudhachitta (power of con-centration), Shilavan (character), Pragna (thinking capability), Vangmi (communication skills) and Daksha (observation / vigilance). In addition, he highlights the competencies that a Mantri must possess. These competencies are the same as the competencies advocated by the management gu-rus of the present times, namely, Knowledge, Skills and Attitude.Kautilya’s Arthashastra identified the significance of training and learning. It clearly stated that train-ing imparted discipline. Thus, the lessons of disci-pline could be imparted to those whose intellect had the desire to learn, capacity to listen attentive-ly, power to grasp what was taught, to retain it in memory, discriminate between the important and the unimportant, draw inferences, deliberate and imbibe the truth and not to others. Kautilya stated that investment in human capital especially in higher education would have a greater impact on the growth and development of the economy.The Arthashastra also contains a section describ-ing the mode of action which it demonstrates is the most effective and efficient in the management of the organization, the just and measured use of power (Kangle, 1956). The statement of the way in

which the controlling body of an organization can implement its designs appears to be a significant improvement over the approach of modern theo-rists of strategic planning structures and objectives is made explicit rather than being left to the im-agination of the particular manager involved. Kau-tilya refers to diplomacy as an important element in Nitishastra (foreign affairs). Diversified economy should consist of productive forests, water reser-voirs, mines, productive activities, trade, markets, roads, ports, and storages. Efficient management means setting up of realistic targets and meeting targets without using over-zealous methods. Prof-itabil- ity should not only mean surplus over costs. It should also mean provision of investment for fu-ture growth.

Kautilya’s arthashastra identified the significance of training and learning.

Kautilya stressed the importance of happiness to all stakeholders of an organisation. He stated that happiness is obtained not only by wealth and prof-it, but also by doing things rightly and doing right things (sukhasya moolam dharma). Dharma with-out wealth according to Kautilya is toothless (dhar-masya moolam artha), and wealth without dharma is useless because a poor person cannot support the entire society. Indian culture has always em-phasised that sukhasya moolam dharma and dhar-masya moolam artha taken together – namely, wealth does not lead to directly happiness. One must strive to generate wealth – resources and money – share it equitably to create happiness for oneself and others. Such generation of wealth must also be through ethical means, which alone would lead to overall happiness (Garde, 2003). Kautilya further stated to generate wealth you require an

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enterprise or an organisation or an asset (arthasya moolam rajyam). He then stated the support for or-ganisation is the organs (rajyasya moolam indriya-jayah), the functions, processes, activities, etc. The victory over organs of the body, which is the literal meaning of the word indiyajayah, is a well-known concept in the Indian culture and this refers to the control over the five organ of sense (Muniapan and Shaikh, 2007). The economic growth with equity and social welfare as propounded in Arthasasthra is bound to render sustainability to corporate gov-ernance system.

CONCLUSION

Kautilya by taking a holistic and integrated ap-proach to governance had provided a new dimen-sion to corporate governance, which unfortunately has remained neglected all this time. For him governance works well with resource manage-ment, efficient administration, a fair judicial sys-tem, knowledgeable people with integrity capable of taking up high positions. He was equally clear on the organizational aspects, human dimensions of an organization as well as the leadership re-quirement of an organization. Arthashastra is the evidence of the intellectual capital India possessed in its glorious past. Since its relevance has not fad-ed even after 24 centuries have gone by we need the attitude for resurrecting and recreating the in-tellectual capital for the future.

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1. Andrews, K. (1989), Ethics in Practice: Manag-ing the Moral Corporation, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, Massachusetts.

2. Arjoon, S (2005), Corporate Governance: An ethical perspective, Journal of Busi- ness Eth-ics, 61(4), 343-352

3. Chaudhuri, A. (2003) Theory “I” Management Leadership Success Multiplier Model. Avail-able at: http://www.arindamchaudhuri.com/

theory.htm.4. Chinmayananda, S. (1992) Commentary on

Bhagavad-Gita. Mumbai, India: Sai Enterpris-es.

5. Garde, A.R. (2003) Chanakya’s Aphorisms on Management, Ahmedabad Manage- ment As-sociation, Ahmedabad.

6. Harshbarger, S. and T. Holden (2004) The New Realities of Corporate Governance, Eth-ics Matters, Center for Business Ethics, Bendey College, MA.

7. Kangle, R. P. (1972): The Kautiliya Arthasas-thra. Bombay, India: University of Bombay Press

8. Muniapan, B. and Shaikh, J. (2007) Lessons in Corporate Governance from Kautilya’s Artha-shastra in Ancient India, World Review of En-trepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development (WREMSD). Special Issue on: “Accounting Stan- dards Convergence, Corpo-rate Governance and Sustainability Practices in East Asia”, Vol. 3, 50–51.

9. Radhakrishnan, P. (2005) Kautilya Arthshas-tra, Available at: http://www.chinfo.org/ %5C downloads%5CScholars%5CEssay1.pdf.

10. Seidman, D. (2004) The Essential Union of Law and Ethics’, Ethics Matters, Center for Business Ethics, Bentley College, MA.

11. Shamasastry, R (1956) Kautilya’s Arthasasthra 8th ed. Mysore, India: Mysore Print- ing and Publishing House

12. Starzl, T.W. and Dhir, K.S. (1986) Strategic planning 2300 years ago: The strategy of Kau-tilya, Management International Review, 26(4) 70-77

13. Trevino, L., G. Weaver, D. Givson and B. Tof-fler (1999) ‘Managing Ethics and Legal Com-pliance: What Works and What Hurts’, Cali-fornia Management Review 41(2), 131-151.

14. Waldaeur, C. Zahka, W. J. & Pal, Surendra (1996) Kautilya’s Arthasasthra: A neglected precursor to classical economics, Indian Eco-nomic Review, 31(1) 101- 108


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The author is Deputy Director General National Informatics Centre,

Hyderabad – 500 063.He may be reached at [email protected]

INTERPRETATION OF AN INTEGRATED FRAME- WORK FOR THE CONTENTS OF RIG VEDA, PURANAS AND SCIENCE

C.S.R. Prabhu

Key WordsArthasasthra, corporate governance, Kautilya, leader

AbstractThe word Veda means knowledge. The real world is made of Nature, which has many components, such as Entities/Subjects or Forces of Nature. The same were called ‘Devatas’ both in Rig Veda and Yajur Veda (e.g., Sun, Water, Air, Fire, Life, etc,.). In the Atharva Veda, some of the Devatas are Me-dicinal Plants (such as Prishni Parni). The same Forces or Subjects/ Entities of Nature or ‘Devatas’ are discussed in various disci-plines of Science - Physics, Chemistry, Ge-ology, Hydrology deal in great detail – Sun, Earth, Water, Air, Life, etc,. In Botany, some of the ‘Devatas’ of Atharva Veda, i.e., Me-dicinal Plants are dealt in detail. The Yajur Veda explains the processes (called Yaj-nas) which can result in the replenishment and balancing of Environment in terms of its constituent Forces/Subjects/Entities of Nature, i.e., ‘Devatas’ being propitiated through these processes.In the Puranas, on the other hand, the same Subjects/Entities or Forces of Nature (or ‘De-vatas’) are dealt allegorically in the personi-fication mode – i.e., Earth as Goddess Earth, Fire or Energy as God Agni, Sun as Sun God, etc,. The benevolent and powerful natures of these Forces of Nature are described as the nature and behaviour of the ‘Devatas’, i.e., Forces of Nature, in a personified man-ner in the form of stories which are actually allegories (e.g., Pruthu’s story about replen

“ “the real world is made of Nature, which has many components, such as Entities/Subjects or Forces of Nature.


ishing and harnessing Earth).Thus, we finally see that all the three frameworks, the Vedic, the Puranic and the Scientific will merge into one inte-grated framework of Knowledge of Na-ture and Reality.

INTRODUCTION

The word Veda means knowledge (Vid Jnane), both of the real world and also of everything beyond the real world (Vid Sattayam). The real world is the manifest

form of the unmanifest Reality. The manifest Real-ity is Nature (Apara Prakriti) in its manifold forms – the entities of the Nature – the material agglom-erations – their categories, aggregations and also the various forces of Nature. The Transcendent Re-ality, which is the unmanifest Nature (Para Prakri-ti) is the cause of all material reality, the manifest Nature, with all its mundane and varied constitu-ents. The Veda has to represent the knowledge of both the manifest and the unmanifest Reality. The forms of constituents of the manifest Nature have to be caused by the unmanifest forces of Nature, as they are just the gross forms of the subtle un-manifest Reality. Analogous thought is conveyed by Sri Aurobindo when he refers to the Being and the Becoming, i.e., the Unmanifest Reaility and the Manifest Reality.Science is a system of knowledge of the manifest Reality or Nature. Science comprises of a variety of subjects such as Physics, Chemistry and allied subjects for understanding and representing physi-cal forms of Nature. Similarly, Biology is for un-derstanding and representing biological life forms in Nature. So also many other fields of Science exist, each dealing with one or more constituents of manifest Reality or Nature. Thus, Science is the “Veda” of manifest Nature in all its varied constitu-ents (Apara Prakriti with 8 constituents – Bhumi, Apa, Anala, Vayu, Kham, Manas, Buddhi, Ahanka-ra) – form, components, constituent entities and their aggregations and also forces acting upon them. While Science limits its understanding to the manifest or the gross Physical Nature, the Veda encompasses its scope to both the manifest and the unmanifest aspects of Nature. Thus, we see a clear

integration in the approach and objectives of Veda and Science, so far as the manifest Nature is con-cerned. This concept is referred as Adhi Bhautika level of knowledge of Veda.

the word Veda means knowledge (Vid Jnane), both of the real world and also of everything beyond the real world (Vid Sattayam).

The Puranas, on the other hand, depict the Na-ture, both physical (or mundane) and the spiritual (or transcendental), same as the Veda, but with a personified perception and depiction of forces and entities of Nature as Personalities – an allegorical depiction of both the manifest and unmanifest Na-ture, its constituents, entities, their agglomerations, their aggregations and forces acting upon them. His- torical depiction is also made for the same.As stated in the very beginning, the Puranas are actually aiming at conveying the same knowledge in the Vedas (Vedam Upabrimhitam) in a simpli-fied, albeit allegorical and figurative ways to the masses who did not have access to the Veda. Thus, we see that barring the form of allegory, the con-tent, scope and objective of the Puranas and the Vedas are the same, by own admission. We have already shown that the objective of Science is un-derstanding manifest Nature, which also is the ob-jective (atleast partially) of the Veda and therefore also Puranas. Thus, all the three – Science, Veda and Purana have the common objective of under-standing, acquiring and representing knowledge of Nature or Reality. The Vaiseshika Darshana, one of the Six Darshanas (or Six Schools of Indian Phi-losophy) had clearly brought out the physical do-main of the knowledge or Veda in detail. The con-stituent entities dealt by Vaiseshika (the 8 Dravyas) are the same as the constituents of Apara Prakriti (with Time and Space to be added). Similarly other Shastras and also other Darshanas elaborated the reality in their own ways. All the Darshanas and

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Shastras are fully complementary to each other (and therefore divergent) but on the whole consist-ent with Veda.

EARLIER INTERPRETATIONS

The earlier interpretations of the Rig Veda were of multifarious diversity.Sayana’s CommentaryThe traditional and orthodox or religious interpreta-tion of the Rig Veda was by the great Sayana (1315 -1387). In his commentary (Sayana Bhashya) the main focus was on the Puranic framework for the Vedic Gods. However, Sayana made abundantly clear in the early stage of his commentary that his interpretation in the commentary is not final and not exhaustive – it concentrates primarily on the “viniyoga” or “utilization” of the Vedic Mantras in the ritual processes in various Yajnas. The Devatas of Sayana’s commentary are the personified Vedic Deities, who are also personal and they were even more personified in the Puranas. Sayana made it clear that the aim of his commentary is not to give a final or exhaustive interpretation of the philo-sophical content of the Veda, but to limit his inter-pretation for the specific purpose of “viniyoga” – of utilization of the Mantras in the elaborate Vedic rituals i.e., Yajnas, in an age of strictly orthodox Puranic Hinduism. The historical necessity of re-vival of orthodox Hinduism was also the compel-ling for Sayana (and Vidyaranya).

the historical necessity of revival of orthodox hinduism was also the compelling for Sayana (and Vidyaranya).

Thus, Sayana left out the final interpretation on the philosophical content of Veda – the identity of the Devatas of the Veda or the Pantheism, Polytheism and Monotheism of the Veda.It need not be stated that Sayana had no interest in Modern Science as there was no such subject as Modern Science during his period (14th Century AD).

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WESTERN COMMENTARIES

The western scholars of 19th century (such as Griffith, Max Mueller and others) gave their own interpretations, fundamentally based on Sayana’s commentary, but sometimes biased or deviated to a significant extent. The western scholars had no idea of the tradition in India, except for their academic study of Sayana’s commentary, albeit without the correct grasp of its implications, due to their lack of familiarity with Indian culture and tradition. Some of them were even commissioned by the British. Thus, some of them ended up giv-ing highly objectionable and even sometimes of-fensive interpretations, which were suitable to the British colonial aspirations – a vested interest to deliberately attempt at denigrating Indian culture and religion to justify and promote their coloniza-tion of India. In order to marr the image of India and Hinduism, deliberately denigrating interpreta-tions were given by some of these scholars. This assault on India through the distortion and offen-sive interpretation of the Rig Veda was abhorred and successfully countered by some of the then contemporary Indian scholars, the most prominent of them being Swami Dayananda Saraswati, who was the founder of the Arya Samaj.

DAYANANDA’S

Swami Dayananda Saraswati, the founder of the Arya Samaj was a great scholar of Sanskrit and the Vedas. He took strong exception and objected to the vested, incorrect, demeaning and offensive in-terpretations of the Veda by some of the western scholars. He established the fallacy of such inter-pretations with the help of Vyakarana and Nirukta. He also strongly objected to Sayana’s commentar-ies to the Veda including the Viniyoga of the Veda in the Yajans, on the grounds of Vyakarana and Nirukta. He had successfully negated the violence in Yajnas. He had held strong positions, objecting to the Puranic tradition as a whole and made a highly laudable attempt to revive the glory of the Veda by his interpretation in his commentaries. One distinguishing aspect of Dayananda’s com-mentary on the Veda was the leaning and affiliation he showed towards Modern Science. He claimed that the Veda contained statements of scientific truths, scientific and technological processes and techniques which can be utilized in day to day life.


He gave important insights into various scientific subjects derived from Vedic Mantras. He showed the presence of many sciences and even technolo-gies in the Veda in his works and commentaries. His work had a great impact on Hinduism in gen-eral. He also had an image of revolutionary Vedic scholar and social reformer.

SRI AUROBINDO’S INTERPRETATION

Sri Aurobindo had given his own commentary on the Veda. He identified Vedic Devatas as abstract Entities, Forces and Powers of Nature, in a less personified manner (though he never objected to the personification in the Puranas). Impor- tantly, Sri Aurobindo had declared his full endorsement and support to the views expressed by Swami Day-ananda Saraswati, especially in the context of the scientific interpretation of the Vedic Mantras. In fact, he declared, that such interpretation of Day-ananda on the scientific content of the Veda is not an exaggeration but is only an understatement. Leaving great scope for future research in dis-covery of scientific content in the Vedic Mantras.Thus, we see that both Sri Aurobindo and Swami Dayananda Saraswati had integrated Science with the Veda (But the Puranas were kept aside in this integration).

SUMMARIZATION OF THE EARLIER INTERPRE-TATION OF THE VEDAS

Thus, we can summarize all the earlier interpreta-tions on the Veda as follows:While Polytheism (worshiping multiple gods) and Pantheism (Nature Worship) was identified in the Veda by the western scholars, Monotheism was the main import of the interpretation by Swami Dayananda Saraswati who also negated the Pura-nas. Both Sri Aurobindo and Dayananda had ac-knowledged the content of Science in the Veda. It was also interpreted by Sri Aurobindo and some western scholars that the Vedas contained Mono-theism, in addition to Polytheism and Pan- theism, as an approach of integration between all the three perspectives: Polytheism, Pantheism and Mono-theism (One becoming Many or One behind Many or One behind all Nature).

Dayananda Saraswati had integrated Science with the Veda

While Judaism, Christianity and Islam believed in pure Monotheism, the Veda contained pure Mon-otheism (as portrayed by Swami Dayananda), in addition to Polytheism and Pantheism, which were well integrated with Monotheism.In the Upanishads, later, the Monism or Advaita was presented as the pure form of Monotheism. The integration and synthesis between all the “the-isms” namely Polytheism, Pantheism and Mono-theism can be found in the final stage of the Vedic/ Upanishadic philosophy (which integrated the Pu-ranas also). However, Science was kept aside in this framework of approach.

THE VEDIC / INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL FRAME-WORK

The Indian philosophical framework manifested in Advaita, Dwaita, Vishishtadvaita, Traita and other interpretation of “One Truth” of the Vedas and Upanishads, all accept in the existence of One Self or Atman or Paramatman. Pure Conscious-ness called in different names as Narayana, Shiva, Brahma, Para Brahma, Sat, Chit, Ananda (and so on) as the subtle and unmanifest Reality which is al pervading and Omnipresent beyond Time and Space. They all accept Nature or Prakriti or Shakti or Maya, as the manifest Reality – Nature. All com-ponents of Nature i.e., Natural Forces or Entities are considered as Devatas (such as Vayu, Agni, Varuna, Prithvi, etc,.)

DEVATA

The word Devata in Veda has an etymology of be-ing a “subject” in the sense of a specific topic or subject of discussion (as per one definition of De-vata in Yaska’s Nirukta). Thus, we find that in the Atharva Veda “Prishniparni” is a Devata. Actually, “Prishniparni” is a medicinal plant. In the Atharva Veda it is called as “Devata” and in its praise the Mantra describes its properties, uses and applica-

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tions in Medicine. Thus, we see that it is a scien-tific description of the properties of the medicinal plant “Prishniparni”.(Panini’s Dhatu Patha gives ‘light’ as one meaning for root Divu by which we can interpret that Deva or Devata to mean light on a particular subject)– throwing light on a subject).

it is generally accepted or claimed that the Puranas claim to be the simplified elaborations of the contents of the Veda.

Thus, we can see that if “Devata” is taken as a “subject”, then every Mantra or Sukta in the Veda has a “Devata” or subject, on which the Mantra or Sukta praises, elaborates or describes its proper-ties or functions. Thus, every such description is nothing but a description of the detailed informa-tion about that “subject” (i.e., Devata). For exam-ple, when the subject is Sun (i.e, Savita Devata) all the properties and functions of Sun are described (in Sookthas such as Soura or Aruna). Similarly, the information on Prana or Life is provided in Prana Sookta. The details of Earth are provided in Bhu Sukta, and so an, all subjects i.e., all Devatas are covered in the entire Veda. Thus, we can conclude that all the descriptions or many descriptions in the Veda are about subjects or Devatas such as Earth, Sun, Energy (Agni), Life(Prana), etc,. – which is nothing but pure Science – the description of functions and properties, effects or characteristics of each of the Natural entities or Natural Forces – Science or Natural Science is nothing but a study to acquire the knowledge of the functions, proper-ties or characteristics of various Entities or Forces of Nature.These subjects can be major subjects ones such as the Energy Principle (Agni), Sun, Moon, Plan-ets, Earth, Life or they could be simple subjects as some particular medicinal plant. Alternatively, these subjects could be abstract notions, emotions, entities or concepts such as Knowledge, Love,

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Wealth, Beauty, Power, Attraction, all represent-ed as various Devatas. (The same Devatas were later found in the religious worship in temples in Greece, Rome, Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Ara-bia all of which had their origin in the Rigveda).Thus, we see that there is a direct identity corre-spondence between the Veda and Science.

PURANIC PERSONIFICATION

It is generally accepted or claimed that the Pura-nas claim to be the simplified elaborations of the contents of the Veda. In the process of simplifica-tion, personification was done. For example, “the Earth or Bhu Devata was weakened and then she goes and weeps in front of King Prithu”. What does this mean? The Earth was weakened and squeezed out – as today – an environmental destruction of Earth took place. Then King Prithu “revives” – i.e., regenerates the Earth by adopting specific meas-ures of replenishment and regeneration – all this is well known in Environmen- tal Science or Ecol-ogy. Similarly, the Puranic Devatas are all personi-fied beings – many of them exist in the Veda as “less” personified or purely impersonal entities or subjects (i.e., Vedic Devatas). The personification has actually began in the Veda itself but got con-solidated in the stories of Puranas which describe certain historical events involving Natural Forces or Devatas in a figurative or Alankaric mode of al-legories or stories with individuals acting and all the individuals are Devatas or Natural Forces or Abstract Notions or Qualities or Concepts in ad-dition to humans. But the principle conveyed by the story of the Purana is only a figurative way of expressing and recording certain events or activi-ties or phenomena – as riddles – only to be deci-phered correctly. This is the approach of the Veda also, deliberately sometimes, to convey the mean-ing in a hidden or allegorical manner (using Slesha Alankara – eg. ‘Chatvari Shringa’). The objective of such allegories or figurative depictions (with per-sonification) is to convey a profound concept or description in a very simple manner, which will be appealing and conveying a message to the masses, less literate or even children, who very much like to listen and understand stories, instead of bland philosophy or principles of Science directly. The direct description of the functions and properties of the specific environmental Entity/Force is also


done in Puranas. For example, in Ramayana the functions, properties and characteristics of Sun are brought out clearly in Aditya Hridayam.

BHAGAVAD GITA REFERENCES

In the third chapter of the Bhagavad Gita, the Ya-jna is described as a process of replenishing the Environmental Forces or Entities called Devatas by humans. Hu- mans who consume environ-mental forces without replenishing them back are described as to be performing theft. Therefore, continuous or regular Yajna is prescribed to pro-pitiate the Devatas, i.e., replenishing the Environ-ment. In the third chapter and elsewhere the Gita describes the Devatas ( of the Veda and Puranas) in the same lines.

THE NEW FRAMEWORK PROPOSED – STRENGTHS AND ADVANTAGES

In the new framework of interpretation proposed here there is an integration of three different do-mains – an integration of Vedic, Puranic and Sci-entific domains. Nor- mally all these three domains are understood to be independent domains. There has not been a convergence between Science and Religion, in the context of a Universal View of the world – of Nature in general. There was a conflict perceived. The religious framework has been iden-tified to be classifiable as Monothestic or Polythes-tic or Pantheistic. The Pagan doctrine was mostly Pantheistic – worship of Nature. The apparent (not real) schism between these three frameworks is re-sponsible for most of conflicts today.However, in the Veda we find an integration and synthesis of Pantheism and Polytheism with Mono-theism. We can say both “Top Down” and “Bottom Up” approaches are found in Vedas. In the “Top Down” approach, one Monotheistic Spiritual En-tity, Supreme God of Worship can be understood to be the One Reality whose components are the Polytheistic and Pantheistic Divine Entities Gods/Sub Gods – all forces and components of Nature.In the “Bottom Up” approach the individual En-tities of Nature i.e., Pantheistic entities and Poly-thestic Gods of Worship can be sublimated or proposed to be integrated into one final Supreme Entity God (Vedic statements as “Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti”).

the religious framework has been identified to be classifiable as Monothestic or Polythestic or Pantheistic.

Thus, both ways i.e., “Bottom Up” and “Top Down” approaches are feasible.But all these above approaches may be able to in-tegrate Polytheism and Pan- theism, but not Sci-ence. Science has been believed to be independ-ent of Religion. The entities of study of Science i.e., Entities and Forces of Nature were supposed to be quite different and independent of spiritual Entity or God.Therefore, this schism between Science and Reli-gion has been responsible for many conflicts – the misinterpretation of Rationalism or Atheism versus Theism.

Thus, while the schism between Polytheism/Pan-theism with Monotheism resulted in significant conflicting religious environment in the world, the schism between Science & Religion (of all kind) has resulted in the large conflict between Theism and Atheism.

Adhyatmika Veda Adhi Daivika Puranas Adhi Bhoutika Science

DEVATAS AT ADHI BHOUTIKA, ADHI DAIVIKA AND ADHYATMIKA LEVELS.

Sciences deals only with Adhi Bhoutika level i.e., Physical reality. Puranas deal with Adhi Daivika level (Puranas also deal with Adhyatmika level, fi-nally to merge with Veda). eda deals with all the three levels: Adhi Bhoutika, Adhi Daivika and Ad-hyatmika levels.In the framework being proposed now we will be able to overcome all these schisms – an integra-tion of both Religion & Science on one hand (This

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schism was never to be found in Indian history – it was of western origin) and the integration of Reli-gion on the other (in the context of integration of Monotheism with Polythe- ism and Pantheism).The integrated framework has substantial grounds in its philosophical roots and its benefits are evi-dent to be seen to result in harmony and integra-tion in the Society.

CONCLUSION

In this paper a novel approach of a integrated framework is presented for all the three apparently

disparate systems of knowledge, namely, the Rig Veda, the Puranas and Science. The very same knowledge of real world of the subjects, entities and forces of Nature, as described in Science is described in the Veda, directly as Devatas which are subjects/entities/forces of Nature and the same are described in the Puranas as personified Beings in terms as stories. The Spiritual aspect is at Adhy-atmika level while the Adhi Bhoutika level is the subject of Science and Adhi Daivika level is the subject of the Puranas. Every Subject or Devata has all the three levels – all are dealt in the Veda.


The author is Deputy Director General National Informatics Centre,

Hyderabad – 500 063.He may be reached at [email protected]

REVISITING NEGP: E-BHARATH 2020 : THE PROPOSED FUTURE NEGP

C.S.R. Prabhu

Key WordsNeGP, e-Bharath, Six Sigma

AbstractThe present National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) has been partly completed but has certain fundamental gaps and important omissions in its conception and planning. These omissions and missing aspects are critical for the full success of NeGP in fu-ture. Even though the IT Act 2000 and Elec-tronics Services Delivery Act 2011 provide the necessary background and motivation for reengineering of government processes, they do not make major process reforms compulsory. eBharath 2020 is a vision of the future NeGP (for the period 2012-2020), succeeding the current NeGP. In this Paper, a brief outline of e-Bharath 2020, future NeGP (2012-2020) is being attempted to be provided with emphasis on major reform and reengineering of government processes, systems and procedures using Lean and Six Sigma techniques with the provision of the proposed e-Governance Act 2012 for build-ing large scale mobile cloud applications for appropriate m-governance citizen services delivery.

The National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) (1) of Government of India aims to “make all gov-ernment services accessible to the common man in his locality through common service

delivery outlets and ensure efficiency, transparency and reliability of such services at affordable costs to re-alize the basic needs of the common man”. The “basic needs” of common man identified appear to be large-ly limited to certifi- cate delivery, ignoring other and more important needs.India has a very strong presence in the IT sector glob-

“ “the “basic needs” of common man identified appear to be largely limited to certifi- cate delivery, ignoring other and more important needs


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ally, yet the benefits of the IT revolution have not truly percolated into the everyday life of the com-mon man, particularly in rural areas. Experiments in IT based service delivery had started early in the last decade. Some of these, such as e-Seva, e-Pan-chayat and Bhoomi, were more successful than the others. These early successes as well as failures showed that online services served citizens bet-ter by reducing the burden of having to physically visit separate agencies, make contact with public officials and be subjected to their discretion. While computerisation or online delivery of certificates was partly enabled, corruption continued as trans-parency was not brought on and the need to visit government offices or contacting of public offices or officials by the citizens was not prevented.NeGP is a major initiative of the Government of India, the first time under which a concerted effort is being made to take Information Technology to the masses in the areas of concern to the common man. It aims to make most services available on-line, ensuring that all citizens would have access to them, thereby improving the quality of basic governance on an unprecedented scale. This goal was partly achieved.NeGP (1) has a three tier architecture. The Com-mon Service Centres (CSCs) are the front-end deliv-ery points for a range of citizen services. The com-mon man feels empowered when he is able to get a service in a transparent manner, at a convenient location and at an affordable cost. These centres also provide employment to the entrepreneurs running them, besides being useful in rolling out all kinds of governmental schemes such as those for financial inclusion, enumeration of data, insur-ance and IT education. However, in some cases the financial viability of the CSC was in question and some were finally closed, indicating the need for a sustainable revenue model.The second tier is of the common and support infrastructure that can allow information to be shared electronically between different agencies of the government and with citizens. Included in it are the State Wide Area Networks (SWANs) which form the converged backbone network for data, voice and video throughout a State/ UT and the State Data Centres (SDCs) which can provide common secure IT infrastructure to host state-level e-government applications and data. In this tier also there were significant delays resulting in

older technology deployment (e.g., low speed of SWANs).

NeGP is a major initiative of the Government of india

The third tier comprises the 27 Mission Mode Pro-jects (MMPs) (1) which will transform high priority citizen services from their current manual delivery into e- delivery. Each MMP is owned and spear-headed by the relevant ministry/agency of the na-tional government or by a state government and is called “mission mode” because it has a definite time table, service levels, project implementation team and process reengineering plans. Many of the MMPs have been successful and were partly implemented. No large scale project planning was done for them with due interoperability arrange-ments. The major Telecom revolution resulting in the penetration of the mobile phone into all areas of life, both urban and rural, in the country was not considered for services delivery of e-governance and other value added services.

2. WHAT WAS MISSING?

However, the NeGP can be examined to find the missing gaps, omissions and discrepancies. The following are the main observations/deficiencies found upon the examination of the current NeGP:1. Natural Law- Citizen life cycle approach- all

events of life from birth to death (through education , health, marriage, employment, retirement and pension ) to be considered for identifying processes for e-governance service delivery based on a survey for citizen needs analysis. Till now all the projects were based on ideas and proposals and not field survey for Needs Analysis. The real needs of the stake-holders are to be ascertained by surveys.

2. Legacy Government processes continued without change-colonial/historical govern-ment processes originally designed for control/red tape, not designed for freedom of citizens

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essential for e-governance participation. The colonial mindset was not fully changed and modernization not done in comparison with other advanced nations.

3. 27 MMPs (Mission Mode Projects) have no in-teroperability or integration amongst or across themselves and no process level/data level/service level interoperability or integration en-visaged

4. No information exchange across the Federal Structure of Central/ State/ District/Local Gov-ernment bodies.

5. No mandatory Enterprise Architecture (EA) en-visaged for each MMP or its components.

6. No major process reform / re engineering en-visaged except minor optional reengineering possibilities in systems and procedures.

7. Global best practices not identified and rec-ommended for replication

8. Local best practices not identified and recom-mended for replication.

9. National CIO/ State CIO/ Local CIO hierarchy not envisaged even though in some States De-partmental CIOs were appointed.

10. New e-governance Act not envisaged (In the lines of USA). Even though IT Act 2000 (3) and Electronic Services Delivery Act (4) were separately provided, they do not make reforms compulsory.

11. Low speed SWANs with obsolete technologies due to delays in execution.

12. Latest technology trends such as mobile, grid and cloud technologies not envisaged (only older gateway concepts brought into NSDG and SSDG). Digital Signatures to ensure secure transactions for all citizens not envisaged.

13. Proposed Future NeGP: eBharath 2020

E-BHARATH 2020

NEGP: FUTURE NATIONAL E-GOVERNANCE PLAN OF ACTION (2012-2020)

Step1. Perform survey and needs analysis for(a) Needs of Citizens at Rural & Urban Areas(b) Needs of Businesses (SME’s & Large Industries)(c) Needs of Govt. Employees at state and central levels.Step2. Based on the above Survey and analysis, perform needs based large scale e-governance

Project Planning for service delivery through mo-bile phones, making the mobile phone the centre of service delivery given the great revolution in tel-ecommunications resulting in large scale penetra-tion of the mobile phone in rural as well as urban areas.m-biometric identity authentication (along with digital signature and Unique ID integrated into mobile phone)

m-health (mobile based tele medicine and health consultancy)

m-education (mobile based virtual education classrooms in local languages at all levels)

m-agriculture (mobile based agri extension advice and monitoring, management and sale)

m-elections (mobile based online voting based on authentication)

m–rural development (various rural development projects based on mobile)

m-panchayat (panchayat services delivered on mobiles)

the ubiquitous mobile phone will have to be made the centre point of delivery of all Services

m-gram bazaar (linking rural producers with ur-ban consumers using mobiles) etc etc

The ubiquitous mobile phone will have to be made the centre point of delivery of all Services – not just e-governance certification services but services which impact daily life as Health, Educa-tion, Commerce, etc., have to be developed.

Step3. Enact the dedicated e-governance Act, with compulsory process reform and reengineering

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with maximum efficiency using Lean Six Sigma processes ( most efficient ) involving values (Dhar-ma) of principles of Justice, Equality, Transpar-ency, Accountability and responsiveness to citizen needs.A ‘Think Tank’ advisory group and R&D centre/Institute comprising representatives from Gov-ernment, Judiciary, Academia, Civil Society and Industry can be formed to give advice to help for-mulate this Act.The present Electronic Services Delivery Act needs to be expanded towards these ends

Step4. Perform reengineering of Government Pro-cesses on compulsory basis based on the above, using Lean Six Sigma Principles (most efficient). A composite team comprising members from NIC, DIT, Six Sigma Consultants (including BPR spe-cialist) along with line Ministry/Department of Government may drive the process reform and reengineering (The proposed reengineering/re-form provisions of Electronic Services Delivery Act 2011 are required to be made compulsory). Also enhance the Land Reforms with geospatial map-ping of the entire country.

the scope of terms of e-committee of Judiciary may be enhanced to include process reform towards efficiency and integration of Judiciary with Jails, transport and Police systems.

Step5. Perform Re-engineering of Judicial Pro-cesses based on the above, using lean Six Sigma Principles (most efficient). The scope of terms of e-committee of Judiciary may be enhanced to in-clude process reform towards efficiency and inte-gration of Judiciary with Jails, Transport and Police systems.

Step6. Perform Re-engineering of Election Process

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on compulsory basis based on the above, using Lean Six Sigma Principles (most efficient). The internal reform/ reengineering group of Election Commission may be engaged along with Six Sigma and BPR Consultants and legal experts.

Step7. Perform Re-engineering of Legislature Pro-cess on compulsory basis as based on the above, using Lean Six Sigma Principles (most efficient). The internal Secretariat of Parliament and State Legislature bodies may execute process reform with help of NIC, DIT and Six Sigma Consultant (including BPR specialist).

Step8. Identify Processes (after reengineering as above) for all sectors and identify Services using Service Oriented Approach(SOA) as for life cycle of citizens-different services for life as Birth, Edu-cation, Employment, Marriage, Health, Retirement and Pension.

Step9. Develop Web Service Repositories accord-ing to the above for Central, State and District lev-els of the government and also for Judiciary and Legislature.

Step10. (a) Implement the e-governance Grid/Cloud Architecture (5, 6) at IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service), PaaS (Platform as a Service) and SaaS (Software as a Service) levels using SOA (Service Oriented Architecture ), with web service reposi-tories.(b) Implement EA (Enterprise Architecture) for SaaS (Software as a Ser- vice) layer with single window for all Government Services (e-sarkar).Step11. Plan and implement integrated e-govern-ance (e-sarkar), e-Judiciary (e- nyaya), e-legislature (e-vidhan) and e-democracy.Step12. Finally fully integrated single window e-Bharath covering all areas as above.

CONCLUSION:

The National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) is being implemented for several years all over the country. The current NeGP has its own strengths as the first well organized plan of the Govt. of India for both Central and State level e-governance Projects. 27 Mission Mode Projects (MMPs) of NeGP had seen their partial successes. However, many omissions


such as Needs Analysis, Process Reforms could be identified, especially in the context of technol-ogy developments such as the ubiquitous mobile phone penetration calling for mobile applications, new technologies such as SOA, Grid and Cloud, and Enterprise Architecture techniques for deployment in e-governance.In this Paper, we have proposed the need for further evolution of NeGP , i.e. to eBharat-2020 comprising of 12 steps. The proposed evolution of NeGP envisages a Vision of eBharath 2020 com-prising important steps as Needs Analysis, based on Surveys, followed by large scale project plan-ning for m-governance and m- services all based on the ubiquitous mobile phones in all service sec-tors and commerce, viz., m-Health, m-Education, Rural e-Commerce (m-Gram Bazaar) etc.. A new e-governance Act may be enacted to facilitate ma-jor Process Reforms. The central theme of future NeGP should cover Process Reforms, especially in the domains of Judiciary, Legislature and Elections, and Reengineering of Govt. Pro- cesses which have been kept untouched for over sixty five years. This can be followed by identification of SOA based Web Service Repositories for life cycle events of Citizens which can then be implemented as the fu-ture e-governance grid/ cloud of India, deploying the Enterprise Architecture for all major initiatives.

Such an exercise is expected to result in a modern systemic environment in India, leading to the vi-sion of e-Bharat 2020, which will be comparable to the most advanced nations, in the delivery of e-governance and m-governance services to the citizens, in the world.

REFERENCES:

1. NeGP Document http://www.mit.gov.in/con-tent/national-e-governance-plan

2. http://www.lassib.org3. IT Act 2000 http://www.mit.gov.in/content/

view-it-act-20004. Electronic Services Delivery Act http://www.

mit.gov.in5. Prabhu C.S.R. “Towards an e-governance grid

of India”, 2008: “E-Government development and diffusion”, Information Science Refer-ence, Sahu, Dwivedi and Veerakkodi, (edi-tors), IGI Global, UK and USA, 2009. ISBN 978-160366713-3.

6. Prabhu CSR, “Eucalyptus Cloud to remotely provision e-governance applications”, Journal of Computer Systems, Networks and Commu-nications, 2011.


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SUB THEME: ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: INSIGHTS FROM RAMAYAN AND BHAGWAT GITA

Damini Saini

Key WordsOrganizational Development, RAMAYANA, BHAG-WAT GITA

AbstractRamayana: ethical and moral teachings in the organizational contextThis paper talks about the standards of moral and ethics in the age of Ramayana. Organi-zational development is basically a planned effort to increase the viability of organiza-tion and in the modern era the biggest prob-lem with the organization is the downfall of the characteristic qualities such as morality, that should be of very high standard ,when it is related to the organizational or corpo-rate leaders, there is no other way to sus-tain than to seed again the moral and ethi-cal principles and What other source could be efficient other than Ramayana for learn-ing morals .Ramayana a Hindu scripture, is considered the true story of Rama, the king of Ayodhya, who is considered the very in-carnation of Lord Vishnu , is the mirror of righteousness. The great sage poet Valmiki, who wrote the magnum opus Ramayana, was a care- taker of Sita, Rama’s wife at the turbulent, final period of her life. Rama lived is known a Treta Yuga, when dharma (right-eousness) and moral standards of people were generally of high order. In subsequent yugas dharma and morality keep steadily declining. In this paper the instances has been taken for the characteristic qualities of the different characters of the story whether

The author is research scholar at FMS Delhi.

“ “ramayana a hindu scripture, is considered the true story of rama, the king of ayodhya, who is considered the very incarnation of Lord Vishnu , is the mirror of righteousness


it’s the hero or the bad character ele-ment, from Rama to Ravana we can see the highest standards of truth ,ethics and morality which ,in terms of the organi-zational context is very helpful ,because in this age of corruption and all time low ethics and organizational models that are based on greed one can earn and enlightened the soul by this old In-dian epic.

INTRODUCTION

The almighty created the universe along with all the living and non living beings. To enjoy and maintain the cosmos the superior operator was created that is man

equipped with intellect and intuitive powers with a torch like discriminatory sense. For his survival he learnt through the initiative experiments the means of his all round progress The efforts energy and motivation exerted in this field were called as economic activities. Man is the main operator in the workshop of universe and now in business hu-man resource is the most important pillars in the canopy of business activity. So the human agency must be strong, durable and shock proof so that he might give a satisfactory and encouraging output in all economic fields. This is only possible when the operator,worker or employee is full of human moral and ethical values and conscious about his duties or kartavya as defined in the second chapter of Geeta . The other human values like truthful-ness, honesty are important in all the fields includ-ing the discharge of duties and on the other hand humbleness ,transparency in the interactions are also required.

the almighty created the universe along with all the living and non living beings “

“Today’s corporate world is flooded with the scams, lies, scandals and misdeeds. This corruption starts when the sense of welfare diminishes, and the greed comes into the scene .Some says that business is all about profit and loss but when we think about the broader level we came to know that business is societal entity which operates in society and for society ,so it’s the responsibility of every person who leads or involves inn the business world to make it clean and transparent ,and beneficial for people so that community will develop a sense of trust and belongingness to it. Here we have taken the lessons from Ramcharitmanas in the terms of ethics and values that are related to the business organizational context. Now for imparting such knowledge and efficiency lacks of professional colleges are busy imparting management profi-ciencies through alluring catchwords, signboards, and other electronic medias, which no doubt get good response but in addition to these latest means we must always be conscious about the fact that nearly all episodes and dialogues and actions of the character described through Ram charit manas inspire and motivate every person in the pursuit of economic activities. Ram Charitmanas:Shri Ramcharitmanas (Devanâgarî: Jhjkepfjrekul, IAST: Úrîrâmacaritamânasa), also spelt Shri Ram-charitamanasa, is an epic poem in Awadhi, com-posed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas (c.1532–1623). Ramcharitmanas literally means the “lake of the deeds of Rama.” Tulsidas compared the seven Kândas (literally ‘books’, cog-nate with of the epic to seven steps leading into the holy waters of a Himalayan lake (Mânasa, as in Lake Mansarovar) which “which purifies the body and the soul at once.” The core of the work is a poetic retelling of the events of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, centered on the narrative of Rama, the crown prince of Ayodhya. The poem is also called Tulsikrit Ramayan (literally, The Ramayan composed by Tulsi or, loosely, The Ramayan of Tulsidas).(Taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramcharitmanas as accessed on 7.3.2012)‘Ramcharitmanas’ is also known as ‘Tulsi Rama-yana’. Everybody should read Ram’s life story de-scribed in ‘Ramcharitmanas’. It teaches the unique life manage ment tips. Ram’s life is a perfect exam-ple of how one should live in a society. If a person imbibes even a few of his qualities he can lead


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a perfect life on personal as well as professional fronts. Ram is very simple and easy to understand by any common human being. Tulsidas has por-trayed him as a simple man whom anybody can relate within this is the point that make this epic most important.

PURPOSE OF ETHICAL TEACHINGS IN THIS CONTEMPORARY AGE

Moral Bankruptcy:

Moral bankruptcy is the problem of this age .Busi-ness is based on the idea that self-interest and the desire for profit are moral and good and that there are appropriate and inappropriate ways to profit. One’s survival and flourishing as a human being involves the creation, preservation, and use of wealth in self-fulfilling ways. Business is con-cerned with what is important to people’s lives and is a fundamentally moral activity. Wealth en-hancement is the dominant goal or end of business activity. At root business is morally legitimate be-cause the wealth it seeks is necessary for human existence, but the means of earning wealth should be ethical at least to a certain extent.

Downfall of mankind:

In the global era the human behavior, mind and actions are corrupt, that leads the mankind into the bottom in every sphere of life and business is not untouched. Business and economics being the most dynamic activity is also captured by the mod-el of greed .leaders have been lost who has the thinking of human welfare and uplifting of society .there are no ideals in the society ,everyone wants to quench his or hers thirst ,nobody is bothered by anyone else. Every day we came to know about new scams ,scandals and frauds in the corporate world ,there are a lot of reason behind that and downfall of mankind is one of them.

Decline in humanity and morality:

People are getting more materialistic towards life in the world as well as India. They want the best of luxuries in their life and still they don’t have the es-sence of satisfaction. The aim of life is no more to attain the higher self nor do we have now the four ashrams so that after a particular age people will

think of dwelling forest leaving all the Maya, so people are engaged in the cage of greed from birth to death, and this cycle rotates on and on. They are getting individualistic also now people don’t think of society and other people while taking the decisions. In business context one should take the decisions by measuring all the effects that could cast on the people and the general public.

SUFFERING OF RIGHTEOUSNESS:

As in Geeta SriKrishna has said that in the Kali-yuga the evil will dominate and righteousness will suffer has been proved all wide .morals and eth-ics of work is all time low in this era both on the personal and professional front which is causing the dharma which was the basis of the society in the ancient times is suffering badly and that is the cause of lowering the moral conduct of people in the organization as well in their life.

CHARACTERISTIC QUALITIES IN RAMCHARIT MANAS :

Ram Epitome of righteousness, ideal man, perfect adherence to dhar-ma despite harsh tests of life and timeGiver of bliss

Dushrath A man of word.Lost his life to keep the promise. Intellect, control over senses

Bharat Devotion and sacrifice

Laxman, Ha-numan

Obedience and brotherhood

Laxman, Ha-numan

Obedience and brotherhood

Ravan Arrogance, wickedness

Vibhishan Ethical actions Sattva guna

Surpnakha Embodiment of lust and desire

Maricha Worldly attraction

Ravana Greed, arrogance and pride


In Ramcharitmanas saint poet Tulasidas has de-scribed certain virtues that were given the prime importance in those times .these virtues are the basis of every individual’s character, because for developing an ideal character the roots of the frame of the character should be solid and strong enough. Truthfulness, honesty, humbleness, trans-parency are the basic characteristics for an ideal person as Tulsidas has portrayed in the Ramayana by the character of Rama. These are the eternal values that will be needed always and in the con-temporary age these values are not holding the prime position in the society as they used to hold earlier.

truthfulness, honesty, humbleness, transparency are the basic characteristics for an ideal person as tulsidas has portrayed in the ramayana by the character of rama

Adrian Henriques in his book (Corporate truth: A limit to transparency) has admitted that when transparency is a personal commitment, it can pro-mote ethical behavior. And ethical behavior leads to the moral conduct that’s very much required in the current corporate scenario. Here are some learning which could prove beneficial to the or-ganizations.

PRINCIPLE OF KARMA

jadyapi sama nahi raga na rosu, gahahi na papa punu guna dosu. karama pradhana bisva kari ra-kha, jo jasa karai so tasa phalu cakha.2

Even though the Lord is alike to all without either love or anger and receives neither sin nor virtue, neither merit nor demerit, and even though He has made Fate the ruling factor in this world, so that one reaps what one sows, yet according as one possesses the heart of a devotee or an unbeliever. (Source :Sri Ramcharitmanas)

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RELEVANCE TO CORPORATE WORLD

Normally business failure is a term used to describe businesses, sole traders, partnerships and com-panies, that cease trading because of unfavorable market conditions, losses, inability to pay credi-tors, and sometimes its due to – Fraud.Corporate failure stems from fraudulent behavior is relevant to Karma Theory because it says that one has to reap what it sow. One can take the examples from the firms which have lost their position as well as reputation in the corporate world by getting en-gaged in some fraudulent activity as Enron and Satyam computers case. The karma theory is very simple: as we sow, so do we reap; as we think, so we become. The Ramcharitmanas teachings tell us that the direction and intensity of thoughts give shape to our individual destiny. It is easy to visual-ize such a power of self-correction working effec-tively in a corporate entity, too. what is required is to observe this effort and should be felt within for the betterment. It is one of the factors that affect the destinies of corporate entities, especially their longevity.

TRUTHFULNESS

Nahi asatya sama pataka pumja, giri sama hohi ki kotika gumja. satyamula saba sukrata suhae, beda purana bidita manu gae.Even a multitude of sins cannot be matched with a lie. Can millions of tiny Gunja seeds ever stand comparison with a mountain? Veracity is the root of all noble virtues, as is well-known in the Vedas and Purans and has been declared by Manu (the first law-giver of the world, the author of Manusm-rti). (Source :Sri Ramcharitmanas)


Business leader’s view are sometimes can be so distorted and misaligned to the truth. The problem is it is difficult to speak truth to superiors, in the organizations because corporate leaders are them-selves doing have capability to follow truth be-cause of not following the ethics. Human behavior is predicated on gaining pleasure or avoiding pain and avoiding the truth is a way of avoiding pain in the corporate. Employee’s livelihood (remunera-tion, promotion) is tied to the organization that’s why they are scared to speak up the truth. Every


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organization has a truth that everybody knows but nobody speaks. Often these hidden truth become ‘road blocks’ that affect the organizational culture and prohibit the organization from functioning at full capability.

it has always been the rule with the race of raghus that one is plighted word must be redeemed even at the cost of one is life.

KEEPING THE PROMISE

Dashrath says to kaikayi the wicked queen that he will grant her all the wishes she want. Tulasidas describes it in the epic, as king Dashratha says:

raghukula riti sada cali ai, prana jahu baru bacanu na jai .

It has always been the rule with the race of Raghus that one is plighted word must be redeemed even at the cost of one is life.


Keeping the promises is the most difficult thing in the corporate world, sometimes keeping the words seem something on the cost of profit. The most hated companies, and the most hated industries, are now a days the service providers: it may be your last experience with your telephone, cable or satellite provider; your utility provider; your air-line; or your bank. Since services are intangible, the only way to sell them is by making a promise to perform. But most of the service companies fail to keep their promises, leaving customers frustrated, confused and abused. So in the companies in the current scenario are not keeping the promises, that leads them to the unfaithful customers .So there are two solutions for that: One to do whatever it takes to keep your promise or second as napoleon said , “ if you want to keep your words ,don’t give them.”

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CONCEPT OF RAM RAJYA: THE REIN OF RIGHTEOUSNESS

In ramcharit manas ,tulsidas has described ayod-hya the rein of RAMA as the best and prosperous kingdom .example:

avadhapur basinha kara sukha sampada samaja,sahasa sesa nahi kahi sakahi jaha nrpa rama biraja.

Not a thousand sesas could tell all the happiness and prosperity of the people of Ayodhya, where Rama reigned as King. (Source :Sri Ramcharitma-nas)


The supposed objective of all organizations, in his-tory, has been to provide and ensure the welfare and happiness of the people through an efficient and good administration. Any person in charge of administration has to follow certain well tested codes of conduct to approve the generation with peace, prosperity and efficiency. A deep study of the epic would not only reflect the high level of civilization that existed during the Ramayana era but would also tell about some guidelines about the administration of country.There has been renewed interest in the corporate governance practices of modern corporations since 2001, particularly due to the high-profile collapses of a number of large corporations, most of which involved accounting fraud. Corporate scandals of various forms have maintained public and politi-cal interest in the regu- lation of corporate govern-ance. In the U.S., these include Enron Corporation and MCI Inc. (formerly WorldCom). (e.g., Parmalat in Italy).(http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Corporate_governance as accessed on 10.3.2012)

GOVERNANCE BY DHARMA : RIGHTEOUS-NESS

tata tumhari mori parijana ki, cimta gurahi nrpahi ghara bana ki . mathe para gura muni mithilesu, hamahi tumhahi sapanehu na kalesu.

Brother, it is our preceptor (the sage Vasistha) and King Janaka who take thought for you and me as well as for our people, whether we be at home or


in the forest. So long as our preceptor, the sage (Visvamitra) and the lord of Mithila are our guard-ians, neither you nor I can even dream of trouble.


Normally the organization are lead by the leaders ,every decision that take is on the basis of simply profit or loss .In the Ramayan times the govern-ance was by dharma .Monarchy was there and every monarch were usually had the preceptor like Rama was having Vashistha muni who were always there to tell what is right and what is wrong according to neeti and Vedas.so there is no one to tell that when the greed take over our conscious and how we became so indivisualistic that we don’t care about the environment and health of the people as well. In Ramcharitmanas we can see how Rama has performed the duties of the good administrator too.

the way the ramayana portrays the essential attributes of a leader is a disclosure.

LEADERSHIP

The way the Ramayana portrays the essential at-tributes of a leader is a disclosure.

mukhia mukhu so cahiai khana pana kahu eka, palai posai sakala aga tulasi sahita bibeka.

A chief should be like the mouth, which alone does all the eating and drinking but supports and nourishes all the other limbs with discretion, says Tulasidasa. (Source : Sri Ramcharitmanas)

RELEVANCE TO CORPORATE WORLD:

Tulasdasji explain the one who can diminish our illusions, who is the source of light, who never be in dilemma, who is ready to enlighten others, peo-ple can trust his skill-sets, who is easy and simple everybody can reach him and discuss his problem.

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He is the leader. A person who has knowledge but not able to enlighten others, according to Tulsidas-ji, he cannot be a leader. So there are two essential qualities one he should be source of knowledge and other able to communicate his message to his associate.We are living in the modern world and when we are talking about the globalization and cross-cultural environment. People are moving one country to another country frequently for the busi-ness, Indians people working for American and European companies and vice-versa. So we need some unique traits in a leader so that everyone can accept his leadership. We need boundary less leaders.as in prince rama has lead Nishadraja and vanar sena.

MORALITY : THE ESSENCE OF LIFE

suni munisu kaha bacana sapriti, kasa na rama tumha rakhahu niti . dharama setu pataka tumha tata, prema bibasa sevaka sukhadata.

The chief of sages, Vivamitra, replied in affection-ate terms, It is no wonder, Rama, that You should respect good manners. You are the upholder of the moral code, my son, and bring joy to your servants out of love for them. (Source :Sri Ramcharitmanas)When the people of ayodhya have came to know about the matter of Rama exile and kaikayi’s dis-guise ,some have thought that the king is under the influence of the queen but some who were saner thought that king was having no choice but to follow which was moral and right according to dharma.

TULASIDAS SAYS :

eka dharama paramiti pahicane, nrpahi dosu nahi dehi sayane.

Others who were saner did not blame the king, recognizing as they did his high standard of moral-ity. (Source :Sri Ramcharitmanas)When Rama was given exile from Ayodhya, her mother Kausalya has been described by Tulsidas as:sarala subhau rama mahatari , bol bacana dhira dhari bhar.tata jau bali kinhehu n ka, pitu ayasu saba dhara-maka ka.


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Realizing the duty of a woman and remembering that both Rama and Bharata were equally her sons the prudent Kausalya (Rama’s mother), who had a guileless disposition, spoke as follows with great courage, You have done well, my child, I swear; a father is command is the most sacred of all obliga-tions.


Ethical leadership and organizational moral culture, both are interrelated

Ethical leadership and organizational moral cul-ture, both are interrelated. Every organization has a moral culture of its own and it takes considerable time in changing it. Shareholders and the public appreciate organizations with high ethical princi-ples and moral culture whereas the regulators are increasingly taking legal action against companies which break share-holders’ and the public’s trust. The codes of conduct, regular performance and audit reviews and other mechanisms are there to maintain ethics inhibit employees’ right to moral autonomy. Finally, it has been noticed that the discrepancy exist in correlating personal standards and behavior as important predictors or determi-nants of ethical business conduct and if we talk about Ramcharitmans ,it’s all about morality and ethics, we can see the example from Dashrata to Rama and from Kaushalya to Seeta.

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EPILOGUE

For centuries the Ramcharitmans have had great impact on individuals, society, political systems, arts and culture and will continue to impact these in the future. This impact has widened to cover different spheres of human life and corporate life is not untouched by that .The Ramcharitmanas is the greatest contribution made by Tulsidas to spiritual health, moral responsibility and world culture. Life does not begins at birth or end at death; it is a link in an infinite series of lives, each of which is deter-mined by Karma that’s is action(acts) done in pre-vious existences. Tulsidas has blessed the world by spreading the light of Vedic knowledge that help the individual to weigh their own karma.Shri Rama was an idol of moral excellence and his character signifies the moral and the ethical con-duct which is required in the current condition of life ,because we are relating it to the organization-al context we must follow his leadership, morals, ethics and obedience as well as the other charac-ters of Ramcharitmans can teach us about sacrifice, honesty,truthfulness and other virtues like Kaush-aya, Dashrata and Bharat . Dharma will protect us only when we take care of it. Sri Rama has been endowed with patience and a calm mind. When a strong and powerful person sticks to the right path, he becomes a model for others. Similar happens with the organisations when a leader who is strong and ethical goes strong, people supports him and follows him.. If the organisations will keep before themselves the ideal of Sri Ramcharitmanas, they will be saved from drifting into evil path and lead towards a better administration, leadership, deci-sion making, humanism and welfare of people.

REFERENCE:

Sri Ramcharitmanas, with English translation pub-lished by Geeta press, Gorakhpur, India


THE KNOWLEDGE OF SELF REALIZATION FROM BHAGAVAT GITA AND ITS SIGNIFICANT TO ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Smt. Hemavathy Padmanaban

Key WordsSelf Realization, Organization Culture, Karma Yoga, Emotional Quotient

AbstractThe Bhagavat Gita given by Lord Shri Krish-na, the Supreme personality of Godhead, to his intimate devotee Arjuna, The Gita’s seven hundred concise verses provide a definitive guide to the science of self realization. Indeed no work even compares in its revelations of man’s essential nature, his environment and ultimately his relationship with God. The Bhagavat Gita has got all the management tac-tics to achieve the mental equilibrium and to overcome any crisis situation Ancient Practices spontaneously induce what each person needs as the individuals and universe coincides.The successful 21st century managers must deal with a chaotic world of new competi-tors and constant innovation. In the future, the only winning companies will be the ones that respond quickly to change . Modern manag-ers must not only be flexible and adaptive in a changing environment, they must be able to diagnose problems and implement change program effectively. The learning organiza-tions has its roots in Organizational develop-ment and uses the ideas and philosophies of action research, systems approach, organiza-tional culture, continuous problem solving, self managed teams, collaborations, participa

The author is Assistant Professor Soka Ikeda College Tamilnadu, India

“ “the Gita’s seven hundred concise verses provide a definitive guide to the science of self realization


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tive leadership and good interpersonal relations.

The organization’s creativity and in-novation level totally depend on the potential of the human resources. This brings an implication for HR Profession-als to set their agenda and to design sys-tems for attracting, developing, retain-ing talent and engaging them towards getting the most of their human capital potential. It seems that the only way is to nurture organizational learning, teamwork, and collective intelligence by stimulating free flow ideas along with a disciplined ands methodical ap-proach to continuous improvement.This paper not only fills the gap in the literature of learning organization, hu-man capital, emotional quotient, spirit-ual quotient – The ultimate intelligence and Knowledge management and pro-vides some significant and insights on Orga- nizational development from the ancient philosophical perspectives.This paper is a qualitative paper which involves a review and analysis of litera-ture on learning organization, which serves as the grassroots for organizational development and also the inter-pretation of selected verses of Bhagavat Gita in the context of knowledge of self realization. The methodology used for the interpretation is hermentatics, which is widely applied in many field of social science such as philosophy, reli-gion ,law, theology, sociology and also international relations.

In this paper some perspective of tran-scended knowledge from the Bhagavat Gita, will be presented in the context of organizational development that would lead to continuous transformation and redefine values of intelligence and focus on developing the supreme intelligence by increasing energy and effectiveness by building trusting relationship.

INTRODUCTION

The successfully 21st century manager must deal with a chaotic world of new competitors and constant innovation. In the future the only winning companies

will be the ones that respond quickly to change. Changing consumer lifestyles and technological breakthroughs all act on the organization to cause it to change. Or- ganizational development com-prises the long range efforts and programs aimed at improving an organization’s ability to survive by changing its problem solving and renewal pro-cesses. The learning organization has its roots in organizational Devel- opment and uses the ideas and philosophies of action research, systems ap-proach, organizational culture, continuous prob-lem solving, self managed work teams, col- labo-ration, participative leadership and interpersonal relations. The learning organizations is a system wide change program that emphasizes the reduc-tion of organizational layers and the involvement of all employees management, non management, professional, line functions, staff and so forth in continuous self directed learning that will lead toward positive change growth in the individual, team, organization. learning organizations are pragmatic.

a strong set of core values is normally present in learning organizations

A strong set of core values is normally present in learning organizations. Learning organization value different kinds of knowledge and learning styles, encourages communication between peo-ple who have different perspectives and ideas., develops creative thinking, breakdowns traditional barriers within the organization, develops leader-ship throughout the organization. The organiza-tion’s creativity and innovation level totally de-pend on the potential of the human resources. This brings an implication for HR Professionals to set their agenda and to design systems for attracting, developing, retaining talent and engaging them towards getting the most of their human capital

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potential. It seems that the only way is to nurture organizational learning, teamwork, and collective intelligence by stimulating free flow ideas along with a disciplined ands methodical approach to continuous improvement.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Literature on the subject defines human capi-tal, Intellectual capital, Emotional Quotient, Spirit-ual Quotient- the ultimate intelligence, Knowledge management and provides some significant and insights on Organizational development from the ancient philosophical perspectives. Human capi-tal is the economic value of job, relevant skills, knowledge, ideas, energies and commitments. According Sumantra Ghoshal London Business School. The human capital consists of three ele-ments which are as under:

EMOTIONAL CAPITAL:

It consists of both the stock of knowledge, skills and expertise that all members of the organization collectively possess, and the knowledge and ex-pertise that may be embedded in or owned by the organization including patents, it based Knowl-edge systems.

Social Capital: Social capital relates to the struc-ture, quality and flexibility of the human relation-ships. It deals with network of relationship, Socia-bility, trustworthiness.

Emotional Capital: Organizations require high in-ternal energy and an environment of pride, trust and openness to create a is for speed and action in rapidly evolving markets.

The challenge of competing on human capital is the challenge of managing this interactive cycle of building and leveraging intellectual, social and emotional capital.

INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL:

HR Professionals will need to change their mind set to communicate the CEO’s vision on corporate strategy and impart fresh skills that are needed to realize the defined goals. The competitive edge comes from insights, experience and superior solu-tions than from sophisticated machines and gross

stock. The Intellectual Capital deals with expertise creating system within an organization that makes it competitive and increases bargaining clout of the organization in the event of merger and acqui-sition. Modern company’s intellectual model com-prises of Credibility Capital, Efficiency Capital, Corporate infrastructure Capital, Customer Capi-tal, Human Capi- tal.

EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT:

In the era of globalization and liberalization, intel-ligence Quotient (IQ) was the yard stick for hiring people. Emotional intelligence is the ability to ac-quire and apply knowledge about our emotions, and emotions of others. Control of emotions like anger, hatred, frustrations, confusion, sadness can substantially increase performance and effective-ness.

human capital is the economic value of job, relevant skills, knowledge, ideas, energies and commitments

Self Awareness: Recognizing one’s emotions and effects, knowing one’s strength and limits and sure-ness about one’s self worth and capabilities. Self management, Self Control, managing disruptive emotion and impulse, conscientiousness, integrity, taking responsibility of oneself, adaptability, flex-ibility and striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence.Social Awareness: Empathy, Service orientation, developing others and understanding a group’s emotional currents and power relationship.Social Skills: Leadership, inspiring and guiding others, sending clear and convincing messages, negotiating and resolving disagreements, cooper-ating with others and strengthening relationships and creating group synergy in pursing collective goals. EQ focuses on three driving forces vital for organizational development – increasing energy and effectiveness under pressure, building trusting

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relationships.

SPIRITUAL QUOTIENT: THE ULTIMATE INTEL-LIGENCE:

Spiritual Quotient is the greater intelligence that we potentially possess but the conditioning process of our contemporary evolution tends to retard the de-velopment of this ore important intelligence as we move along the conventional paths of thinking and aspirations. People with high SQ will pro actively and deftly be constantly providing solutions con-sistent with a higher thinking. Their objective and direction will always be consistent with enhancing society, the environment and their orbit, they will inevitably be balanced, holistic and rational indi-viduals. Individuals with high SQ are not obsessed with profit but productivity, with right action and not the result and lead far more fulfilling lives than those with just high IQ.The Ten important qualities of high SQ individual are: flexibility, generosity, gratitude, self Aware-ness and discipline, Always positive and joyful, Intuitive, Non Conformist, Gentle, Compassionate and an Intellectually Questioning bent of mind. In-dividuals with high signs of SQ will have a natural ability to perceive deeper connections between di-vergent things happening around them. They will also be more receptive in flowing with the signifi-cant changes in their lives and thereby be happier and tranquil than most. Higher SQ will lead to continuous transformation and redefines values of intelligence.Becoming a learning organization increases the size of an organization’s brain. Employees through-out the organization participate in all thinking ac-tivities. Enor- mous intelligence and flexibility pre-sent to deal with the rapidly changing conditions. Learning organization involves constant readiness, continuous planning, improvised implementation and action learning.As the tempo of business transactions worldwide increases, the phenomena of acquisitions, mergers and alliances will become more evident. Interven-tions that have grown out of the Organizational Development field can be highly relevant in help-ing two or more organizational cultures meld and in ameliorating the potential dislocation and pain that occur when organization are combined. For organizational development to flourish, top man-

agement CEO, board of directors, top executives including the human resources executive must have place high value on strong individual team and organizational performance coupled with people oriented values.

THE BHAGAVAT GITA:

Bhagavat Gita is universally renowned as the jewel of India’s spiritual wisdom. Spoken by Lord Shri Krishna, the Supreme personality of Godhead, to his intimate devotee Arjuna, The Gita’s seven hundred concise verses provide a definitive guide to the science of self realization. Indeed no work even compares in its revelations of man’s essen-tial nature, his environment and ultimately his re-lationship with God. The Bhagavat Gita has got all the management tactics to achieve the mental equilibrium and to overcome any crisis situation Ancient Practices spontaneously induce what each person needs as the individuals and universe co-incides.

ancient Practices spontaneously induce what each person needs as the individuals and universe coincides.

The Bhagavat gita is truly the universal scripture unaffected by tie and clime. The Bhagavat gita is the quintessence of the vast treasure- house of wisdom, bequeathed to humanity, by Vedic Seers. The Bhagavat Gita is like a grand temple with its imposing structure and inimitable style, all its amazing features producing a cumulative effect that is indescribable in words, but only to be ex-perienced. The Bhagavat Gita is not a manual of social engineering, nor does it give any economic blue print. But, if we study the text of the Bhagavat gita with an open mind, we will come to the con-clusion that it is an all comprehensive book for our individual and collective well being.

METHODOLOGY

This paper is a qualitative paper which involves

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a review and analysis of literature on learning or-ganization, which serves as the grassroots for or-ganizational development and also the interpre-tation of selected verses of Bhagavat Gita in the context of knowledge of self realization and karma yoga.. The methodology used for the interpretation is hermentatics, which is widely applied in many field of social science such as philosophy, religion ,law, theology, sociology and also international re-lations.Karma Yoga and Knowledge of Self realization: Lessons from Bhagavat Gita - In India the science of yoga has combined with Vedanta to derive knowl-edge of who am I?. The message of Karma yoga given by Shri Krishna through the Gita is the art of harnessing every action to yield a twofold gain – spiritual and social. The Bhagavat gita teaches the magic of transforming all our external activities into tools of developing our inner bliss, peace of mind, spiritual progress and devotion of god. The bhagavat gita also helps us to convert the steps of our spiritual Sadhana- asana, pranayama, tapasya (asceticism) into instruments of organizational de-velopment and social improvements for bringing about the good of all. This dual spiritual and social development, is the essence of karma yoga.

the Bhagavat gita teaches the magic of transforming all our external activities into tools of developing our inner bliss, peace of mind, spiritual progress and devotion of god

THE SCIENCE OF KARMA YOGA CONSISTS OF EIGHT STEPS

1. Action and wisdom are the two paths for real-izing the absolute. Of them the path of action is easier than the path of actionlessness (wis-dom). Gita3/8.

2. Practitioner should perform his Swakarma (al-

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lotted duty) keeping in mind his Swabhava (natural emotions) and Swadharma (natural beliefs). 18-46

3. He should take the help of scriptures to distin-guish right actions from wrong actions. 16-24

4. He should work with great skill to achieve per-fection. 17-13

5. He should sacrifice the fruits of his actions, (2-47) at the feet of the lord or at the altar of the society.

6. He should act in total detachment.7. Heshouldhavetherightmetalattitudeviz,love,

dedication,asenseofsacrifice, enthusiasm and devotion to God.

8. As the last step, he should offer his work, the fruits and his sense of doer ship and owner-ship at the feet of the Lord and thus perfect his work.18-66

The perfection in action is explained in the bhaga-vat Gita as1. Fulfilling the demands of the scriptures.2. Productive lab our3. Understanding the import of the whole work

to be done, understanding its constituents and acting in such a way that each part of the work fits into the whole.

4. Willingness to make material sacrifice for the success of the work (Dakshina)

5. Faith in the goodness of one’s own ac-tion and that it will be accepted by the lord and the society: faith that the doer will be spiritually elevated by the action. (17-13) A karma yogi also should have qualities as firmness of mind, enthusiasm, detachment, working without a sense of ego and equa-nimity in success and failure. These are the basic lessons of raja yoga (chap 6-7-8): non violence, truthfulness, non acceptance of gifts, continence, non stealing are the Yamas a karma yogi should follow. Purity, content-edness, study of scriptures, tapasya and surrender to god are the Niyamas a karma Yogi should observe. Asanas, Pranayama, Pratyahra, Dharna, Dhyana and Samadhi are also the essential practices for a karma yogi.

Karmanye Vaadhikaaraste Ma phaleshu Kadaacha-na Maa karma Phalaheturbhur Ma te sangostva Karmani (Chapter 2, 47)


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“You have a right to perform the prescribed work; but you are not entitled to the fruits of your action. Never consider yourself the cause for the results of your activities and never be attached to inaction.”This shloka is regarded as Shrimad Bhagavad Gita ‘s one of the most important verses as it summa-rized the entire philosophy of karma. Dnyan and Karma have to mingle and together they take the seeker to higher planes of spiritual enlightment. On the battlefield of Kurukshetra, Lord Krishna gave an inspiring message to arjuna which become known as Shrimad Bhagavad-Gita Gita the song celestial. The 700 verses rendered by Lord Krishna are con-sidered as quintessence of Hinduism and reflects the wisdom of Upanisdads. Shrimad Bhagavad-Gita. Gita is part of epic Mahabharata and is con-tained in Bhishma Parva Chapter 23-40.When arjuna saw revered teachers beloved friends and close relatives on his enemy side, he was over-taken by grief and despair. As a result, he chose to lay down his arms. Infact, Arjuna wanted to escape from the war, go the forest and become sannyasi. He did not want to face the terrible consequences of war.

you have a right to perform the prescribed work; but you are not entitled to the fruits of your action

Lord Krishna categorically warned him not to do so kmowing well that for a short while arjuna might find peace in the forest, but would soon get involved in the life of forest and his kshatriya ten-dencies will manifest again.Thus nearly six thousand years ago, a dazzling flash of brilliant light lit up the firmament of hu-man civilization. That flash, that marvelous spir-itual effulgence, was the message of the Bhagavat Gita given by the Lord himself on the holy field of Kurukshetra. Unlike ordinary flashes of light which die away after a split second the brilliant flash of that memorable day has continued to shine through the centuries, and even now illumines the

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path of humanity on its onward march to perfec-tion.The above shloka has to be divided into four quar-ters to understand it fully:a) Karmanye Vaadhikaaraste : You have right to perform the prescribed work.b) Maa phaleshu Kadaachana : You are not enti-tled to the fruits of your action.c) Maa karma Phalaheturbhur : Never consider yourself the cause for the results of your activities.d) Ma te sangostva Karmani : Never be attached to inaction.Self knowledge begins with self- observation, self examination and self- evaluation and thereby de-veloping certain qualities that are called divine qualities, enlisted by Lord Shri Krishna in the bhagavat gita (chapter 16 verses 1, 2, and 3)

Abhayam sattva-samsuddhir,jnana-yoga-vyavasthitih;danam damas ca yajnas ca, svad-hyayas tapa arjavam.Ahimsa satyam akrodhas: tyagah santir apaisu-nam, daya bhutesv aloluptuvam;mardavam hrir acapalam, tejah ksama dhrtihsaucam, adroho nati –manitya, bhavanti sampadam daivim, abhijata-sya bharatha (16.01-03)

Fearlessness, purity of heart, perseverance in the yoga of knowledge, charity, sense restraint, sac-rifice, study of the scriptures, austerity, honesty; (16.01)Non violence, truthfulness, absence of anger, re-nunciation, equanimity, abstaining from malicious talk, compassion for all creatures, freedom from greed, gentleness, modesty, absence of fickleness; (16.02)Splendor, forgiveness, fortitude, cleanliness, ab-sence of malice and absence of pride; these are the qualities of those endowed with divine virtues, O Arjuna. (16.03)The seeker of self Knowledge must remain open to the truth about himself, and must remain unbi-ased. The exercise of retrospection is a part of this process, and it should be complemented with spir-itual practices and the calming of the entire per-sonality and one’s inert nature. Sri Krishna in the bhagavat gita has given a clear description of how to develop spiritually. In chapter 17, Shri Krishna has advised to practice austerity of body, mind and speech to unfold the layers of self glamour and il-


lusion so that the truth is revealed for what they are and the deeper knowledge about the self and its relationship to every other life are uncovered.Deva dviji guru prajnapujanam saucam arjavam; brahmacaryam ahimsa ca, sariram tapa ucyate; anudvega karam vakyam, satyam priya hitam ca yat; svadhyayabhyasanam caiva, van mayam tapa: The worship of devas brahamana guru and the wise; pure honesty, celibacy and non violence; these are said to be the austerity of word(17.14)Speech that is not offensive, truthful, pleasant, beneficial and is used for the regular reading of scriptures is called the austerity of word. (17.15)The serenity of mind, gentleness, silence, self re-straint, and the purity of mind are called the auster-ity of thought and mind. (17.16)

Threefold austerity of thought , word, and deed practiced by yogis with supreme faith without a desire for the fruit is said to be Saattvika austerity. (17.7)

the Lord does not take the responsibility for good or evil deeds for anybody

The Lord does not take the responsibility for good or evil deeds for anybody. The knowledge is cov-ered by the veil of ignorance, thereby people are deluded. Therefore each action , activity, feeling, thought and tendency should be examined care-fully. Above all the motives and intentions should be evaluated, for these are the real keys to under-standing any action. Man is influenced by both internal and external forces. Each source of influ-ence should be examined and the response of the personality to each influence should be assessed. Man should honestly accept responsibility for his own behavior and his response to any situation. Self knowledge brings in better understanding of the forces that influence man and so he can bet-ter condition or qualify his will (intention). Self knowledge helps in understanding of the reality or purpose that underlies all events and appearance

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in the manifested universe.Fix your mind on me, be devoted to Me, worship me and bow down to me. Thus uniting yourself with Me and setting me as the supreme goal and sole refuge, you shall certainly realize me. (9.34)Therefore focus your mind on me alone and let your intellect dwell upon me, through meditation and contemplation. Thereafter you shall always dwell with me. (12.08)When one completely focuses his mind in truth he can very well test the significant of the outer knowledge by comparing it with the inner Knowl-edge.In accordance with the awareness of the truth about oneself, will be the ability to discern truth from (within) information or knowledge or knowl-edge obtained externally. Similarly knowledge can be obtained internally and tested for significant. The test for apparent significant depends a great deal on the degree and quality of alignment and the quality of values which condition the person-ality. An individual who is personality centered will normally accept as significant any impressions which reinforce his own values and interests this will of course, reinforce his continued self glam-our. An individual who is reasonably aligned with the self and who is honest with himself and whose values are predominately spiritual and im- person-al will accept as significant only those impressions which have some basis in truth rather than appear-ance. So the Lord has advised to focus the mind in Him so that we are always with Him and the truth is always with us as evident in the verses of Bhaga-vat Gita (9.34 and 12.8)

Sraddhaval labhaate jnanam,tat parah samyatendriyah;jnananam labdhva param santim, acirenadhigacchati (4.39)

The supreme Lord says in the verses (4.39) that one has faith in Lord and is sincere and has mastery over the senses gains the true knowledge. Having gained this one at once attains the supreme peace. Therefore the Self knowledge leads to Self realiza-tion that is realization of the true self.

The Bhagavat Gita illustrates the importance of control o f the mind for gaining the self knowledge. So in essence the Lord says that living humanity , with compassion and with honest detachment


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and through the control of mind, the self realized man can understand the true self and the world around him. Such a man is continually aware of his actions, reactions, and interactions with the in-ner and outer worlds. Balanced between the self and the outer world the self realized man stands as a responsive and willing servant of the Supreme Lord and the humanity.

CONCLUSION

a careful study of the Gita will convince us that it envisages a comfortably rich and prosperous society as a desirable objective

A careful study of the Gita will convince us that it envisages a comfortably rich and prosperous soci-ety as a desirable objective. An Ideal society will be based on the laws of Dharma. Artha and Kama should be subjected to Dharma. Every member of the society must engage himself in his Swadhrama. Action must be motivated by the spirit of Yajna co-operative action offering the fruits of action to the collective well being. One is entitled only to Yajna Shishta. One cannot monopolies all fruits of his ac-tions. All activities of men should have the goal of Loka samgraha collective and progressive welfare

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of society in its onward march.Innovative organizations whether radically or incrementally will be one step further than their competitors. For achieving such high levels of in-novativeness, Companies must first convert their culture into more participative and more respective one. Thus ascribes a strategic role for all HR professionals as they will be the driver for that change in their organizations.In this paper some perspectives of self knowledge and karma yoga from the Bhagavat Gita has been presented in the context of Organizational devel-opment that would impart moral efficiency to the mangers. In the absence of this important person-ality value the manager will increasingly tend to lack innovation and would become egocentric and thus would fail to respond to human situations in human way. This would subsequently lead to strained interpersonal relationship in the organiza-tion and restrict the Organizational development.

REFERENCES:

1. T.V. Rao, Appraising and developing Manage-rial Performance, TV Rao Learning Systems Pvt Ltd,Excel books, 2003.

2. Mamoria, C.B: Personnel Management: Man-agement of Human Resource, Mumbai, Hima-laya Publishing House 1991)

3. Prem Chadha: Performance Management, Macmillan India, New delhi.2003 “ Perfor- mance Management Concepts and skills and Exercises” by Cardy Robert (PHI)

4. S.D. Punekar, “The Personnel Manager in In-dia”, Industrial relations, March-april 1973.

5. T.S. Rajamani “ Management Development in India A Critique” Lok udyog, April 1979


LABOUR IN ANCIENT INDIAN ECONOMY

Pratibha GoyalMini Goyal

Shailja Goyal

Key WordsAncient India, Condition of Labour, Payment of wages.

AbstractLabour and their welfare were important aspects of the ancient Indian law. In India, by 2500 BC, pastoral stage gradually faded away and people took to agricultural profession. Till the Vedic period the scale of operation was such as did not require employment of hired labour. But in the post Vedic period (600 B C onwards) labour came to be employed in various types of occu-pations. This paper talks about the labour con-dition in ancient Indian economy. It describes various types of classification of labours ac-cording to different people. Like Narada divides workers in two broad classes- slaves (dasas) and labourers (karamkarahs) etc. The main sources of information on ancient Indian labour and labour laws are Sukraniti, Manusmriti, Yajnav-alkyasmiriti, Naradsmriti and Arthshastra. These sources have given detailed provisions regarding types of labour, conditions of work, payment of wages, employer-employee disputes, breach of contract of service, mutual rights and obligations etc. Based on theses study the paper describes the types of labour, conditions of work, payment of wages, employer-employee disputes, breach of contract of service, mutual rights and obliga-tions etc. It also reveals the relevance of these provisions in modern time. It is identified that condition of employment was through making contract with workers. The Payment of wages was daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, quar-terly, six- monthly, yearly or on the completion of work or as agreed upon. It seems that wages in ancient India were fairly high. The considera-tion of social security was dominant in decid-ing wages. So the paper reveals the condition of labour in ancient India and its comparison and relevance in the modern time.

The first author is associate Professor of Business Management, Ludhiana

The second author is Associate Professor of Economics, Punjab Agricultural University,

LudhianaThe third author is Head, History Department,

LR DAV College, Jagraon


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Success of trade and commerce and the re-sultant growth of economies depend a lot upon the hard work of labour and the fact that a happy and contented worker contrib-

utes better to the growth of business were very well realised in the ancient Indian period. Labour and their welfare were important aspects of the ancient Indian law. In India, by 2500 BC, pastoral stage gradually faded away and people took to agricul-tural profession. Till the Vedic period the scale of operation was such as did not require employment of hired labour. But in the post Vedic period (600 B C onwards) labour came to be employed in vari-ous types of occupations.The main sources of information on ancient Indian labour and labour laws are Sukraniti, Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmiriti, Naradsmriti and Arthshastra. These sources have given detailed provisions re-garding types of labour, conditions of work, payment of wages, employer-employee disputes, breach of contract of service, mutual rights and obligations etc. These codes or provisions hold relevance even today.

In ancient India, various types of workers were found. Narada divides workers in two broad classes- slaves (dasas) and labourers (karamkarahs) (figure 1). Karamkarahs are further divided into four categories- pupil or student, apprentice, hired servant or wage earner (Bhritakas) and official or commissioned servant. A pupil is the one who owed obedience to spiritual teacher for the pur-pose of acquiring knowledge of three Vedas and paid to the teacher by performing some work for him. Apprentice worked under the master crafts-man and got on-the-job training. Bhritakas were hired servants or wage earners and they were sol-diers, agriculture labourers and porters, husband-men or herdsmen while adhikarmakrit were offi-cials or commissioned servants (Gupta, 1992).Shukraniti classifies labour on the basis of devotion to master- as excellent (who is devoted to master), mediocre (who serves master well and yearns for remuneration) and worst (who serves another mas-ter while being maintained by his own). Brihaspati divides labour on the basis of caste, occupation and reason for service (figure 2).

Persons Who Serve(Susrusakah)

(Karamkarahs)

(Workers / Labourers

Pupil (Shishya)

Highset(Uttam)Soldiers

Lowest(Adhama)

Porters

Middle(Madhyam)

Agricultural labour

Apprentice (Antevasi)

Hired Servantor

Wage Earner(Bhritaka)

Official or

CommossionedServant

(Ahikarmakrit)

Slaves(Dasas)


Jain canons mention four kinds of labour- those who received daily wages in cash or kind, those who were specially engaged for a journey, those who were employed on contract to perform whole work and those employed on contract to perform a part of work. Nigam’s classification of labour is quite comprehensive as he covers almost all types of labour prevalent in ancient India (figure 3). Be-sides this, labour was performed towards the pay-

ment of taxes. Those who could not pay taxes in cash or kind performed forced labour called sim-hanika.The principle of division of labour which is gener-ally attributed to the western management thinkers like Fayol, was very much in practice in ancient India. It is evident from pali Jataka stories where one man would fashion shaft of an arrow, a second would fix the flights and a third would make an fix

Wage Earner(Bhritahs)

Caste

Science(Vijyana)

Highest

(Soldier) (Agricultural Labour)

Middle Lowest

(Portersand servantsEmployed inHousehold

Work)

Serving aHusbandman

(Krishijivanam) (Gojivanam)

Serving anowner of

cattle

Knowledge(Vidya)

Love(Kama)

Gain-cash/kind(Artha)

Occupation Reason for work

On the basis of


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CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT

The employer, in most of the cases was obliged to make a contract with workers, a document enu-merating the two parties’ respective rights and du-ties, and setting down the names of the employees’ dependents. While the worker was expected to give a proof of zeal and professional competence, his master was in his turn obliged to furnish with him the instruments necessary for the work and to replace those which were worn out or defec-tive. The contract laid down the number of hours to be worked and wages to be paid and specified the goods and produce which would normally be paid above wages. In case of unjustifiable termi-

On the basis of terms and position

On the basis of activities

On the basis of Skill

Labour on fixed pay

Highest Labour

Agricultural Labour

Slave Labour

Forced Labour

Hired Labour

Industrial Labour

Mercantile Labour

Domestic Labour

Skilled Labour

Unskilled Labour

Pastoral Labour

Labour on share in Agriculture/cattle

Middle Labour

Labour on share in produce/Trade

Lowest Labour

On the basis of mode of payment

On the basis of Importance of work

nation of contract, the employer was prosecuted (Auboyer 1961). Study of literature reveals that the conditions of employment varied with the status of labour. Slaves generally got their maintenance only in return while wage earners got their stipu-lated wages. Both Jatakas and Arthshastra suggest a humane attitude towards slaves. Children of a slave were not slaves. A slave was permitted to own that was earned by him or inherited from father. Proper treatment of women slaves was in-sisted upon. This suggests that slavery in India was not as severe as in Greece (Majumdar, 2007). Con-trary to the other sources Magesthenes has stated in his account that there were no slaves in India. It is possible that Magesthenes having the Greek


conception of slavery in mind did not recognise the Indian system which was different from that of the Greeks (Thapar, 1997). Mauryan slavery was organised according to the system described in Arthshastra where slaves had been given rights to own property, right to inherit property, right to regain freedom, right to earn for himself.

WAGES

It seems that wages in ancient India were fairly high. Law givers emphasised that the wages should enable the worker and his family to lead a normal standard of living. According to Sukraniti an equi-table rate of wage was that which provided not just the basic necessities of life but that which recog-nised the standard of living and comfort as implied in the care of family and dependents.Unlike the modern concept of minimum wage which takes into consideration, as per recommen-dations of Indian Labour Conference, 1957, a fam-ily of three persons only, the ancient Indian wage paid to a worker aimed at fulfilling the needs of a 20 member family which included wife, mother, step mother, daughter, father, daughter in law, widowed daughter, sister who has no off spring, aunt, brother’s wife, sister of father or mother, grand father, preceptor who has no son, father-in- law, uncles, grand son who is a minor or an orphan, brother, sister’s son. It is further said that wage earner should maintain the families of both parents, wife’s family and the attendants, servants, maid servants, deformed, strangers, the poor and the helpless (Gupta, 1992).

Besides good wages emphasis was also on proper treatment.

Manu also provided that for the payment to the most menial worker the consideration of mainte-nance of family is a must. Kautilya maintained that the salaries of the workers should be sufficient to enable workers to adequately meet bodily com-forts, to serve loyally and enthusiastically and to be free from temptation and discontent. Besides good wages emphasis was also on proper treatment. Ac-

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cording to Suktaniti low wages, harsh treatment, abuse, impositions of heavy fines or severe punish-ments are causes of unrest among workers. It was very well recognised that by payment of adequate wages in time, promoted honourably, cheered by gentle words and consoled in grief, the employees will never let down or desert their master (Jayshree, 2002). Low wages were considered dangerous to society for “those who get low wages are enemies by nature”. That wages were high, is clear from the fact that, one Jataka speaks of even servants giving alms (Srikantan, 2011).Sukracharya, the jurist who lived in 6th century AD, was of the opinion that wages of a worker ought to be so fixed as to enable him to meet all his necessary expenses. He sounded a note of warning that if worker was not paid adequate wage there was a likelihood of the worker getting frustrated and turning an enemy. They could become aux-iliaries to others and opportunists and deserters (Saran, 1957).For government servants wages were carefully fixed by king on the basis of surveys of cost of liv-ing. To decide wages, family budgets were studied and their assets and liabilities were estimated. Says Kautilya, “A gopa shall keep account of ten thou-sands, twenty thousands or forty thousands house-holds. He shall not only know the caste, gotra, the name and occupation of the family members but also ascertain their income and expenditure (Sri-kantan, 2011).Wages were decided by bargaining or mutual agreement between employer and employee but for certain occupations a pre-decided customary wage rate was given. In the cases where the wage was not settled earlier through an agreement or by bargaining, labourer was paid in accordance with the nature of work and the time spent on it at customary rates. The customary wage rate for the various categories was one tenth of what they had produced (Table 1).Table 1: Customary wage rate in kind for certain occupations

Type of Occupation Payment(One tenth of)

CultivatorsCowherds Merchants

CropsGhee (Clarified Butter) Goods traded


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But Brihaspatiniti gives higher wage rate providing that a fifth share of profit or produce was payable to a worker along with food and clothing and a third share in case nothing else was given to him. In case of self-employed professionals like artisans, craftsmen, doctors, story tellers, cooks etc remu-neration was similar to others of the same profes-sion or as decided by experts in their profession.Wages were also based on quality and quantity of work. For example wages of a weaver depended on whether the threads spun were fine, coarse or of middle quality, and in proportion to the quantity woven (Shamasastry, 1951). The system of fixed wages for a given amount was also known. Further payment or reward was given for work done dur-ing holidays (Thapar, 2007). Kautilya provided that workers could be made to work on holidays by payment of special wages.

PAYMENT OF WAGES

Payment of wages was daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, six- monthly, yearly or on the completion of work or as agreed upon. Shukracha-rya stated that time could be divided according to solar or lunar movements. In case of domestic servants food was given in lieu of wages. As a gen-eral practice all needs of domestic servants were fulfilled by master (Saran, 1957).Most of the agricultural workers were paid in kind. According to Yajuvalakya if two persons were en-gaged to do a work jointly and if they could not finish the same, wages were paid only for work finished. Full wages were paid only when the work was completed. Narad observed that wages could be paid either at the beginning or in the middle or on the completion of work as agreed upon (Saran, 1957).Disputes regarding wages were settled on the basis of evidence of witness. If there was no witness, an on the spot enquiry was held. Denying the pay-ment of wages that were due and not paying wages for the work done were both punishable offences (Rangarajan, 1992).

CONDITIONS OF WORK

The condition of labour in ancient India must have been good. Hiuen Tsang, describing the condi-tions of work in those days writes, “People are

not subjected to forced labour. When the public services require it, labour is exacted but is paid for; the payment is in strict proportion to the work done” (Srikantan, 2011).Shukraniti suggested that good treatment, sweet words, respect, love, praise appreciation of worker by employer, award of prizes and ranks, delicious food, fine clothing, betel leaves, umbrellas, pro-motion etc keep workers satisfied (Gupta, 1992). In case of illness or distress the employee had the right to have the contract annulled or to have the work completed by someone else. An employee had right to full wages only if the employer pre-vented him from finishing a job of which he had already done a part. An employee was not obliged against his will to continue working for his previ-ous employer if he had completed the task allotted to him and already accepted employment under another. Employee had right to additional compensation if he did more work than agreed upon (Rangarajan, 1992).

PROTECTION OF LABOUR AND SOCIAL SECU-RITY

Workers and craftsmen were protected against in-jury and theft. If a craftsman was hurt the person responsible was put to death. A person accused of stealing the articles of an artisan had to pay a very heavy fine of 100 panas (silver coins). All artisans were protected by state and punishment was given on the person who impaired the efficiency of a craftsman (Mahajan, 1960).

People are not subjected to forced labour. when the public services require it, labour is exacted but is paid for; the payment is in strict proportion to the work done.

Ancient Indian labour law had provision of leave for workers. Kautilya provided that if the work-er was unwell or was in some trouble he could get leave but if a worker wanted leave for some

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other reason he could proceed on leave by pro-viding a substitute for himself. Under Manu’s law the period of absence due to illness was treated as the period of leave with pay only if the worker returned to complete the work after recovery. Ac-cording to Brihaspati a sick person was not forced to work but if a healthy person refused to perform assigned work punishment was given. Sukracha-rya provided for festival holidays in cases where work was not of emergency type. He observed that no deductions could be made from wages if the worker was ill for a week and also worker could have fifteen days annual leave with wages.The workers attached to an employer for a long time were entitled to several concessions. The an-cient law provided that the king should grant half the wages for life without work to the man who has passed forty years in service and f the worker was not living this be give to the widow or son or to his daughters. In this way pension was given to workers. In the form of bonus the servant was given one eighth of salary by way of reward every year when the work done was good. In fact bo-nus was considered as the claim of employee on the profits made by industry. The noteworthy point is that in Sukraniti bonus (1/8th of annual salary) was payable irrespective of the profit made or even in absence of profit. Bonus meant deferred wage (Jayashree, 2002).

the workers attached to an employer for a long time were entitled to several concessions

The employers were expected to provide provi-dent fund. Shukracharya says, “the master should keep with him as deposit one sixth or one fourth of wages of worker and should pay half of that amount in the whole or in two or three years” (Sri-kantan, 2011).

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DUTIES OF WORKERS

There were equally strict rules regarding duties of workers towards employer. A worker was to ex-pected to give quality and quantity output. Strict supervision and examination of the product was enforced (Thapar, 1997). A servant neglecting or unreasonably putting off work for which he had got wages was fined 12 panas and caught hold of till the work was done. The loss incurred by employ-er owing to such delay was to be made good by extra work. An employer or supervisor not taking work from an employee was also fined 12 panas. Guilds of workmen had a grace of 7 nights over and above the period agreed upon for completing work and beyond that they had to find substitutes to get the work completed. A healthy person who deserted his company after work had begun was fined 12 panas. The fines for various offences var-ied from 1.25 panas to 500 panas (Cunninggham, 1891). Apart from guilds there were workers’ bod-ies such as workers’nco-operatives. These gener-ally included artisans and various crafts associated with a particular enterprise (Thapar, 1990). The person who was found to have neglected his share of work by stealth was shown mercy for the first time and given a proportional quantity of work anew with a promise of proportional share of earn-ings as well. In case of negligence for the second time he was thrown out of the company. If he was guilty of a glaring offence, he was treated as condemned (Shamasastry, 1951). If the work was not completed at the right time or in right way it could be disqualified for calculating wages. Work-ers were to report at the fixed time of work fail-ing which one fourth wages were deducted and by way of punishment a fine equal to double the amount of such deductions was imposed, unless the failure to be punc- tual was due to some un-foreseen obstructions.

EMPLOYER-EMPLOYEE RELATIONS

In ancient India, employer-employee relations were based on Dharma. The guiding principle of Dharma was the mutual good. Deviation from the rules of fair conduct meant going away from the path of Dharma. The employer making profits from the hard labour of workers was bound to provide for their welfare. Right of one party was the duty of the other. The ancient Indian labour law provided


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for the rights of domestic labour also while in mod-ern times the domestic labour and other workersin informal sector are not protected by law.

CONCLUSION

In ancient India labour was engaged in various oc-cupations. Wages were fairly high and enabled the family of the worker to lead a normal standard of living. Literature reveals that various factors influ-encing wage rates were agreement between employer and employee, standard fixed by state, op-portunity cost, quantity and quality of work, time spent on work, caste and status of worker, skill, de-votion, productivity, family needs and incentives. So wage payment was a dynamic concept as no single basis of payment was prevalent. The consid-eration of humanism and social justice were domi-nant in deciding wage rates. Unlike the modern norm for wage fixation, the worker was supposed to support a larger family and thus the wages were paid accordingly. Just as efficient management in modern times recognises the importance of em-ployee benefits and incentives, similarly in ancient India it was very well known that besides good wages the worker should be paid sufficiently so as to meet the day to day contingencies of life and arrangements were made for social security. It was very well known that timely payments, honour-able promotions, gentle words, rewards for good work and appreciation keep the worker happy and satisfied. Ancient Indian literature reveals that, the modern practices of pension, provident fund, workmen’s compensation, insurance, leave with

wages etc are not new in our country. These are our old legacies. It is evident that India has been concerned about the welfare of labour right from the beginning of civilization. The ancient law giv-ers have been as conscious of the rights and duties of workers as we are in the modern times.

REFERENCES

1. Auboyer J (1961) Daily Life in Ancient India- From Approximately 200 BC to 700 AD. Asia Publishing House, London.

2. Basham A L (1994) The Wonder that Was In-dia. Rupa and Company, New Delhi.

3. Cunningham, A (1891) Coins of ancient India: From the earliest times down to the seventh century A D. Asian Educational Services (Re-print, 2000), New Delhi

4. Gupta B L (1992) Value and Distribution Sys-tem in Ancient India. Gian Publishing House, New Delhi

5. Jayashree K S (2002) Labour Relation in Sukraniti. Home>Digital Library>Index of Newsletters> 2002> Vol 1 Available at http/ignca.nic.in/n100 1905.html on 21.11.2011

6. Mahajan V D (1960) Ancient India. S Chand and Company Ltd, New Delhi

7. Majumdar R C (2007) Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Pvt Ltd, Delhi.

8. Rangarajan L N (1992) Kautilya: The Arthshas-tra. Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.


BASIC CONSIDERATIONS ON INDIAN VALUES IN MANAGEMENT

Rajib Chakravorty

Key WordsIndian Values, Holistic Management, Indian Ethos

AbstractValue oriented holistic management is the essence of the Indian management thought which has been enriched by the rich Indi-an heritage and culture; the way we have looked at life over the ages. Management based only on skills may not be total or ho-listic. It is beyond doubt that management based on values supplemented by adequate skills can be holistic as well as practical, particularly in India where there are diverse conditions to face. This time tested ap-proach to management can help stop the rot that has crept into individuals and organiza-tions today. Indian ethos demands a subjec-tive management system which leads to an understanding of at least the basics of our ancient scriptures. This paper has attempted to highlight certain pertaining areas of the basic issues and suggest a workable solution to the existing conditions.

BASICS OF OUR VALUES AND HERITAGE

India is the land of a proud past and rich heritage based on ethical values. It has been so since thou-sands of years and derived its own concept of “vas-udevam kutumbakam” meaning essentially thereby

the top most regards to the natures creation as a whole and attaching supreme values to its togetherness and oneness. Our values have regarded the environment placing it at the top of preferences of attachment to

The autor may be reached at [email protected]

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india is the land of a proud past and rich heritage based on ethical values


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self, caste, race, countries, boundaries, animal world, flora and fauna to the total environment in that increasing order of regard. It has been known since ages that India has acted as a confluence of saarva dharma (all religions) and a melting pot of ethno-cultural patterns and numerous linguistics. However, from the basic texts pertaining to Hindu-ism of Karma, Dharma and Moksh it has been un-derstood that if one does good work or welfare for the living beings and natural resources, he serves religion and ultimately gets moksh or salvation.Brahma or a primeval man and Atma or soul were conceptualized and occupational hierarchy of human race were believed to have been the result of getting birth from the mouth, hands, thighs and feet of Brhama. But from other religions of India like the Jainism or Protestant Ehtics, work and time were considered as the most important service of a man following the pious ways. From a study of the above, it can be inferred that in the rich Indian val-ues, lot of importance has been attached to regard and welfare not only of human beings but of the whole universal system comprising the environ-ment that we are part of.

BASICS OF INDIAN ETHOS

It can be defined as “the moral ideas and attitudes that belong to a particular group or society”. In-dian Ethos is all about what can be termed as “na-tional ethos”. Formally, the body of knowledge which derives its solutions from the rich and huge Indian heritage of ethics (moral values) is known as Indian Ethos in Management (IEM).It is not a hindu concept only, rather it takes into account all reli-gions meeting at the same point of fundamental truths. Management is basically a behavioral science and it has to be culture specific. IEM has as its basis, the culture base of India and as a coun-try whose culture has its roots in religion - it does draw its lessons from the religions of the land - be it Hinduism, Buddhism, or any other. The salient ideas and thoughts of Indian Ethos in Management revealed by our ancient scriptures are translated into English are as follows:

1. All work is an opportunity for doing good to the world and thus gaining materially and spir-itually in our lives

2. Worship people not only with material things

but also by showing respect to their enterpris-ing divinity within.

3. Strength and inspiration for excelling in work comes from the Divine, God within, through prayer, spiritual readings and unselfish work.

4. He who works with calm and even mind achieves the most.

5. As we think, so we succeed, so we become. Attention to means ensures the end.

6. By mutual cooperation, respect and fellow feeling, all of us enjoy the highest good both material and spiritual.

7. Infinite happiness and infinite peace come to them who see the Divine in all beings.

8. Regard the other person as a divine being. All of us have the same consciousness though our packages and containers are different.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INDIAN ETHOS FOR MANAGEMENT

The basic principles emhasise on the concept fur-ther believing immense potential, energy and tal-ents for perfection as human being has the spirit within one’s heart and there should be a holistic approach indicating unity between the Divine and the individual self and the universe. The Divine here means perfectionin knowledge, wisdom and power of inner self developed with regard to the totality of environment. The reason behind this is the logic that subtle, intangible subject and gross tangible objects are equally important. One must develop one’s Third Eye, Jnana Chaksu, the Eye of Wisdom, Vision, and Insight plus Foresight. In-ner resources are much more powerful than outer resources. Whereas, the Divine virtues are inner resources, the Capital, materials and plant and ma-chinery are outer resources.

management is basically a behavioral science and it has to be culture specific “

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Further, the Karma Yoga (selfless work) offers dou-ble benefits, private benefit in the form of self pu-rification and public benefit by Karma which in essence means excellence at work through self-motivation and self-development with devotion and without attachment. Co-operation is a power-ful instrument for team work and success in any enterprise involving collective work.Principles of IEM are universally applicable. IEM can help develop an effective and holistic manage-ment pattern which will assure all round growth in productivity, marketing and profitability. This will help in synchronizing private and public benefits and encourage individuals to lead an enriched quality of life together with worldly achievements. The best form of management has to be holistic and value driven which is the final objective of IEM.Indian Values and Subjective ManagementAs discussed above, the Indian ethos or values demand a subjective management system which leads to an understanding and practice where the top Management attitude has to be so regulated that they have a firm belief in value-oriented ho-listic management. Profit is earned through service and satisfaction of all stakeholders who may be employees, customers, shareholders and citizens. Fulfillment of social responsibility must be en-sured.The logic behind this is humanising the organisa-tion and looking at the three aspects of humane organisations, i.e., inter-personal relations, man-machine equation where man is the prime con-cern and inner management through mental and spiritual growth of individuals.When the soul manages the other four members of the human being, namely, the body, mind, intellect and the heart, the conflict of these four amongst themselves can be resolved. This is management by consciousness. The objective of self manage-ment is to first know and manage oneself and then manage others. Here, self-introspection, self-anal-ysis and self-criticism to locate areas of friction and disharmony, a self examination of one’s own thoughts, feelings, emotions, sensa- tions and pas-sions and a desire to reduce and subdue the ego play an important role.The essential practice of management should be brain-stilling (unlike brain-storming in western practice) for rational and enduring decisions where

silent mind is a necessity. A perfect Mounum i.e; calm mind enjoying tranquility is necessary. Brain-stilling or meditative silence is the most reliable method to discover solutions to problems and dif-ficulties which seem to be difficult to be tackled by reason and intellect because through this one can come into contact with the inner mind or higher consciousness called Chetana.A dynamic meditation is meditation of transforma-tion of lower consciousness into higher conscious-ness, also called transforming meditation, is nec-essary. Through meditation, in a silent and calm mind, one reaches a higher level of consciousness which offers guidance in the form of intuitions to tackle a multitude of problems. This is called con-sciousness approach to management.

intuition is the act of coming to direct knowledge or certainty without reasoning or inferring

Intuition is the act of coming to direct knowledge or certainty without reasoning or inferring. It is immediate cognition by the inner mind and when fully developed, is efficient and effective for tak-ing prompt and sound decisions. Intuition skills enable one to cope with confidence the fluctuating environment and rapid changes. Faith is a prereq-uisite to develop and realize the power of intuition.

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF KARMA YOGA

Karma Yoga is a good pathway for self purifica-tion and self-development for individual as well as collective growth. Here, welfare of others, mini-mum play of passion, jealousy, hatred, greed, anger and arrogance come into picture. But, team spirit, team work, autonomous management, minimum control and supervision, take over. The result is all round happiness and prosperity. Karma Yoga is an end-state of action and thoughts and encourages Nishkam Karma (work without any personal gain

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in mind). Yoga means union between individual consciousness and the supreme consciousnesses.It is evident that this practice offers the most whole-some work psychology and should therefore be the right attitude to work because it is based purely on the powerful logic in its theory and the infinite power in its practice, derived basically from the Bhagvad Geeta which says one has the right only to action, and never to the fruits of one’s actions, nor to be attached to inaction.

VALUE-ORIENTED HOLISTIC MANAGEMENT

Value-Oriented Holistic Management is the es-sence of the Indian Management thought which has been enriched by the rich Indian heritage and culture; the way we have looked at life over the ages. Management based only on skills can never be total or holistic. It is beyond doubt that manage-ment based on values supplemented by adequate skills can only be holistic and that is why we have this concept of “Value- Oriented Holistic Manage-ment”. This time tested approach to Management can help stop the corruption that has crept into in-dividuals and organizations.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION FOR MODERN MANAGEMENT IN INDIAN CONTEXT

Our scriptures and religious rituals very vividly il-lustrate the concept of carring capacity and sus-tainable development. In their hymn to earth, the sages of Atharva Veda chanted ::”What of thee I dig out, let thy quickly grow over, let me not hit thy vital organs or thy heart”.Now it is the time when all our efforts have to be put into re-establish the linkage of our technical education with nature. Harnessing the renewable resources of solar and wind energy as also the ap-plication of bio gas for rural electrification can be well practised by the rural youth with gainful employment. Local SISI units, ISTE Chapters, Ro-tarians and other NGOs along with the organized sector could join up for such activities.Though we are practicing automation in our in-dustries, services meant for large population and work in communes have to be re-pondered on by the decision makers for the ever-growing popula-tion of India.It is believed that the immediate cause of envi-

ronmental degradation is increased population, urbanization and industrial activities combined with, as yet, little ethical regard for our resources, and inadequate institutions to cope up with environmental stress. These problems are not unique to any particular political or social system in our country.At one time, environment meant only sanitary and public health engineering; but today the frontiers of the concept are ever-widening. These involve all basic sciences, technology, Management sci-ences, economics, sociology, ethics, law, defence and political systems. Thus everybody who could or should act on these lines are the potential contributor to the cause of environment and its management which in turn, is closely linked with sustainable development particularly valid for the neglected rural community and unorganized sec-tor. Therefore, it has been felt that there is an ur-gent need of environmental education in all areas of society; emphasized by the Tiwary Committee report (1980) as pointed earlier.

Our scriptures and religious rituals very vividly illustrate the concept of carring capacity and sustainable development

ROLE OF NSS IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCA-TION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

No education whether general or technical, can be complete without a social commitment and a sense of belonging to the society and its con-cern. The NSS or National Service Scheme of the MHRD runs on these principles with the motto ; “not me, but you”. A membership in NSS means responsibility as it is a directly or indirectly gov-ernment work. As illiteracy is a major impediment in social development, especially because ma-jor part of our population lives in villages. Hence adult education is of prime importance in rural development in which NSS is playing a very ac-

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tive role. The methodology involves using local language and interaction with the local people for sock-economic surveys, health education, lit-eracy drive using formal methods as well as post-ers, audio-visuals, exhibitions and skits. Rural and non-students youth and the tribals or forest dwell-ers can be made a partner in eco- development camps for hands on environmental awareness and vocational programmes. Government and NGOs help in these efforts are quite encouraging which the NSS volunteers may make use of in their camps and follow-ups. Energy management in the form of bio-gas and its application could be well practiced by the rural youth for even gainful employment.

REFERENCES

1. S M Chatterjee, Proc; of ISTE Annual Conven-tion (1991), Madras.

2. Padma Vasudevan, Santosh, ISTE New Letter, 1985, Vol V, NO:2.

3. K K Prasad, Metal News, IIM, 1990,Vol:12, NO:1.

4. R Chakravorty, Paper presented at TTTI, Cal-cutta,1993.

5. A Chakraborty, private communication.6. Himadri Barman, Dept; of Mangement Sci-

ences, (2007),Dibrugarh University.7. B K Chatterjee, Organisational Behaviour &

Beyond, (2004), Asian Books (P) Ltd., New Delhi.


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BOOK REVIEW

Leading with Wisdom: Spiritual-Based Leadership in Businessby Peter Pruzan and Kirsten Pruzan Mikkelsen to-gether with Debra andWilliam Miller.

There are two things I never thought I wou ld see in my lifetime: one was the fall of the Russian empire; and the other was hearing the word ‘God’ spoken of in the Academy of Management”. An-

dre Delbecq, Dean, Graduate School of Business, Santa Clara University shares this thought to the authors of the book Leading with Wisdom: Spirit-ual-Based Leadership in Business. The book, from which the above said quote is taken, is co-authored by Peter Pruzan and Kirsten Pruzan Mikkelsen to-gether with Debra andWilliam Miller. The book is the result of a 5-year long research program and contains in-depth interviews with 31 leaders from

BOOK REVIEW

Ajith Sankar RN,

REVIEWED BY

PSGInstitute of Management,PSGCollege ofTechnology, Peelamedu, Coimbatore

across the globe, who speak about leadership, ser-vice, spirituality and restructuring. The reader of this book is taken through a journey in which how these leaders, belonging to verticals as diverse as IT and telecommunications, healthcare, retailing, manufacturing, food services, investment manage-ment, business academics and NGOs, tap their conscience to lead their daily work life.

Dr. Peter Pruzan is professor emeritus at the Copen-hagen Business School, and is a globally known figure when it comes to academic study of corpo-rate social responsibility. Kirsten Pruzan Mikkelsen is a journalist and former editor at Det Berlingske Hus, a publishing house in Denmark. Debra and-William Miller are co-founders of Global Dharma Center, a nonsectarian, non-profit spiritual institu-tion whose purpose is “to inspire and empower people from all cultures around the world, and all walks of life, to live and work from a spiritual basis, in accord with our inherent, spiritual nature”. The interviewees from India include AK Chattopadhyay (ACC Limited),Anand Pillai (HCLComnet),Ashoke Maitra (Times of India), Deependra Moitra (Lu-cent), G Narayana (Excel Industries), NS Raghavan (Infosys), SK Welling (HMT International) and VV Ranganathan (Ernst &Young). Interviewees from other countries include personalities like Stephen Covey.

The interviews bring out interesting facets of lead-ership and personality. The story of Lars Kolind (Oticon), who in times of high business adversity, asks the best skilled and employable employees to leave the company while keeping the company running with relatively less skilled workers, or the story of JanieceWebb (Motorola) who refused to ascribe to unethical means of doing business, re-inforces our belief that human values are indeed


thriving in the field of business. James Sinclair, who called the market top for gold trading in 1980, tells his story of being a ethical warrior for a company’s stockholders against a management that was “stealing money from the stockholders for themselves and hurting people”.

It could have satisfied an intellectual mind if the book contained some objective studies that bring about a link between the organizational perfor-mance and the personal beliefs of the leaders. However, as this reviewer has learned from his own academic pursuits, conclusions of such stud-ies include a lot of grey areas. Spirituality is a per-sonal journey and not everything is quantifiable in this journey.

The book adopts a story telling approach. The au-thors refrain from giving a definition tospirituality or leadership, and invite the interview-ees to speak about their views, which are varied, on these topics. This is a welcome move, as it helps the readers to expand their thoughts on Leadership and Spirituality in different directions, thus result-ing in an inner dialogue with oneself. The inter-views are divided under eight sections which are Love, Looking and Listening within, Live it and Serve!, Compassion, Divinity, Purpose, Balance and grace and Harvesting the Wisdom. Another unique is the following quote from authors, “All

the participants in Spiritual based Leadership Pro-gram, upon which the book is based, have volun-teered their time and efforts. Therefore the authors do not accept any royalties from the sale of this book”.

Some times we wonder how admirable organiza-tions are built. We do have a lot of studies based on that. While this book reviewer does not want to get into those details, here is an interesting ob-servation made by N S Raghavan, Co-founder, Infosys that forms part of the book. It may give a clue to how good organizations are built. “When it comes to building an organization culture, I do not think you have to formally speak about it. I think people automatically observe and follow the way you behave and act. Even if you have a rule book that says differently, people will still follow what the leader does. They will follow the behaviour that they observe, not the behaviour that they read about in the rule-book. It is not the rules; it is the spirit in which the work is undertaken”.

Students of leadership and management, bombard-ed with messages that symbols and rites of con-spicuous consumption are associated with leader-ship, will find refreshingly new symbols, rites and languages of leadership, through this book. As leadership is not just restricted to field of business, Leading with Wisdom is a definite recommend for people from all spheres of life.


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GLOSSARY

Adi Shankara (pronounced [a:di cenkere]: early 8th century CE[2][note 1] – also known as (Àdi) Shankaracharya and Shankara Bhagavatpada, spelled variously as

Sankaracharya, (Adi) Sankaracharya, Adi Sankara-cari, [5] Sankara Bhagavatpada, Sankara Bhagavat-padacarya – was a Hindu philosopher from Kaladi in present day Eranakulam district, Kerala, India who consolidated the doctrine of advaita Vedanta. [1][6]

His works in Sankrit establish the doctrine of ad-vaita, the unity of the atman and nirguna Brah-man, Brahman without attributes. [7] His works elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads. He wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutra, principal upanishads and Bhaga-vad Gita) in support of his thesis.

The main opponent in his work is the Mimamsa school of thought, thought he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like Sam-khya and certain schools of Buddhism.[7][8][9]

Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mimamsa school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. He is reputed to have founded four mahas (“monasteries”), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist. [6] Adi Shankara is believed to be the organizer of the Dashanami monastic order and the founder of the shanmata tradition of wor-ship.

Artha: a Sanskrit term meaning “purpose, cause, motive, meaning, notion”.

Arthashastra: an ancient Indian treatise on state-craft, economic policy and military strategy com-posed by Kautilya who was an adviser in the min-isterial cabinet of King Chandragupta in ancient India.

Atharva: is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the “fourth Veda.

Ayurveda: a system of traditional medicine native to India and a form of alternative medicine.

Bhagavad Gita: a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Hindu epic, the Mahabhara-ta, considered among the most important texts in the history of literature and philosophy, which is contended with a substance & essence of Hindu-ism/ Sanatana Vedic Dharma. The teacher of the Bhagavad Gita is Lord Krishna, who is revered by Hindus as a manifestation of God Himself.

Bhagvadpada Sri AdiShankaracharaya: One of the foremost Indian philosopher, saint & sage born in 788 A.D. in Kaladi (Kerala,lndia) who had pro-pounded the Advaita philosophy. He also had made the commentary on 10 principal Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita & had authored a number of texts, writings.

Brahman: in Hinduism, Brahman is the one su-preme, universal Spirit that is the origin and sup-port of the phenomenal universe.

Chakra: a concept originating in Hindu texts, fea-tured in tantric and yogic traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Its name derives from the Sanskrit word for “wheel” or “turning”.

Dharma: Law of path of virtues (as in the natural order of things) and is a concept of central impor-tance in Indian philosophy. The contextual purport of Dharma is a way/practice of life which one has opted for the purpose of sustainability in the opted state.

Dharmasastra: a genre of Sanskrit texts or Indic branch of learning, pertaining to Hindu dharma, religious and legal duty.

Dhyana Yoga: The yoga of meditation


Ganesha: also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the deities best known and most widely worshipped in the Hindu pantheon.

Guru shisya parampara: a succession of teachers and disciples in traditional Indian culture. It is the tradition of spiritual relationship and mentoring in traditional Hinduism where teachings are transmit-ted from a guru (teacher) to a sisya (disciple).

Hakim: In the Arabic language, Hakim means wise. Hakim also means a doctor who practices Arabic medicine.

Kalam: A measure (esp. of grain)

Kasu: A small coin of ancient regines

Karma Yoga: It is the”discipline of action” & is a form of yoga based on the teachings of the Bhaga-vad Gita. Of the four paths to realization, karma yoga is the science of achieving perfection in ac-tion.

Mantra: a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of “creating transforma-tion”

Manusmriti: the most important and earliest metri-cal work of the Dharmasastra textual tradition of Hinduism which is the commandment of Hindu way of life & practices. It was composed by Ma-harishi Manu.

Moksha: literally means “release”. It is the libera-tion from the bondage and the concomitant suf-fering involved in being subject to the cycle of re-peated death and reincarnation.

Pandavas: In the Hindu epic Mahabharata, the Pan-davas are the five acknowledged sons of Pandu, by his two wives Kunti and Madri. Dharma, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva. All five brothers were married to the same woman, Draupadi.

Patajanli’s Yogasutras: a Hindu scripture and foun-dational text of Yoga composed by Maharishi Pa-tanjali, an Indian seer, during Vedic era. Prana: the Sanskrit word for “vital life”.

Puranas: a genre of important Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religious texts, notably consisting of nar-ratives of the history of the universe from creation to destruction in terms of the religions as an asser-tive text based on stories by depicting the principal text! scripture of the particular Indian religion.

Purusharthas: refers to a goal, end or aim of human existence.

Rigveda: an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. It is counted among the four canonical sacred texts of Hinduism known as the Vedas. It is the first Veda in its series.

Sanatan Dharma: Hinduism is known to its follow-ers as Sanatan Dharma (a Sanskrit phrase meaning “the eternal law”, “the eternal/perennial law that sustains/upholds/surely preserves”) amongst many other expressions. It is the dharma which was not propounded by any credo & which is perennial in nature.

Shankaracharya: a commonly used title of heads of maths (monasteries) in the Advaita tradition. The popular view among historians is that there were four maths established by Adi Shankara:

Sattvika: In Hindu philosophy, it literally means “purity”. For an object or food to be sattvika, it must be uncontaminated and should not spread evil or disease in the world. On the contrary its presence must purify the surroundings.

Shri Rama: or full name Ramachandra is consid-ered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu in Hin-duism, and a king of Ayodhya in ancient Indian Puranas.

Sioka: meaning ‘song’, is the basis for Indian Epic verse, and may be considered the Indian verse form par excellence. The Mahabharata and Rama-yana, for example, are written almost exclusively in shlokas.

Smriti: literally that which is remembered,” refers to a specific body of Hindu religious scripture, and is a codified component of Hindu customary law. Sutras: A type of literary composition in the scrip-


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tures of Buddhism and Hinduism

Terracotta: (old Bengali word) a clay-based un-glazed ceramic, although the term can also be ap-plied to glazed ceramics where the fired body is porous and red in color. Its uses include vessels (notably flower pots), water and waste water pipes and surface embellishment in building construc-tion. These specialized works particularly originat-ed from southern part of Bengal within the district of Bankura of present West Bengal state of India.

Upanishad: philosophical texts considered to be an early, source of Hindu religion. Upanishad is also the concluding part & the knowledge works of Veda.

Vaidyas: a Hindu caste whose caste-profession was practising the Ayurveda to treat others.

Valmiki: He is the author of the epic Ramayana which was composed around 3500B.C.

Vedas: a large body of texts originating in ancient ‘India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts con-stitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. This is the funda-mental text & works which was revealed through the ideas, thoughts of seers and sages in India fo-cusing on to divulge the highest truth of this Uni-verse & the World.

Yagna: a ritual of sacrifice (worship, prayer, praise, offering, oblation, sacrifice”) derived from the practice of Vedic times. It is performed to please the gods or to attain certain wishes. An essential element is the sacrificial fire - the divine Agni - into which oblations are poured, as everything that is offered into the fire is believed to reach the gods.

Yajurveda: the third of the four canonical texts of Hinduism, the Vedas.

Yoga: a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in modern India, whose goal is the at-tainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility.



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