Science

In the beginning, 13.7 billion years ago, the observable universe, all matter and energy, was compressed into a hot, dense mass. It expanded and went bang. A little later this new universe cooled enough for atoms of hydrogen to form and coalesce into the first hydrogen stars; which after several billion years of their own life, they died and went supernova; (bang), again! Their ejective mass contained the newly cooked heavier elements and this star dust once again coalesced into a cloud of gas, and starting all over again, bringing together the ingredients for our solar system to form. Little bits of dust began to cluster, making bigger lumps, and it began to pull together under its own gravity, our current sun was born. Over millions of years - not 6 days & nights - that is scientifically ridiculous -the dust clustered into planetesimals (little planets) and eventually into full planets.

Now to be fair, let me show you an alternate idea to Earth’s formation. There is an African tribe, whose religion dictates that their God made the universe in the following way. Their God had a pain from a stomachache, vomited up the sun. The sun dried up some of the water, leaving land. Still in pain, he then vomited up the moon, the stars, and then some animals finally, some men. Either the world formed from vomit or it did not. I don’t have the answers you decide based on evidence.

Unscientific babble about superstitions cannot be countenanced, for with it comes suffering. Suffering brought about by voodoo ideas: like homeopathy. Moreover, people are making horrible health choices for their own children; such as refusing to have them treated with modern life saving vaccines. Ignorantly believing vaccinations cause things like autism. Eventually this vaccine avoidance puts the entire population at risk; this is one of the most excellent reasons why bad ideas must be chal-lenged. One ought to question everything and everyone and demand that without proof. You are certainly welcome to make up an opinion but you cannot make up the facts.

Scientific Method:This is a much-revered process of discovery. It is the way one should carry out good experiments. If you wanted to prove that, "Light is required for plants to grow", how would you do it? Well, quite simply you do an experiment, say, put many plants in the light and many others in the dark for awhile (keeping all other factors constant). But, if you forget to water the ones in the dark, while always watering the plants in the light, then the death of the plants in the dark may not be due to the absence of light. If this experiment is to give any useful information, then it has to be controlled. Whatever you do for the plant in the light, you should do for the plant in the dark. You should water both plants, feed, and talk to both plants. Whatever you do for the one in the light you should do for the one in the dark; the only exception is the variable (or factor) that you are testing. In this case the light or absence of light. This is the only thing that should be different in the experiment.

Dependant Variable: is the factor that you measure, here the growth of the plants. Independent Variable: causes the changes in the experiment. It is the main control device of the experimenter. The presence or absence of light was the independent variable. Controlling Other Variables (Factors): As was said earlier, all other factors in the experiment have to be consistent. The amount of water each plant receives, the amount of food, the type of plant and soil used, the type and size of the pot, had to be the same for both experiments.

ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS UNIT (Ch 1 to 4)

ECOLOGY can be defined as the interactions between organisms (biotic) and the nonliving (abiotic)

FLOW OF ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS: The most important factor determining how many (& kind) organisms that can live in an ecosystem is the amount of ENERGY available. This passage of this energy is called a food chain, it FLOWS from the SUN to plants then onto organisms that eat the plants called primary consumers (or herbivores like cows) then to carnivores (secondary consumers). Interwoven food chains are called food webs, which are categorized thusly:

A. Decomposers –feed on remains of Dead Plants and Animals called detritus. B. Herbivores –– Eat Producers or Plant Eaters. C. Carnivores –– Eat other Consumers. Meat Eaters. D. Omnivores –– Eat Both Producers and Consumers (humans). E. Detritivores –– Feed on the wastes and dead matter of an Ecosystem.

In an Ecosystem, Producers and Consumers are placed in Trophic Levels (Feeding Levels) A. Producers are the 1st Trophic Level. B. Herbivores are the 2nd Trophic Level. C. Carnivores are the 3rd, Fourth and Fifth Trophic Levels.

When energy is transferred some energy is Lost. Producers absorb energy from the sun to become part of the plants body, or is lost as HEAT. At each Trophic Level, the energy stored in an organism is about 1/10th of the trophic level below it. Because energy diminishes at each successive Trophic Level, ecosystems usually have no more than 4 Trophic Levels.

We call the Surface of the Earth the BIOSPHERE (AIR, WATER, and LAND) where living things exist. The Biosphere is composed of smaller units called Biomes. The largest level of organization of organisms is a biome, like a Rain Forest or Desert. Populations of organisms occupy biomes. Smaller areas called ECOSYSTEMS. Ecosystems can be as large as we decide. Any area you decide to study can be considered an Ecosystem, from your back yard to a pond.PopulationsA Population includes all the members of the same species that live in one place at one time. All the different populations that live in a particular area make up a COMMUNITY; and their location is called a HABITAT. Each organism has a ROLE and this is the organisms NICHE. A species’ niche is its way of life, it includes the conditions that the species can tolerate, the methods by which it obtains needed resources, and all its other interactions with its environment.

ECOSYSTEM RECYCLING (Matter is recycled , energy is NOT) Living things take materials from the environment and as they use these materials they will eventually give them back to the environment; we say materials are recycled.

Energy is different, for it cannot be recycled, it needs to be input constantly. The source of this energy is the sun. Energy is lost as it is transferred through an ecosystem. But matter (periodic table of matter) is present in a fixed amount, and must be recycled. Energy Flows through an ecosystem BUT Nutrients Re Cycle .

This “give and take” by organisms in the ecosystem ensures a continuous renewal of materials in the ecosystem to provide a State of Equilibrium. By things changing constantly, things remain the same. This is equilibrium. This recycling occurs through Biogeochemical Cycles. (Ex: the carbon or nitrogen cycles) These cycles ensure a continuous supply of basic elements. The basic structure of any biogeochemical cycle is as follows:

a. Organisms obtain elements (O,C,& N) from food.b. The elements are used to produce living tissue via metabolism.c. Organisms die and give off wastes. Decomposers breakdown and return the elements to the earth.d. Other organisms (mainly plants) take up and use these same elements.

In an Ecosystem the Three Primary Nutrient Cycles: A. The Water Cycle B. The Carbon Cycle C. The Nitrogen Cycle THE WATER CYCLE

To availability of water determines the Diversity of Organisms in an Ecosystem. The availability of WATER is one of the key Factors that determine the type of living conditions, or the type of BIOME, organisms live in. Lakes, Rivers, and the Oceans contain a substantial percentage of the Earth’s Water. The atmosphere also contains water, as water Vapour (some water is found below ground known as aquifers). The Movement of Water follows these steps (KNOW HOW TO DRAW)

A. EVAPORATION from lakes, rivers, and oceans. OR/AND B. TRANSPIRATION from plants and trees. C. CONDENSATION –– Cloud Formation D. PRECIPITATION –– Rain, Snow, Sleet, Hail. E. RUN OFF, or RETURNED back into the Cycle.

THE CARBON CYCLETogether, Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration form the basis of the Carbon Cycle. The Earth’s atmosphere contains Carbon as CO2. During photosynthesis, plants link many CO2 together to make glucose C6H12O6. Thus storing the Carbon for

themselves. Both Autotrophs and Heterotrophs then use oxygen to then break down this glucose during Cellular Respiration. Glucose is then reconverted to Carbon Dioxide (breathing releases CO2 back to the atmosphere). As a side note, CO2 is also released from volcanoes and fossil fuel or wood burning. KNOW HOW TO DRAW THIS, see text book pic. The Carbon Cycle is found on pg 62.Rates of CyclingThe rates at which elements cycle through the biogeochemical cycles is linked to the rate of decomposition. Temperature and oxygen levels are the two most important abiotic factors regulating decomposition.

Rapid Cycles: occurs in Tropical Rain Forests where organic matter decomposes relatively quickly. Warmth, moist soil and the vast number of diverse and specialized decomposers permit a cycle to be completed in as little as a few months.

Slow Cycles occurs in the Tundra where organic matter decomposes relatively slowly. Cold, permafrost based soil and limited types and numbers of decomposers cause cycles to take up to 50 years to be completed.

Carbon CycleCarbon is the key element for all living organisms and therefore of all organic substances. Organic substances always contain atoms of carbon and hydrogen (and oxygen and nitrogen). These atoms go to makeup proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.Carbon can be classified as follows:A. Living organisms and detritus. Carbon is available to organisms when they feed on one another. B. Fossilized deposits once living organisms become such as coal or oilC. Carbon compounds dissolved in water, soil and air. D. Carbon contained within sedimentary rocks such as limestone which is made from the discarded shells and bones of living organisms. This is the largest reservoirs of the Earth’s carbon.

During photosynthesis, plants use light energy to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose (sugar) and oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in a chain of reactions, but it can be summed up in the following equation:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light ----> C6H12O6 + 6 O2Carbon dioxide + water + light ----> glucose + oxygen

(reactants) (products)

During cellular respiration, oxygen and glucose react releasing energy, water and carbon dioxide. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -------->6 CO2 + 6 H2O

Glucose + oxygen ------> carbon dioxide + water(reactants) (products)

THE NITROGEN CYCLE ALL Organisms need Nitrogen, an important nutrient, to make proteins and nucleic acids. Most Nitrogen is found in the Atmosphere (80%) as N2 ( ) and most living things cannot use it as it is an unbreakable triple bond. ALL Organisms rely on the actions of Bacteria that are able to transform in a more usable form. Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria (Cyanobacteria and Rhizobium) play a key role in the Nitrogen Cycle. They live in the soil and in the roots of some kinds of plants, such as beans, clover, and alfalfa. These Bacteria can break the atmospheric N2 bonds. Nitrogen atoms are then free to bond with hydrogen atoms to form Ammonia (NH3). This conversion is called Nitrogen Fixation.

Ammonia can be absorbed by Plants from the Soil, and is used to make Proteins, and enters food webs. Consumers obtain nitrogen from eating the plants. Decomposers also return the nitrogen back to the soil from recycling the nitrogen in waste and dead matter. This process is known as AMMONIFICATION. Without ammonification, nitrogen that would be lost is recycled back into the Ecosystem.

Nitrogen is returned to the Atmosphere through DENITRIFICATION. Denitrification occurs when Anaerobic Bacteria break down Nitrates and release Nitrogen Gas back into the Atmosphere.

Plants can absorb nitrates and ammonia from the soil. Animals obtain Nitrogen in the same way they obtain Energy (by eating the plants and other organisms). Plants are therefore DEPENDENT on Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria, and All other Organisms including YOU Are DEPENDENT ON THEM! KNOW HOW TO DRAW THIS CYCLE

1. Most of the N2 moves through nitrogenous compounds found in soil and water, not the atmosphere2. Nitrogen fixing bacteria may be found in two places within an ecosystem:

A. Soil: Most are located here.B. Root Nodules: on plants called legumes. Some forms of legumes include clover, soybeans, peas and alfalfa

(refer to pg 67,fig.2). Nitrogen fixing bacteria make more nitrate (NO3-)than the plant can use. The excess moves into the

soil, providing a source of nitrogen for other plants. The traditional agricultural practices of inducing legumes in crop rotation to capitalize bacterial nitrogen fixation.

Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus is a key element in cell membranes, in molecules that help release chemical energy, in the making of the

long molecules of DNA, and in the calcium phosphate of bones. Phosphorus tends to cycle in two ways: A long term cycle involving the rocks of the Earth’s crust, and a short-term cycle involving living organisms (refer to page 68, fig. 5).Long-term Cycle:

A. Phosphorus, in the form of phosphate (PO43-) is dissolved from bedrock.

B. The dissolved phosphates are either absorbed by photosynthetic organisms and pass into food chains or are carried by water from the land to rivers, and then to the oceans.

C. Some of the phosphate is used to make bones, teeth and shells. When the organisms processing thesestructures die, these hard remains form deposits on the ocean floor. Covered with sediment, the depositseventually become rock, ready to be brought to the surface again. This cycle can take millions of years.

Agriculture and Nutrient CyclesAs crops are harvested, the valuable nitrogen and phosphorus in these plants are removed. This diversion of nitrates and phosphates from the local cycles would soon deplete the soil unless the farmer replaced the missing nutrients. Fertilizers are used to restore nutrients. Fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphates can double yields of crops; but fertilizers must be used responsibly due to the following reasons:

1. Soil bacteria convert the nitrogen content of fertilizers into nitrates but the presence of high levels of nitrates may result in an increase in the amount of nitric acid in the soil.

2. Spring run-off carries decaying plant matter and fertilizer-rich soil to streams and lakes, the nitrates allow algae in the water to grow more rapidly in what is called an “algal bloom”. When the algae die, bacteria use oxygen from the water to decompose them. Because decomposers flourish in an environment with such an abundant food source, oxygen levels drop quickly, so fish and other animals may begin to die.

Population Studies

Populations are groups of individuals of the same species occupying a given area at a given time. Population studies looks at the factors that affect that population. These factors include:

A. Natality : Birth rate; increases population numbers.B. Mortality: Death rate; decreases population numbers.C. Immigration: members of a species moving into a population; increases population D. Emigration: members of a species moving out of a population; decreases population The four factors involved in population growth can be expressed mathematically by the formula:

Pop growth = (births + immigration) – (deaths + emigration)

Population Growth

Population growth is the change in the size of a population. The density (D) of any population is calculated by dividing the total numbers counted (N) by the space (S) occupied by the population. D = N numbers / S space

Example: Population density of a population of 200 moose in an area of 100 km2 is calculated as:

D = N/S D = 200/100 km2 D = 2 moose per km2

Exponential Growth Curve . Occurs under ideal conditions, food is continuously supplied and waste products are continuously removed. There are no limits to growth, but common sense says that cannot last. The graph is a J-shaped line caused by the fact that the larger the population becomes the faster it increases in size. In nature this type of growth is usually short lived because there are limiting factors to growth.

S Growth Curve: This is the most common type of growth curve, which represents a single population in a specific area. There are four specific intervals in a logistic or S-shaped curve:

1) Lag phase : It is the time when a new organism is introduced into a new area. The organism must adapt to its new environment and this takes time and therefore growth is slow.

2) Growth stage: Once the species is adapted to the new environment it reproduces rapidly with few controls on the population. This rapid growth is called Biotic Potential. Biotic Potential is the highest rate of reproduction possible for a population under ideal conditions or the maximum possible birthrate. Organisms achieve their Biotic Potential only for a limited time

3) Slow down phase: It is caused by limiting factors which slow growth. Examples include food availability, water, space, disease and competition. The total of all limiting factors in the environment that prevent a population from reaching its biotic potential is referred to as environmental resistance.

4) Stationary phase: It is the point in the development of the population when the birthrate and death rate and emigration and immigration are equal. The population is gaining and losing individuals at the same rate. The environment has reached its carrying capacity or has reached the maximum number of organisms it can support.

Major Forms of Environmental Resistance

Density-Independent: Factors that affect a population regardless of the population density.Ex: Weather, Topography, Natural disasters, Temperature, Climate, PrecipitationDensity-Dependent: Factors that affect a population as a result of population density. The greater the population density,

the greater affect these factors have on the size of the population.

Parasitism: The closer the contact between members of a population, the faster parasites spread. Parasites weaken organisms, making them more susceptible to disease. Stress/Overcrowding: Causes abnormal behaviour. In mice, overcrowding causes the parents to neglect or even eat their offspring.

Competition: The greater the population density the more the competition for resources.

1. Interspecific: between members of two different species. The Competitive Exclusion Principle states if two populations of organisms occupy the same ecological niche, one of the populations will survive, the other will be eliminated.

2. Intraspecific: Competition between members of the same species. This is a desirable form of competition since it brings about the process of Natural Selection. This process allows only the best organisms to survive.

ECOSYSTEMS : The THREE Types of Ecosystems are: A. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS (LAND MASSES) B. FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEMS C. OCEAN ECOSYSTEMS

The Terrestrial Ecosystems are divided into 7 wide areas of land called BIOMES. Biomes are very large terrestrial ecosystems that contain a number of smaller but related ecosystems within them. A certain biome has similar climates, and tend to have inhabitants with similar adaptations. Biomes are distinguished by the presence of Characteristic Plants and Animals, but they are commonly identified by their Dominant Plant Life and Rainfall

The 7 LAND BIOMES ARE: 1. Tropical Rain Forrest 2. Savannas 3. Deserts 4. Grasslands 5. Deciduous Forrest 6. Taiga 7. Tundra You must know each biome, its plants and animals. to study. (see ch 3)HUMANS IMPACTING THE ENVIRONMENT

Human impact on ecosystems is relatively recent. Although humans have been part of worldwide ecosystems for 100,000

years, their impact for most of this period of time was negligible. About 12,000 years ago that changed. Two major cultural shifts have occurred since that time, each having a significant impact on the energy in ecosystems.

Shift #1: Agricultural Revolution

Humans were hunters and gatherers for most of our history and as such we placed very limited energy demands on the ecosystems we occupied. Human energy demands made were limited to wood for fuel, and food (chemical energy) obtained from plants and animals. Because of limited food resources, human populations grew very slowly. They were, in other words, very stable. Somewhere between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago, a cultural shift known as the Agricultural Revolution began. This shift allowed a significant increase in food production, which in turn allowed for significant population growth. The increase in population placed much greater demands on ecosystems.

Shift #2: Industrial RevolutionThe industrial revolution began in around the early 1800's and with it the demand for energy from ecosystems grew exponentially, allowing support greater population numbers.

Effects of ExtinctionBecause every species in an ecosystem is connected, through interacting food chains, to other species within the ecosystem, the extinction of any one single species can cause the collapse of the entire food chain. The reduction in biodiversity caused by the loss of a single species can cause a “domino effect” with significant damage being done to an ecosystem.

Symbiosis: Symbiosis is an ecological relationship between organisms of two different species that live together in direct contact. There are three different types of symbiotic relationships:

A. Mutualism: Both partners benefit from the relationship. E.g. Algae and fungi cells in a lichen.B. Commensalism: One partner benefits without affecting the other. E.g. Barnacles on whales.C. Parasitism: One organism, the parasite, benefits while harming the host. E.g. Human Tapeworm

Pesticides and CyclingPesticides are widely used. Worldwide approximately 2.3 million tonnes of pesticides are used yearly, or about 0.4 kg for every person on Earth. About 75% of these chemicals are used in developed countries.

Note: Some pesticides decompose rapidly, others stay in ecosystems for years. The 2 critical issues in cycling.1. Bioamplification: results in increasing concentrations of fat-soluble toxins (pesticides) in the bodies of consumers at

each trophic level (page 54, fig. 4). A pesticide will be present in only small concentration in primary consumers, higher concentrations in secondary consumers and much higher concentrations in tertiary consumers. The greater the number of trophic levels, the greater the amplification in the top level.

2. Resistance: Continued applications of the same pesticide allow insects to become resistant. Each application kills most of the susceptible insects, but not those that have genes that protect them from the insecticide (page 55, fig. 5).

Succession : Aquatic and Land:Definition: Uniform Vegetation Changes to facilitate the Recovery from a Disturbance - Volcanic Activity, Fires, Floods. It is where another eventually replaces one species in an area. Which means a community that is constantly changing after the disturbance. Ex: Grass -> shrubs -> asp trees -> evergreen forest

Primary succession - this is a process where life begins in an area where soil has not yet formed. To eventually be replaced with a Climax: The "Final" Occupants that Make Up a Stable Self-Reproducing Community.

Begins with bare rock exposed by geologic activity Rock -> lichen -> moss -> grass -> shrub -> asp trees -> evergreen forest

Secondary Succession:Begins on soil from which previous community has been removed (by fire, agriculture, etc.)

Ex: Grass -> shrub -> trees -> evergreen forestSecondary succession can proceed much faster because the soil has been prepared by the previous communityAquatic Succession: Pond or Lake Fills in:

a. From the Bottom Up Because of Sediment Accumulationb. From the Sides in Because of Gradually Spreading Vegetation.c. Early stages of succession are productive, but require large inputs of nutrients; biomass increases. These early stages

are dominated by "weedy" species, which reproduce quickly, but often die young. Most of their energy goes into re-production. There are relatively few species in early stages.

Climax stages are much more complex, with many species. They create a favorable environment for many species. Biomass does not fluctuate, and decomposition rates are roughly equivalent to new production. Nutrients are cycled efficiently.

Norman Borlaug:In the 1960's, Asia was undergoing a population explosion and its farmers were not producing enough food to keep up. Ex-perts began predicting mass starvation. Borlaug was called in for advice. He brought his breeding plans such as the use of large quantities of fertilizer.In spite of dire predictions of global famines, nations that used Borlaug's methods and were able to grow enough food to feed their people. Research has shown that while famines garner our attention, the true death toll from food shortages is the result of undernour-ishment, especially in children. A child who is only mildly malnourished has twice the chance of dying from childhood dis-eases.As the Green Revolution began being implemented in much of the world, 47 percent of all children in the developing world had stunted growth, a good measure of their nutrition level. By the year 2000, it had dropped to 33 percent. The Green Revo-lution laid the cornerstone for adequate nourishment by increasing the available calories and protein of the developing world's people

As Borlaug continued his efforts to expand agricultural success, he found himself fighting off some environmentalists who denounced his methods of using large amounts of fertilizer and pesticide. Borlaug responded, they've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels. They have never produced an ounce of food. If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for 60 years, they'd be crying out for fertilizer, herbicides and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things.

GMO’sThe Arctic Granny is the first genetically modified, non-browning apple to hit the market. Over the past decade, the contro-versy surrounding GMOs has sparked worldwide riots and the vandalism of crops. To make Arctic apples, biologists took genes from Granny Smith and Golden Delicious varieties, modified them to suppress the enzyme that causes browning, and reinserted them in the leaf tissue. It's a lot more accurate than traditional methods, which involve breeders hand-pollinating blossoms in hopes of producing the desired trait. Biologists also introduce genes to make plants pest- and herbicide-resistant. Scientists are working on varieties that survive disease, drought, and flood.This is all great stuff, so what, exactly, do consumers have to fear? To find out, Popular Science chose the most common claims about GMOs and interviewed nearly a dozen scientists. Their collective answer: nothing at all.Humans have been manipulating the genes of crops for thousands of years by selectively breeding plants and animals (A per-fect example: The Weiner dog). Virtually all of our food crops have been genetically modified in some way. In that sense, GMOs are not radical at all. Researchers have published a review of 1,783 GMO safety tests; 770 examined the health impact on humans or animals. They found NO evidence that the foods are dangerous.

Organic FarmingA recent review of 240 studies has concluded that: The literature lacks any evidence that organic foods more nutritious than conventional foods. It is true that consumption of organic foods may reduce exposure to pesticide residues. But, 50 years of research has so far not produced convincing evidence that there is any health benefit to consuming organic food.  Likewise, there is no nutri-tional difference between organic produce and conventional produce, a carrot is a carrot, whether grown in a pile of organic excrement or synthetic fertilizer.A recent review did find that organic produce had fewer pesticide residues than conventional farming. However, there is no evidence that these low levels of pesticides present any health risk. The review found:The risk for contamination with detectable pesticide residues was lower among organic than conventional produce but differ-ences in risk for exceeding maximum allowed limits were small.So while there was a difference, this did not result in a significant difference in terms of exceeding safe limits. Organic farming does use pesticides, but only “natural” pesticides are allowed. There is little to no evidence that these or-ganic pesticides are less harmful for consumers or the environment. It is just assumed that they are based upon the naturalistic fallacy.

Even if we take the most pro-organic assumption – that there are more pesticides on conventional produce and that those pes-ticides have greater negative health effects than organic pesticides, it must still be recognized that simply washing fruits and vegetables effectively reduces pesticide residue. If minimized exposure to pesticide residue is your goal, thoroughly washing

your produce is probably the easiest and cheapest way to achieve that end.

ConclusionThere is no evidence to conclude that organic produce is healthier or more nutritious that conventional produce. Despite the scientific evidence, the alleged health benefits of organic produce is the number one reason given by consumers for buying organic. This likely represents the triumph of marketing over scientific reality. People are gullible.

GLOBAL WARMING IS REAL but OVERBLOWNYes, the world has warmed 0.8°C over the last 135 years, since 1880 when relatively good thermometers became available. Yes, part of that warming is due to human activities, mainly burning unprecedented quantities of fossil fuels that continue to drive an increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels. The Atmospheric “Greenhouse” Effect is a scientific fact, BUT GLOBAL WARMING IS NOT A BIG DEAL. Observed temperatures have risen at a fraction of the IPCC predicted rate even as CO2 continues to rise. Relax, there is not and never has been any near-term “tipping point”. Natural Cycles and Processes that were responsible for the many Ice Age cycles that repeatedly occurred about every 100,000 years or so.Weather is not climate”. Audiences often react more to emotions than their reason. If not for the warming effect of “Green-house” gases, the Surface of the Earth would average below -18°C, which would prevent life as we know it. This effect is re-sponsible for about 33°C, making the average global temps a comfortable 15 C of warming.

HOW SENSITIVE IS THE CLIMATE TO HUMAN ACTIVITIES?The warming since 1880 is due to human activities. It is true that we are burning unprecedented amounts of fossil fuel (coal, oil, gas), increase CO2 (a 40% rise from about 270 to nearly 400 parts per million by volume) is due to human activities. YET ALL of the climate models have consistently over-estimated future temperature predictions as compared to the actual temperature record. Indeed, for the past 20 years as CO2 levels continue their rapid climb, temperatures have leveled off, which is proof that Natural Cycles, not under human control or influence, have cancelled out warming due to CO2 increases. Thus, Natural Cycles must have a larger effect than CO2.

‘You can go outside and spit and have the same effect as doubling carbon dioxide’You can go outside and spit and have the same effect as doubling carbon dioxide. Even doubling or tripling the amount of carbon dioxide will virtually have little impact, as water vapor and water condensed on particles as clouds cause 95% of all warming.

Climate change is governed by hundreds of factors, or variables, not just CO2.Climate change is governed by hundreds of factors: It is not simply CO2  it is the Sun, volcanoes, the tilt of the Earth’s axis, water vapor, methane, clouds, ocean cycles, plate tectonics, albedo, atmospheric dust, Atmospheric Circulation, cosmic rays, particulates like Carbon Soot, forests and land use, etc. Climate change is governed by hundreds of factors.

CO2 is great plant foodCO2 is plant food and we should work hard to help mankind to increase the CO2 concentration as every organism needs food.

We humans just love a boogey man, we are creating a great anxiety and there are no indications that the warming is severe, there is just no need to panic. The warming we have had in the last 100 years is so small that if we didn’t have had meteorolo-gists and climatologists to measure it we wouldn’t have noticed it at all. There have been ice ages when the levels of CO2 in Earth’s atmosphere have been many times higher than today’s. I’ll take a 0.7 o C increase over an Ice Age any day!

About 14 million years ago, the Antarctic climate suddenly grew colder, probably reinforced by the continent’s increasing ge-ographic isolation rather than by a change in CO2 levels. The other continents drifted ever farther away from Antarctica and at the same time the Antarctic Circumpolar Current developed, the current isolated Antarctica by preventing heat transport to higher latitudes. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is the continuous oceanic current that encircles the Antarctic con-tinent, as is often explained in the literature as being the cause of the onset of glaciation in Antarctica. And one that ensures the continuation of glaciation for centuries to come, it effectively cuts of Antarctica from the rest of the world and plunges it into a permanent deep freeze.

Ice cores from both Greenland and Antarctica show that interglacial periods over the past 400 000 years have had tempera-tures 2-5°C and sea levels 4-6 metres above those we see today. Antarctica ice cores show that the ice has been in a constant state of change owing to changes in solar radiation (variations in the shape of the earth’s orbit and thus its distance from the sun.

Antarctica is covered by an ice cap at least 2.1 kilometres thick. This ice contains 90% of the world’s fresh water. It will NOT melt, therefore if it contains 90% of the worlds Ice, where is the argument, where is the problem, what is the big deal?