INDIA PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

India is the seventh largest and second most populous country in the world. Its area is 2.4% of the totalworld area but about 16% of the entire human races reside in its fold. In population, only the mainlandChina exceeds that of India. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan form the well-defined realmof south Asia often referred to as the Indian sub-continent. Lying entirely in the northern hemisphere(tropical zone), the Indian mainland extends between the latitude -8°4' N to 37°6'N and longitude -68°7'E to 97°25'E. The southernmost point in the Indian territory, the Indira Point, is situated at 6°30' north inthe Andaman and Nicobar islands. The tropic of cancer passes through the centre of India. India coversan area of 3.28 million sq km and measures about 3,214 km from north to south and about 2,933 kmeast to west. The total length of the mainland coastland is nearly 6,400 km and land frontier about15,200 km. The boundary line between India and China is called the McMahon line. To the north-west,India, shares a boundary mainly with Pakistan and to the east with Myanmar and Bangladesh. TheIndian Ocean lies in the south. In the south, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Straitseparate India from Sri Lanka. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and theLakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea are parts of the Indian Territory India's relief is marked by agreat variety: India can be divided into five major physiographic units:1. The Northern Mountains2. The Great Northern Plains3. The Peninsular Plateau.4. The Coastal Plains5. The Islands

NORTHERN MOUNTAINS It stretches across northern India from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh (about 2500 km) witha varying width of 240 to 320 km forming Himalaya in the East-West direction and its offshoots run inNorth-South direction along the India-Myanmar boundary traversing through Nagaland, Manipur andMizoram known as eastern hills. They represent the youngest and highest folded mountains of the earthformed by the tectonic collision of the Indian plateau with the Eurasian plateau.Himalayas(i) The Greater Himalayas/Himadri/ Inner Himalayas: This is the most continuous loftiest and northernmost range of Himalayas. It has a core of Archaean granites, gneisses and schist’s rocks. This rangecontains many high mountain peaks of the world. They comprise the northern most ranges having anaverage height of 6000 m with breadth ranging from 120 to 190 km. Conforming to the underlying rocks,the syntaxial bend is an asymmetrical mountain throwing very few spurs southward. Important peaks ofthis system include Mt. Everest (8,848 m) at Kathmandu in Nepal, Kanchanjunga (8,598 m), Dhaulagiri(8,172 m) Nanda Devi (7,817m) Nanga Parbat (8,126m). Important passes are Bara Lacha La andShipki La (in Himachal Pradesh), Thaga La, Niti Pass and Lipulekh (Uttarakhand); Nathu La and JelepLa, (Sikkim); and Burzil pass and Zojila pass (Kashmir). (ii) The Lesser/ Middle Himalayas: ) It generally consists of unfossiferous sediments ormetamorphosed crystalline. Important range include the Dhauladhar, Pirpanjal, Nag Tiba, Mahabharatand Mussoorie range. They have an average height of about 3,500 to. 5,000 metres and average widthof 60 to 80 km. It extends in the North of Shiwalik range. Hills and resorts are Shimla, Musoorie, Nainital,Almora, Darjeeling, etc. (iii) The Outer Himalayas/Shiwaliks: It is almost continuous range of low hills, composed ofunconsolidated tertiary sediments emerged as most recent phase in Himalaya orogeny. They are the

foothills running parallel to the Himalayas. Average height is 1,000 to 1,500 metres. It is a chain of low-lying hills formed, through fluvial deposits like sand, clay and pebbles. Dehradun valley; Udhampur andKotli valleys have developed into good human settlements. Shiwalik or Outer Himalayas is a hogbackstructure formed of river born deposits in the latest phase of Himalayas uplift in Middle Miocene to lowerPleistocene age. It descends northwards to flat-floored structured valleys called "Duns". It is coveredwith thick tropical wet deciduous forests in the east. Trans-Hlmalayas They comprise Karakoram, Ladakh and the Kailash mountain systems. Mt. K 2 (Godwin Austin -8,611m) which is now in Pakistan occupied Kashmir is located in the Karakoram. Another importantpeak is Hidden Peak (8,068m). The Siachen glacier (72km) -largest in India is situated in Nubra valley inthis region. Other glaciers are Baltoro (60 km), Biafo (60 km) and Hispar (62 km). It is also called theTibetan Himalaya. Purvanchal or, Eastern Hills After crossing the Dihang gorge in the east, the Himalayas bend towards South forming a seriesof hills with a north-south direction, convex side facing the west. These hills are made up of sedimentaryrocks and are highly dissected. Their heights vary from 500m to 3,000m. The 'Patkai Bum' forms theboundary between India (Arunachal Pradesh) and Burma. Further South is the Naga Hills, boundarybetween Nagaland and Myanmar. Saramati (3,826m) is the highest peak. Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Mikir,Dapha, Mini and Abor are other important hills of the north-eastern region. Mawsynram with maximumrainfall in the world is located on the Khasi hills in Meghalaya.

Longitudinal/Transverse/ Regional Divisions of Himalaya: Region wise, the Himalayas are dividedinto; (a) The Kashmir Himalayas (b) The Punjab Himalayas (c) The Kumaon Himalayas (d) The Central Himalayas (e) The Eastern HimalayasThe Kashmir Himalayas cover an area of 3, 50,000 sq. km. Main sub divisions are Karakoram range innorth, Ladakh plateau, the Valley of Kashmir and the Pir Panjal range. BanihaI is an important pass. The Punjab Himalayas have important passes like Zojila, Rohtang and Bara Lacha La. Kangra, LahuIand Spiti Valleys are known for their scenic beauty.The Kumaon Himalayas have important peaks like Nanda Devi; Badrinath; Kedarnath, Gangotri andYamnotri which are located here.The Central Himalayas extend from river Kali to river Tista Important peaks are Dhaulagiri, Annapurna,Mt. Everest and Kanchanjunga. This range is known as the Sikkim Himalaya in Sikkim; DarjeelingHimalaya in West Bengal, and Bhutan Himalaya in Bhutan.

List of Himalayan passes in IndiaThe Himalayan mountain system is the highest in the world and is home to the world's highest peaks.There are 14 Himalayan peaks with elevation over 8,000 metres. Important mountain passes/ himalayanpasses makes few routes through the mountains possible.1. Dungri La Pass - The Dungri la pass or Mana Pass is the high altitude mountain pass and is located in the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve of the Zanskar mountain range in the Uttarakhand. It connects

India and Tibet.2. Chang La Pass - Chang La Pass is situated at an elevation of over 5300 m and is one of the highest motorable road in the world which connects Indus Valley to Pangong Lake region. Changtang plateau is known for its high altitude giant lakes and vast highlands of great Himalayas.3. Debsa Pass - Debsa Pass is situated at an elevation of over 5360 m in the Himalayas. It is a high mountain pass in Greater Himalayas and connects the Kullu and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh. Spiti Valley is a desert mountain land between Tibet and India.4. Karakoram Pass - The Karakoram Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,693 m between India and China in the Karakoram Range. The Karakoram Pass is the oldest route between Leh and Yarkant and is the tallest pass of the Karakoram Mountain Range. The Siachen Glacier is situated in the eastern Karakoram range.5. Sela Pass - The frozen Sela Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,170 m in Tawang District of Arunachal Pradesh. Sela Pass connects Tawang to rest of India through Tezpur and Guwahati. It receives heavy snowfall in winter but remain opens throughout the year. It is the only Gateway to the Tawang and Buddhist Tawang Monastery.6. Khardung La Pass - Khardung La Pass Bomdi La 5,800 m. Khardung La Pass is the highest motorable pass and one of the highest motorable road in the country. Khardung La pass is located near Leh in Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir.7. Banihal Pass (Jawahar Tunnel) - Banihal Pass is situated at an elevation of 2,850 m in the Pir-Panjal Range. Banihal Pass connects Jammu with Srinagar. The pass remains covered with snow during the winter season. The Jawahar Tunnel was inaugurated in 1956.8. Bomdi La Pass - Bomdi La is situated at an elevation of 2600 m to the east of Bhutan in the Greater Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh. It connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa, Tibet.9. Diphu Pass - Diphu Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,587 m. Diphu Pass is a mountain pass at thetri-point of the borders of India, China, and Burma. It is a traditional pass between India and Myanmar which remains open throughout the year for transportation and trade. Diphu Pass is also a strategic approach to eastern Assam.10. Khunjerab Pass - Khunjerab Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,693 m. is a high mountain pass in the Karakoram Mountains in a strategic position on the northern border of Pakistan's Gilgit–Baltistan Hunza - Nagar District on the southwest border of the Xinjiang region of China.11. Jelep La Pass - Jelep La Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,267 m. This pass connects Sikkim with Lhasa, Tibet.12. Lipu-Lekh Pass - Lipu-Lekh Pass is situated at an elevation of 5,340 m. It connects the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand in the Pithoragarh district in India with Tibet.13. Nathu La Pass - Nathu La Pass is a mountain pass in the Himalayas and is situated at an elevation of 4,310 m. It connects Sikkim (India) with China. It is one of the three open trading border posts between India and China, the other two are Shipkila in Himachal Pradesh and Lipulekh in Uttarakhand.14. Pir-Panjal Pass - Pir-Panjal Pass is a high mountain pass on the eastern Pir Panjal Range of the Himalayas around 51 km from Manali. It connects the Kullu Valley with the Lahaul and Spiti Valleys of Himachal Pradesh, India. Manali-Leh Highway, a part of NH 21, transverses Rohtang Pass.15. Shipki La Pass - Shipki La is a mountain pass and border post on the India-Tibet border. It is located in Kinnaur district in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India, and Tibet Autonomous Region in People's Republic of China. Sutlej river enters India (from Tibet) through this pass. It is an offshoot of the ancient Silk Road. It is a border post for trade with China.16. Zoji La - Zoji La is situated at an elevation of 3,950 m. It connects Srinagar with Kargil and Leh. Zoji La is 9 km from Sonamarg and provides a vital link between Ladakh and Kashmir.

GREAT NORTHERN PLAINS

The great plains are an aggradational surface of great extent formed after the Himalayas. These areformed by the Indus, the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. The Great Plain stretches in the east-westdirection between the Himalayas in the north and the peninsular plateau in the south. Width varies from500 km in Punjab-Rajasthan to 200 km. in Bihar. It covers an area of over 7 1akh sq. km. Importantcharacteristics include Bhabar (unsorted sediments), Terai (Marshy tract) Bhangar (older alluvium) andKhadar (newer alluvium).i. The Bhabar: The Bhabar belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of bouldersand pebbles which have been carried down by streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, thestreams flow underground.ii. The Tarai: The Tarai belt lies south of the adjacent Bhabar region and is composed of neweralluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region.iii. The Bhangar: The Bhangar belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the floodplains.iv. The Khadar: It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down theplain.

The Great Northern plains consist of the following regions:(a) The Punjab-Haryana Plains: They are drained by the tributaries of river Indus, Ravi, 'Beas andSatluj. These plains are flat with an average elevation of 200 to 240 metres. These fertile plains includethe Bari Doab (between Ravi and Beas rivers) and Bist Doab (between Beas and Satluj)(b) The Rajasthan Plains: They cover an area of 1.75 lakh sq km in Rajasthan and its adjoiningstates. It includes the Marusthali of Thar desert and bagar tract west of the Aravallis. The region is oneof the dry river beds (Saraswati) and shifting sand dunes. River Luni is an inland drainage river.Sambhar, Kuchaman, Didwana and Pachbhadra are the salt lakes of this region.

Important Passes of India

(c) The Ganga Plains: The Ganga plains of U.P., Bihar and West Bengal occupy an area of 3.571akhsq km Important rivers of this region are the Ganga, the Yamuna, the Gandak, the Son and the Kosi.The Bengal basin is mainly composed of the Ganga delta.(d) The Brahmaputra Plains: It contains alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries theSubansiri Dibang and the Lohit. It is a flood prone area because the slope of the valley is too gentle todrain away the large volume of rainfall in monsoon season.

PENINSULAR PLATEAU

The Peninsular plateau, which covers an area of about 16 lakh sq km, is the largestphysiographic division of the country. It has senile topographical features. The Aravallis form itsboundary in the north-west, Hazaribagh and Rajmahal Hills in the north and north-east. South of about22°N latitude, the Sahyadris (Western Ghats) and the Eastern Ghats form the western and easternboundaries respectively. On the basis of variation in relief, further divisions of the Plateau may be made as follows:(a) The AravaIli Range: It is one of the oldest fold mountains of the world. The highest peak isGurushikhar (1,722m) in Mount Abu. The Delhi Ridge marks the northern end of the range.(b) The Central Plateau: It consists of Plateau of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Average height is250-300m. The Malwa Plateau in Madhya Pradesh lies in the north of Vindhyas. The Plateau is largelybroken. The Chambal ravine is an important feature. The area between the Yamuna and VindhyanPlateau is called Bundelkhand Plateau. It lies in the east of Maikal ranges and south of river Son.Important rivers of the region are the Rihand and Son.(c) The Vindhya Range: It is an escarpment running in east-west direction. Kaimur Hills form its easternportion.(d) The Satpura Range: It lies between Narmada and Tapti (Tapi) valleys latitudinally. The plateau isformed of lava. The highest point of Satpura range is Dhupgarh in Panchmarhi (1,350m). The easternpart of the range is Maikal Plateau.(e) The Eastern Plateau (Meghalaya Plateau) and the Chhotanagpur Plateau: East of the MaikalHills lies the Baghelkhand Plateau. South of the Baghelkhand is Chhattisgarh Basin. Further south isBastar Plateau or Dandakaranya. The Chotanagpur Plateau lies in the east of Baghelkhand Plateau. Ithas an average height of 700m. It has a radial drainage. The Damoder River originates near Tori inPalamau. Damodar valley project is located here. The Chotanagpur Plateau ends in Rajmahal Hills.(f) The Kathiawar and Kutch Peninsula: They have an Archaean structure but are surfaced by tertiaryrocks. It tapers into the Arabian Sea.(g) The Deccan Plateau: It includes Mahadev Hills, Kaimur Hills, Maikal Range, Western Ghats, Nilgiri,Anaimalai Hills, Palani Hills and Cardamom Hills, Eastern Ghats (Shevaroy Hills, Javadi Hills, PalkondaRange Nallamala Hills) Mahendragiri. Maharashtra Plateau, Mahanadi Basin, Garhjat Hills, KarnatakaPlateau, Telangana Plateau and Tamil Nadu Upland. It is slightly tilted towards south-east. Thepeninsula is triangular in shape-rising from 500 to 1,000m. Amarkantak (1,057m) and Dhupgarh(1,350m) are important peaks. (h) The Western Ghats or the Sahyadris: They form the western edge of the Deccan Plateau. Startingfrom Khandesh, south of Tapi and running southward parallel along the western coast for 1600 km, itreaches Kanyakumari and joins the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiri Hills. Kalsubai (1,646m), Mahabaleshwar(1,438m) and Harishchandra are among the highest peaks in this part of the ghats. Thal ghat andBhorghat are important passes through which roads and railways run between the Deccan Plateau and

the Konkan plains. Kudremukh (1,894m), Pushpagiri (1,714m) and Brahmagiri peak lie south of Coorg.The highest peak of the Nilgiri Hills is Dodabeta (2,637m) situated near Ootacamund. Udyogmandal(Ooty) is an important hill resort. (I) Palghat Gap: It connects Tamil Nadu and Kerala and is located south of the Nilgiri, separating thecardamom Hills from the Nilgiris Further south of the Pal ghat Gap, there are the Annamalai Hills andthe Palni Hills in the north east. The culmmination point of these hills is the Anai Mudi Peak (2,69Sm)with the distinction of being the highest peak of South India.(II) The Eastern Ghats: They form the eastern boundary of the Deccan Plateau. They are broken ascompared to the Western Ghats. The highest point (1,680m) is in the Visakhapatnam district,Mahendragiri (l,501m). The most irnportant hill in the Cuddapah Range is Nallamalla Hills. The Southernpart of Nallamalla is called Palkonda Range. Javadi Hills in North Arcot and Ginjee Hills in South Arcotand Pachaimalai in Tamil Nadu, form the others hills of the Eastern Ghats.

COASTAL PLAINS

It occurs along the shores of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The Plains are narrower along thewest coast than the east coast. A number of deltas occur on the east coast because the gradient is lesssteep.1. The West Coastal Piains: It spreads its structure from the Rann of Kutch to Kanyakumari, (thesouthern tip of the Indian mainland) for about 1,500 km. The Gujarat plain is formed by the Sabarmati,Mahi and several other rivers. The Karnataka coast extends south of Goa for about 525 km. TheSharavati is an important river. The region has several rocky cliffs. The Kerala plain extends from southof Cannanore to Cape Comorin for about 500 km. To the South the coastline is more rugged. It is calledthe Konkan Coast up to Goa and from there onwards in Karnataka, it is the Kanara/ Kannad Coast,further South the part that lies in Kerala is called Malabar Coast. 2. The East Coastal Plains: Extends from the mouth of Subarnarekha to Kanyakumari for about 1,100km. Its average width is 120 km. The East t Coast is much wider and contains many deltas. The Krishnaand Godavari form large delta. Kolleru Lake is located between Krishna and Godavari. The Pulicat Lakeis a lagoon (salt water lake) separated from the sea by Sriharikota Island. The Utkal plains include theMahanadi delta. Chilka Lake, south of Mahanadi delta is an important Lagoon. It is called northernCircars between Mahanadi and Krishna rivers and Coromandel Coast South of the Cauveri up to thesouthernmost tip of the Indian mainland.

Important difference between western coastal plains and the eastern coastal plains

The differences and comparison between Eastern and Western Coastal Plains are as follows:1. The Eastern Coastal plain lies along the east coast of India and is washed by the Bay of Bengal.But the Western Coastal Plain lies along the west coast of India and is washed by The Arabian Sea.2. The East Coast plain runs smoothly from the north to the south with a broad plain and level surface.But the West Coast plain also runs from the north to the south and it is in some places intersected bythe mountain ridges.3. Eastern Coastal Plain is broader than the West Coast plain. The width varies from 80 to 100 km.But the Eastern Coastal Plain is narrow with a width of 50 to 65 km. In some places it is so narrowthat the Western Ghats touch the Sea water.4. The large rivers make wide deltas on the Eastern Coastal Plains.But the short swift rivers do not make any deltas on the West Coast.

5. The Eastern Coast is sandy with alluvium and slopes gently towards the sea. Sand dunes andmarshy lands are also found. In some Coastal strips lagoons (Chilka, Pulicat) are formed.But the Western Coast is relatively rocky with sand and sand dunes. It slopes abruptly down to the sea.There is no lagoon on the northern part. It has many estuaries on the Konkon Coast. But the southernpart especially the Malabar Coast has the beautiful scene of back-water country with a series oflagoons.6. The Eastern Coast is smooth and unfit for making ports. So, very few ports are developed there.But the Western Coast is broken and indented and suitable for ports. For this, a large number of portsare there.7. This Coastal plain receives comparatively low rainfall.But the Western Coastal plain receives heavy rainfall.8. The East Coast Plain is formed by fine alluvial soil and is fertile especially on the deltas.Consequently agriculture is developed. The West Coast Plain lies along the west coast of India and iswashed by the Arabian Sea.But the West Coast Plain is formed by coarse grained soil. It is infertile and agriculturally not prosperousexcept in the Malabar Coast.

THE ISLANDSIndia has in all 247 islands of which 204 lie in the Bay of Bengal and remaining in the Arabian Sea andGulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka. Some of these islands are of volcanic origin while someare of coral origin. The Andaman and Nicobar are two major groups of Islands in the Bay of Bengal.They are a group of 324 islands which are volcanic in nature. Andaman Islands are separated from theNicobar Islands by the ten degree channel. They are mostly rugged mountainous hills and consideredsubmerged part of Arakanyoma fold belt of Mayanmar.The islands in the Arabian Sea have a coral origin and are surrounded by fringing reefs. It is a group of36 coral islands. They are located off the coast of Kerala. These islands are mostly flat and hardly a fewmetres above sea level. Rameshwaram Island which lies just off the Tamil Nadu coast, between Indiaand Sri Lanka, is also of coral origin.

Important Hills of

Peninsula

r India

India- Climate

The climate of India is broadly, of the tropical monsoon type. The word monsoon (Arabic: Mausim)stands for seasonal reversal in the wind pattern and is associated with the rhythm of season, changes inthe direction of winds, distribution pattern of rainfall and temperature with the change of seasons.However, the regional variations in climate can't be ignored. These variations are expressed in terms ofwinds, rainfall, temperature and humidity. Main factors deciding the local climate are location, altitudeand distance from general relief.

Mechanism of Indian weatherIndia has wide regional variations in terms of winds, rainfall, temperature, humidity, etc. Thesedifferences in local climate are produced by the following factors;I. Surface distribution of pressure and winds;II. Upper air circulation caused by factors controlling global weather and the inflow of different airmasses and jet streams; andIII. Inflow of western disturbances and tropical depressions into India creating weather phenomenaleading to rainfall.

SEASONSOn the basis of monsoonal variation, there are four seasons in India. (a) The Cold Weather Season (December to February): Mainly felt in North India an important eventof the season is the inflow of the depression from the west to the north-west. These low pressuresystems, called Western disturbances, originate in West Asia and travel towards India causing somerain and snowfall in winter months in north and north-eastern India. The temperature increases fromnorth to south. The isotherms run parallel to the latitudes 20° isotherm runs east-west through themiddle part of India. By the mid-December in the north-west India a series 'of shallow cyclonicdisturbances is observed.. The rainfall is mostly confined to Punjab & Haryana Plains, North-eastRajasthan, Kashmir and western U .P. In northern India it is very useful for Rabi crops.(b) The Hot Weather Season (March to May): Because of the heating of the subcontinent, theequatorial trough moves northward and lies at 25°N in July. This trough attracts surface winds fromSouth –Westerly direction along the West Coast and from north, north -Westerly direction along theBengal Coast. The northward shift of equatorial trough and the excessive heating of the Himalayan andthe central Asian highlands are responsible for generating the monsoon, the influx of monsoon in mid -June changes the season to the rainy one.Tornado-like dust storm of Punjab and Haryana; the "Andhis" of U.P. and the "Kalbaishakhis" of WestBengal involving strong convection movements causes some precipitation. The "Norwesters"(Kalbaishakhis of West Bengal) originate over the Chotanagpur Plateaus and blow in the north eastdirection which brings about 50cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10cm rainfall in West Bengal andOrissa. This rainfall is very useful for Assam Tea and spring rice crops of West Bengal. Similarthunderstorm causes about 25cm rainfall in Karnataka which is locally called as "Cherry Blossom",beneficial to the coffee plantation and "Mango Showers" elsewhere in South India, which are of salutaryeffect on the mango crop. “Loo", a hot wind blows in the northern plain during May and June, with thetemperature range of 45°C to 50°C.

(c) The South -West Monsoon Season (June to September): The 'monsoon burst' brings about thesudden onset of rain on different dates in different parts of India. The Arabian Sea current covers WestCoast, Maharashtra, Gujarat and parts of Madhya Pradesh, whereas the Bay of Bengal current strikesthe Bengal coast and the Shillong plateau and moves West and north- west, parallel to the Himalayasand brings rain to Bihar, U.P., Delhi etc. The two currents merge over Punjab. The tropical depressions,which occur periodically, cause dry spells during the monsoon season. So these depressions determinethe amount of rainfall The East Coast of India remains dry during this season of June -September, sinceit is in the rain shadow area: of the western current and is parallel to the Bengal current.The normal date of onset of the S. W. -Monsoon is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar Island, 1st Juneon Kerala toast and by l5th July it covers whole of India. The withdrawal of monsoon is much moregradual process than its onset. Normally it withdraws from north-west India by the beginning of Octoberand from remaining part of India by the beginning of December. Out of the total moisture brought by themonsoon, only 20 percent is precipitated in India. Arabian Sea branch causes the first monsoon-burst over the Kerala coast normally by 5th June andlater on causes heavy rain along the western coast, while the large part of Deccan lies in a rain shadowof the Western Ghats and receive decreasing amount of rainfall. The Arabian Sea branch does notbrings much rain to Gujarat and Rajasthan mainly due to absence of a mountain barrier, but givesmoderate to heavy rainfall in the foothills of Western Himalayas, Eastern Punjab and North-easternRajasthan. The Arabian Sea branch is much more powerful than the Bay of Bengal branch. The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region enters the Khasi Valley and entrapped withinit due to funnel shape of the region and strikes Cherrapunji in a perpendicular direction causing heaviestrainfall near "Mawsynram" (1143cm). A series of depression are originated at the head of Bay of Bengaland travel in a north westerly direction across central and northern India causes heavy rainfall alongtheir tracks, with the frequency of 2 to 4 depressions per month from June to September.(d) The North -East Monsoon (October to December): The retreat of South-West monsoon fromNorth India starts in September and is gradual. During this season, severe cyclonic storms develop inthe Bay of Bengal which moves in a South-easterly to North-Westerly direction. They give substantialamount of rainfall to the East coast and sometimes cause havoc in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu andWest Bengal. In Tamil Nadu and surrounding areas, it is known as the north east monsoon period. Generally the withdrawal of monsoon starts from 1st September in the north-western India and iscompleted in mid December from South-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu. With the migration of Sun towardsthe south, a high pressure centre begins to build up over the landmass and there is a gradualweakening and withdrawal of monsoon. The retreating monsoon causes rain in the coastal tracts to thesouth of Krishna delta and the interior of the southern districts.

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA The climatic division of India is based upon Trewartha's scheme, which is a modified form of Koppen'ssystem and it corresponds with the vegetative, agricultural and geographical regions of India. Mainclimatic regions of India include:(i) Tropical Rain Forest (Am): It is found on the West coastal plain, the Western Ghats and some partsof Assam, It is characterized by high temperature in winter not below 18.2°C; and in summer about29°C. The average rainfall exceeds 200 cm.

(ii) Tropical Savanna (Aw): It is located in peninsular region except the semi -arid zone in the leewardside of the Sahyadris. It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter and early summer andhigh temperature (above 18.2°C). Annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east.(iii) Tropical Semi-arid Steppe (BS): Prevails in the rain-shadow belt running southward from CentralMaharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Sahyadris and Cardamom Hills. It is characterizedby low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature between 20°- 30° c.(iv) Tropical and Sub-Tropical Steppe (BSh): Occurs over Punjab extending to Kutch region. TheThar Desert is in the west and the more humid climate of the Ganga plain and the Peninsula to its Eastand South respectively.(v) Tropical Desert (BWh): The area includes the western parts of Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikanerdistrict of Rajasthan. A large portion of Kutch Peninsula along with Thar Desert is also included. It ischaracterized by scanty rainfall (30 cm average) with few parts receiving 12 cm annual rainfall.Temperature is above 35° C.(vi) Humid Sub-tropical with Dry Winter (Cwa): The area includes South of the Himalayas, East of thetropical and sub -tropical steppe and north of tropical Savanna. It is characterized by rainfall of 63.5 cmto 254 cm most of which is received during the South West Monsoon season.(vii) Mountain Climate (H): The area lies above 6000 metre sea-Ievel. Examples are the Himalayanand Karakoram ranges. Temperature decreases with altitude. The Trans -Himalayan region particularlyLadakh has a dry and cold climate -what may be called cold desert. Drought is permanent.Variability in the rainfallThe average annual rainfall in India is 100 cm; however, this rainfall is neither uniformly distributedthroughout the country nor certain to occur every year. The unpredictable nature of the annual rainposes a major problem for India. But, there are certain regions of heavy rainfall in India which are almostcertain .to get the annual rainfall of more than 200 cm every year. These are Assam and itsneighborhood, the Western Ghats and the adjoining coastal areas and foothills of the Himalayas. Incontrast, certain areas, particularly western Rajasthan, Kutch, Ladakh plateau are perpetually drought -prone, with average annual precipitation of about 100 cm.

India- DrainageImportant Concepts1. Tributary: A river or stream which contributes its water to a main river. For example, the Yamuna isthe tributary of the Ganga.2. Distributary: A branch or outlet which leaves a main river and does not rejoin it, carrying its water tothe sea or a lake.3. Delta: A triangular shaped alluvial tract, formed at the mouth of a river. For instance the delta of theGanges is the largest delta in the world.4. Doab: The alluvial tract of land between two adjacent rivers, e.g. the plain between the Ganges andthe Yamuna.5. Catchment Basin (Drainage Area): The region which drains all the river water that falls on it into ariver or stream.6. Breakwater: A barrier built into the sea in order to break the force of the waves and thus to serve as aprotection against them.7. Estuary: The mouth of a river where tidal effects are felt and where fresh water and sea water mix.

Drainage Patterns: River and its tributaries drain an area, which is called a 'river basin'. Its boundary isformed by the crest line of the surrounding highland which is the watershed of the basin. A river systemusually develops a pattern which is related to the general structure of the basin.A dendritic pattern develops in a region made of rocks which offer some resistance to erosion andwhich has a uniform structure. A trellis drainage pattern develops in a region made up of alternate beltsof hard and soft rocks all of which dip in the same direction and which lie at right angles to the generalslope, down which the river flows. A radial pattern develops on a dome or volcanic cone.

Classification of Drainage System: Over 90% of India's land surface drains into the Bay of Bengal andalmost all the remaining area drains into the Arabian Sea. Only a very small area in Rajasthan has aninland drainage.Our river system can be classified into:(a) The Himalayan River System(b) The Peninsular River System

a) The Himalayan rivers fall into four broad groups:1. Pre-HimaIayan Rivers: Arun, Indus, Satlui and Brahmaputra.2. Great-Himalayan Rivers: Ganga, Kali, Ghaghra, Gandak, Tista, etc.3. Lesser -Himalayan Rivers: Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, etc.4. Shiwalik Rivers: Hindan, Sonali etc.b) The peninsular rivers fall into two categories, viz. the coastal rivers and the inland rivers. Theformer are comparatively small streams. Although only 3 percent of the areal extent of the basins ofIndia is drained by the west-coast rivers, as much as 14 percent of the country's water resources arecontained by them.1. Rivers rising from the Western Ghats: the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Pennar, the Palar,the Vaigai, etc.2. Rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea: The Narmada, the Tapi, the Sharavati, etc.3. Rivers originating in the Vindhyas and Satpura but flowing north-east towards Ganga: The Chambal,the Betwa, the Damodar, the Son, the Ken etc. The Narmada and the Tapi flow in the fault created bythem during the Himalayan uplift.

A Comparative Analysis of Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers:The Himalayan Rivers drain high mountain regions and descend deep slopes. The peninsular rivers, onthe other hand, drain a senile topography. The Himalayan rivers are characterised by their youthfulnature forming deep gorges, carved out by millions of years of the erosional activity along” with the upliftof the Himalayas. These rivers continue to perform intense erosional activity, which is evident from hugeloads of sand and silt transported by them annually.The major rivers—the Indus, Brahmaputra and Satluj—are of antecedent origin while the Kosi, Gandakand Ghaghra exhibit river capture. The peninsular rivers, in contrast, are basically matured rivers. Theeast flowing streams form deep valleys and have graded courses throughout, while the west flowingones are swift and have narrow valleys. Overall, the peninsular rivers have straight and generally linearcourses.The Himalayan Rivers are free to form their courses and follow a dendritic pattern. These rivers havevery large basins. The Indus drains approximately 2.5 lakh square kilometres within the Himalayanregion alone. Himalayan reaches are very tortuous for the Himalayan Rivers, but, over the plains, theydisplay a strong meandering tendency and often shift their beds.The peninsular rivers, having little erosional activity to perform, follow natural trends and joints in rocks.Superimposed drainage and river capture are common where there is difference in rock structure. Hardrock-bed and the predominantly non-alluvial’ character of the plateau surface hardly allow any significantmeandering.

The Himalayan Rivers derive their water flow from melting snow, rainfall and springs in the Terai regionand, therefore, are perennial in nature. But they are not free from seasonal variations. The peninsularrivers are completely rain-fed. During summer, the small ones become dry while the large ones have alow discharge.The Himalayan Rivers are suitable for irrigation purposes because Of their perennial nature and theeasily penetrable soil of the region which allows canals to be dug here. The peninsular rivers, on theother hand, are more suited for the generation of hydro-electricity; this is especially true of the westflowing ones. The seasonal nature of these rivers reduces their value as sources of irrigation.

Himalayan Rivers1. The Indus system2. The Ganga system3. The Brahmaputra system

1. The Indus System:The Indus rises in Tibet at an altitude of 5,180 metres near the Mansarovar Lake. With a total length of2,880 km, the Indus is one of the world’s largest rivers. It has a catchment area of 1,165,000 squarekilometres, of which 3, 21,290 square kilometres lies within India. It flows through a spectacular gorgecutting through the Kailash ranges and enters Jammu and Kashmir.From here, it flows through Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit and descends down to the plains at Attock. InIndia, it flows for a length of 709 km. Its tributaries include the Gartang, Zaskar, Dras, Shyok, Shingar,Nubra, Gilgit arid Hunza in Jammu and Kashmir, Kabul and tributaries in foothills near Attack and southof Attock—Kurram, Toch and Zhob-Gomal. Then, there are well-known Punjab tributaries—the Jhelum,Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj.The Jhelum rises in Verinag at the foothills of pir Panjal and its drainage area in India is 28,490 squarekilometres. It flows through the Kashmir valley and Lake Wular before entering Pakistan through anarrow gorge.The Chenab is the largest of all the Indus tributaries and is formed by two streams Chandra and Bhagawhich rise in the snow-covered Himachal Mountains near Kulu. Its drainage area in India is 26,755square kilometres.The Ravi also rises in Kulu hills, near Rohtang Pass, of Himachal Pradesh and drains 5,957 squarekilometres in India.The Beas originates at a place called Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass in the Himachal hills. In its earlystages, its valley is called the Kulu valley. Since some of its tributaries originating from the southern sideof the Great Himalayas are snowfed, it has a relatively larger volume of water even during the long dryseason. It joins the Satluj near Harike after flowing for a distance of 615 km. It drains an area of 25,900square kilometres in India.The Satluj originates from the Rakas Lake situated at an altitude of 4,555 metres in Tibet. The RakasLake is connected with the Mansarovar Lake by a stream. The Satluj enters India through Shipki La.Before entering the Punjab plains, it cuts a deep gorge through Nainadevi Dhar ranges. A dam has beenconstructed across this gorge near village Bhakra.This dam is called the Bhakra Dam and the reservoir which it forms is called the Gobind Sagar Lake.The Satluj drains 24,087 square kilometres in India and is of immense economic value for the Punjabplains.

2. The Ganga System:The Ganga river basin, with an area within India of 8, 61,404 square kilometres, is the largest in thecountry. This river basin drains the middle part of the Himalayas in the north, the northern part of theIndian plateau (roughly, north of the line running along the Vindhya Range, the Amarkantak Plateau andthe watershed lying to the east of Subarnarekha) in the south and the Ganga plain in between. The Ram

Ganga, Gomati, Ghaghra, Gandak and the Kosi are the Ganga’s major left-bank, tributaries and theYamuna and the Son, its major right- bank tributaries.The Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier in Uttarakhand. Its two main headstreams— Bhagirathi andAlaknanda—meet at Devaprayag, from where onwards it is called the Ganga. Its total length is 2,510km, and it drains 9, 51,600 sq. km. Of its length in the plains, the longest stretch lies in Uttar Pradesh,and the rest of it lies mostly in Bihar and West Bengal. Beyond Farakka, the mainstream of the Gangaflows southeast into Bangladesh and is known as the Padma.From Farakka, a bifurcation channel runs southwards through the deltaic plain on to the sea. In thisreach, the river is known as Bhagirathi- Hooghly and receives minor plateau streams such as Dwarka,Ajay, Rupnaryan and Haldi. Before falling into the Bay of Bengal below Chandpur in Bangladesh, thePadma receives the Brahmaputra, known here as the Jamuna and Meghna. The stretch from Allahabadto Haldia port, has been declared as the National Inland Waterway No.l.The Yamuna is the most important tributary of the Ganga and it rises at the Yamnotri glacier inUttarakhand. From its source upto Allahabad, where it meets the Ganga, the Yamuna’s length is 1,376km and it drains an area of 3, 59,000 square kilometres. Important towns such, .as Delhi, Mathura andAgra are situated on the Yamuna’s banks. The Chambal, Betwa and Ken are the major tributaries of theYamuna.The headwater of the Ghaghra, the Karnali, is of trans-Himalayan origin and crosses the western part ofthe Nepal Himalayas through deep and narrow gorges. It joins the Ganga near Chapra. It is a large riverchoked with silt which keeps shifting its course.The Ram Ganga rises in the Kumaon Himalayas and enters the Ganga Plains near Kalagarh. It joins theGanga near Kannauj.The Gandak rises near the Sino-Nepal border and joins the Ganga at Sonpur. It drains an area of 9,540square kilometres. The Gandak also keeps shifting its course and is notorious for its floods.The Kosi has its sources in the Himalayan heights of Sikkim, Nepal and Tibet. It drains 21,500 squarekilometres in India and joins the Ganga below Bhagalpur. The river has shifted its course westwards by112 km-during the last 200 years converting 7,000-8,000 sq km of cultivable land into wasteland.The Son is a right-bank tributary of the Ganga which, after rising from the Amarkantak Plateau, joins theGanga near Patna. It drains an area of 71,900 square kilometres.The Damodar which actually meets the Bhagirathi-Hooghly in West Bengal, rises in the hills ofChhotanagpur Plateau. It drains an area of 22,000 square kilometres. Formerly referred to as the‘Sorrow of Bengal’ on account of its floods, the Damodar has transformed itself into a boon to WestBengal after the completion of the Damodar valley multi-purpose project.

3. The Brahmaputra System:The Brahmaputra rises in a glacier, about 100 km south-east of the Mansarovar lake in Tibet. Beforeentering India, it is called the Tsang-Po in Tibet. Chinese maps show it as Yarlung Zangbo Jiang. Itcrosses the Assam Himalayas under the name of Dihang. The total length of the Brahmaputra in India is2,900 km, and it drains an area of 2, 40,000 square kilometres -in India. The Subarnasiri, Bhareli andManas are its main right-bank tributaries and the Dibang, Luhit, Buri Dihang, Dhansiri and Kapili are itsleft-bank tributaries.The catchment areas of these streams receive heavy rainfall during the monsoons, as a result of whichthe Brahmaputra becomes slow- moving and silt-laden. Its channel is braided and it is notorious forfloods and erosion of its banks. Recurrent floods hamper not only navigation through the river but alsothe establishment of large towns on its bank. The Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh near Dhubri. Thestretch from Sadiya to Dhubri has been declared as the National Inland Waterway No.2.

Peninsular Rivers:

The Western Ghats are the main watershed in the peninsula and the major rivers are the east-flowingones. These rivers are characterised by huge deltas at their mouths, while the west-flowing ones aresmall with no deltas at their mouths. The Narmada and the Tapti are unusually large west-flowing rivers,flowing through troughs which have been formed due to faulting.

East-Flowing Peninsular Rivers:

Mahanadi: The Mahanadi rises in the Sihawa range in Chhattisgarh. It is 857 km long and drains anarea of 1, 41,600 square kilometres in Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Bihar and Maharashtra. The left-banktributaries of the Mahanadi include the Seonath, Hasdo, Mand and lb, while the Jonk, Ung, Tel areamong the right-bank tributaries.After crossing the Eastern Ghats through a gorge, it divides itself into distributaries at Cuttack. Thesmaller basins of Subarnarekha, Brahmani and Baitarni are interposed between the Ganga andMahanadi basins. The Brahmani is known as South Koel in its upper reaches in Jharkhand.These rivers draining the eastern parts of the peninsula have drainage and discharge patterns similar tothe Mahanadi. The Brahmani is 800 km long with a drainage area of 39,000 square kilometres. TheSubarnarekha is 395 km long with a catchment area of 19,500 square kilometres. The Baitarni has itssource region in the Keonjhar Plateau in Orissa.

Godavari: The Godavari basin is the largest river system in the peninsula and second only to the Gangasystem in India. It rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra, and drains and area of 3, 12,812 squarekilometres, half of which lies in Maharashtra. Besides Maharashtra, the basin is shared by MadhyaPradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.The Godavari flows for a length of 1,465 km and is often referred to as Vridha Ganga or DakshinaGanga because of its large size and extent. The major tributaries of the Godavari are the Pravara,Purna, Manjra, Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha, Pranhita, Indravati, Maner and Sabari.

Krishna: The Krishna is the second largest east-flowing river. It rises from a spring nearMahabaleshwar in Maharashtra. Its total length of 1,400 km is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka andAndhra Pradesh. The Krishna drains an area of 2, 58,948 square kilometres. The Bhima andTungabhadra are the two most important tributaries of the Krishna, besides the Koyna, Ghataprabha,Malaprabha, Musi (Hyderabad is situated on its bank), Muneru, Yerla, Panchganga and Dudhganga.The Pennar basin lies between the Krishna basin and the Cauveri basin, and drains an area of 55,213square kilometres, most of which lies in Karnataka. Its principal tributaries are the Jayamangali,Kunderu, Sagileru, Chitravati, Papagin, and Cheyyeru.

Cauveri: The Cauveri rises in the Brahmagir rage of the Western Ghats. It flows for a length of 800 kmbefore falling into the Bay of Bengal near Kaveripattinam. It drains an area of 87,900 square kilometres,which is shared by Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Cauveri basin is one of the most developedregions of India from the point of view of power and inigation. Ninety to ninety-five per cent of the totalpotential in these two spheres has already been exploited.The left-bank tributaries of the Cauveri include the Herangi, Hemavati, Shimsha and Arkavati, and theright-bank tributaries include the Lakshamantirtha, Kabini, Suvarnavati, Bhawani and Amravati.

West-Flowing Rivers:

Narmada: The Narmada rises near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh and flows for 1,300 km, whiledraining an area of 98,796 square kilometres, most, of it lying in Madhya Pradesh. The Narmada basin

is characterised by the lack of development of the tributary streams. The Narmada valley is gorge-likeand full of rapids and waterfalls between Handia and Mandhata.The Kapildhara and Dhvandhar are the most important waterfalls. The Orisan is the major tributary andothers include the Burhner, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar, Dudhi, Tawa on the south and the Hiran, Barna andthe Kolar on the north.

Tapi: The Tapti is the second largest west-flowing peninsular river. It rises in the Betul district of MadhyaPradesh and while flowing for a length of 724 kilometres, it drains an area of 65,145 square kilometres inMadhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The left-bank tributaries of the Tapti are Purna, Veghar,Girna, Bori and the Panjhra and those joining it on the right bank are the Aner, Betul, Ganjal, Arunavatiand Gomai.

The north-western flank of the plateau is drained by the Sabarmati and the Mahi. The Sabarmati rises inthe Aravalli hills and flows for a length of 300 km. It drains an area of 21,674 square kilometres inGujarat and Rajasthan. The Mahi rises in the east of Udaipur and drains an area of 34,842 squarekilometres while flowing for a length of 533 km in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.There are also a large number of coastal streams draining the narrow coastal plains on the westernedge of the peninsula. There are as many as 600 tiny streams which drain the western face of theWestern Ghats alone. The most important among these are the Mandovi, Zuari and Rachol in Goa;Kalinadi, Gangavalli-Bedti, Sharavati, Tadri and Netravati in Karnataka; Beypore, Ponnam,Bharatapuzha, Periyar and Pamba in Kerala.All these streams have carved out narrow valleys with steep gradients and often descend to the plains inthe form of cascades and waterfalls. The famous Jog Falls (271 metres) is on the Sharavati River.

LAKES Lakes in India are mainly found in mountainous or coastal regions. The plains have few lakes. On thebasis of their origin they can be classified as under:(1) Tectonic lakes- Wularlake (Kashmir), Kumayun Lake(2) Lakes formed due to meteorite - Lunar Lake (Maharashtra)(3) Lagoon lakes- Chilka (Orissa), Pulicat (Tamil Nadu), Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh), Vembanad,Astamudi (Kerala).(4) Glacial lakes-Khurpa Taal, Sat taal, Puna taal, Malwa Taal, Nainital, Rakas Taal, Bhimtal (all inKumayun Himalayas)(5) Lakes formed due to Aeolian process-Sambhar, Pachbhadra, Lunakransar, Didwana (Rajasthan)(6) Others- Dal lake (Kashmir), Udai Sagar, Pichola, Rajsamand, ]aisamand, Annasagar (Rajasthan),Loktak (Manipur) , Husain Sagar (Andhra Pradesh). Wetlands: India has 16 wetlands. They are Kolleru (A.P), Wular (J & K), Chilka (Orissa), Loktak(Manipur), Bhoj (M.P), Sambhar and Pichola (Rajasthan), Astamudi, Sasthamkitla (Kerala), Harike,Kanjali (Punjab), Ujni (Maharashtra), Renuka (U.P), Kabar (Bihar), Nabsarovar (Gujarat), Sukhna(Chandigarh).

Water divide: The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea drainage systems are separated along a distinctdivide which lies approximately along the Sahyadris, Amarkantak, Aravallis and the Satluj- Yamunadivide.

Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. Which force results in the deflection of winds on the earth surface?a) Revolution of earthb) Centrifugal forcec) Coriolis forced) Gravitational force2. Which one of the following is the highest peak of the Himalayas in India?a) Nanda Devib) Nanga Parvatc) Mt Everestd) Kanchenjunga3. The length of the Himalayas is about:a) 2,200 kmb) 2,500 kmc) 3,200 kmd) 3,500 km4. According to the archaeological history, the oldest mountain range in India is the:a) Himalayasb) Nilgirisc) Aravalisd) Vindhyas5. The largest peninsular river is:a) Mahanadib) Cauveryc) Krishnad) Godavari6. The western disturbances which cause winter rain in India originate in:a) West Asiab) Pakistanc) Afghanistand) Bay of Bengal7. Which of the following regions receives rainfall from the North- East Monsoon?a) Assamb) Tamil Naduc) Keralad) West Bengal8. Which of the following places receives minimum annual rainfall?a) Bikanerb) Mangalorec) Allahabadd) Nagpur9. Which of the following is the highest hill in south India?

a) Cardamom hillsb) Nilgiri hillsc) Rajmahal hillsd) Anamalai hills10. Which of the following cities in India has a modest temperature throughout the year?a) Allahabadb) Bangluruc) Dehradund) Patna11. The Western Ghats join the Eastern Ghats at:a) Jawadi hillsb) Cardamom hillsc) Nilgiri hillsd) Anamalai hills12. River Luni drains into:a) Ganga Deltab) Kerala Coastc) Rann of Kutchd) Godavari Delta13. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists:List I (Rivers) List II (Tributaries)A. Indus 1. MahanandaB. Ganga 2. BhimaC. Krishna 3. WaingangaD. Godavari 4. Nubra

Codes: A B C Da) 4 1 2 3b) 2 4 1 3c) 2 1 3 4d) 4 2 1 314. When south- west monsoon retreats in December it is calleda) East monsoonb) North- west monsoonc) North- east monsoond) East- west monsoon15. Which of the following pair is incorrectly matched:a) Kabar Lake- Biharb) Nalsarovar Lake- Gujratc) Wullar Lake- Jammu and Kashmird) Chilka Lake- Andhra Pradesh16. Which of the following ranges forms the water divide between Narmada and Tapi rivers?a) Aravallib) Satpura

c) Kaimurd) Vindhyan17. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists:List I (Lakes) List II (States)A. Chilka 1. Tamil NaduB. Pulicut 2. Jammu &

KashmirC. Dal 3. RajasthanD. Sambhar 4. Orissa

Codes: A B C Da) 4 1 3 2b) 1 4 3 2c) 1 4 2 3d) 4 1 2 318. The Indian Plateau is made up of:a) Ancient igneous rocksb) Metamorphic rocksc) Sedimentary rocksd) Molten Lava19. The Brahmaputra river in Tibet is known as:a) Tsangpob) Dihangc) Subansirid) Dhansiri20. Which one of the following pair of river and state is incorrectly matched?a) Kyrdemkulai- Meghalayab) Sholayar- Tamil Naduc) Idukki- Keralad) Koyana- Himachal Pradesh21. The Tropic of Cancer passes through:a) Biharb) Gujaratc) Uttar Pradeshd) Orissa22. The four shaded Coastal regions shown in the above map and labeled as 1, 2, 3 and 4 are respectively

a) Coromandel, Malabar, Konkan and Northern Circarsb) Konkan, Coromandel, Malabar and Northern Circarsc) Northern Circars, Konkan, Coromandel and Malabard) Konkan, Malabar, Coromandel and Northern Circars23. Which of the following is structurally the most stable regions?a) Indo- Gangetic Plainb) Deccan Plateauc) Himalayad) Punjab Plain24. Which of the following divides India into almost two equal halves?a) Equatorb) Tropic of Cancerc) Tropic of Capricornd) Prime Meridian

25. India completely lies in:a) Northern and eastern hemisphereb) Southern and western hemispherec) Northern and western hemisphered) Southern and eastern hemisphere26. Which is the southernmost latitude of Indian Mainland?a) 08˚04' Nb) 08˚04' Sc) 06˚04' Sd) 06˚04' N27. Latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is:a) 33˚

1

2 3

4

b) 27˚c) 66˚d) 30˚28. What is the southernmost point of the Indian Union called?a) Indira peakb) India pointc) Indira pointd) Cape Comorin29. Area wise which is the smallest state of India?a) Haryanab) Punjabc) Goad) Sikkim30. Identify the mountain peak marked in the following map:

a) Mt Everestb) Kanchenjungac) Dhaulagirid) Mt Kamet31. The North- south distance of India in terms of Kms is:a) 2900 Kmsb) 3214 Kmsc) 3000 Kmsd) 3500 Kms32. The Tropic of Cancer does not pass through:a) Rajasthanb) Chhattisgarhc) Orissad) Tripura

33. How many States are located along the western coast?a) 5b) 4c) 3d) 834 . India is called a tropical country mainly on account of itsa) Latitudinal extentb) Longitudinal extentc) Areal sized) Tropical monsoon climate35. What is the other name of the highest range in the Western Ghats?a) Pir Panjalb) Sahyadrisc) Shiwaliksd) Namcha Barwa36. The port of India connected to the interior through the Palghat gap is-a) Chennaib) Cochinc) Marmagaod) New Mangalore37. In which state does the most part of Vidarbha region lie?a) Madhya Pradeshb) Andhra Pradeshc) Uttar Pradeshd) Maharashtra38. The length of the coastline of Indian mainland is approximately-a) 4000 Kmsb) 6100 Kmsc) 11000 KMsd) 13000 Kms39. The highest range of the Himalayan System is the-a) Central Himalayasb) Outer Himalayasc) Middle Himalayasd) Trans Himalayas40. Name the highest peak of Zaskar range.a) Namcha Barwab) Dhaulagiric) Kametd) Kanchenjunga41. What is the characteristic of Narmada valley?a) Glacial originb) Volcanic originc) Wind eroded valleyd) Structural origin42. Which of the following accounts for the largest share of precipitation in India?a) Tropical depressionsb) Southwest monsoonc) Northeast monsoon

d) Westerly depressions43. Which region of India receives most of its precipitation in winter?a) Tamilnadub) Uttar Pradeshc) Meghalaya Plateaud) West Bengal44. In the Ganga valley rainfall decreases from-a) West to east and north to southb) East to west and north to southc) West to east and south to northd) East to west and south to north45. The Raman peak is situated in-a) Andaman and Nicobarb) Siwaliksc) Zaskar ranged) Arabian sea46. Shillong is situated in-a) Garo Hillsb) Khasi Hillsc) Naga Hillsd) Mikir Hills47. Rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea from Kerala do not form deltas because-a) They flow over steep slopesb) They do not contain much siltc) Most of them are consequent streamsd) They have very few tributaries and are seasonal48. In India volcanic activity that spreads basalt over areas can be seen in:a) Rajasthanb) N. W Deccanc) Meghalayad) Nilgiri Hills49. The Himalayas were said to originate in a:a) Anticlinal Structureb) Geo synclinec) Synclinal valleyd) Batholith50. Name a meteorite crater in India:a) Dal Lakeb) Lonar lakec) Sambhar Laked) Kolleru Lake51. Taking into account the amount of rainfall occurring from June to September, Which one of the following is the correct sequence of cities in terms of rainfall?a) Kolkata – Ahmedabad- Allahabadb) Kolkata- Allahabad- Ahmedabadc) Allahabad- Kolkata- Ahmedabadd) Ahmedabad- Kolkata- Allahabad52. Name the river which originates from Verinag.a) The Ravib) The Chenab

c) The Sutlejd) The Jhelum

53. Which of the following glacier is largest?a) Gangotrib) Mandakinic) Yamnotrid) Siachen54. Subansiri, Barali, Manos, Buri and Dhansiri are the tributaries of river:a) Indusb) Brahmaputrac) Gangad) Godavari55. Which of the following Lagoon is not located along the eastern coast? a) Vembanadb) Chilkac) Kollerud) Pulicat56. Match the contents of the following two columns and select the right answer from the given codes.Column A (Rivers) Column B (Length)A. Indus 1. 2900 KmsB. Brahmaputra 2. 3180 KmsC. Ganges 3. 2525 KmsCodes: A B Ca) 3 2 1 b) 1 3 2 c) 2 1 3 d) 3 1 2 57. Which among the following is not a tributary of river Ganga? a) Yamuna b) Ghaghara c) Gandak d) Beas 58. Sri Lanka is separated from India by which narrow channel of sea? a) Gulf of Khambat b) Gulf of Mannar c) Gulf of Kachchd) Shri Ram Samudram 59. The Satluj, the Ravi, the Beas, the Chenab and the Jhelum are tributaries of which of the following rivers? a) The Ganga river b) The Indus river c) The Brahmaputra river d) The Godavari river60.Which one of the following states does not share common border with Bangladesh ? a) West Bengal b) Meghalaya

c) Tripura d) Manipur

61.Which one amongst the following rivers forms estuaries? a) Ganga b) Indus c) Narmada d) Kaveri62. Which of the following Indian state does not share its boundary with Nepal ? a) Himachal Pradesh b) Uttar Pradesh c) Assam d) Bihar 63. Which type of drainage pattern develops where the river channel flows the slope of the terrain? a) Trellis b) Rectangular c) Dendritic d) Radial 64. Which one of the following is the Latitudinal extent of India? a) 4°8´N - 37°6´N b) 8°4´N - 37°6´N c) 8°4´S - 37°6´S d) 4°8´S - 37°6´S 65. Which one of the following is the largest Peninsular River of our country? a) River Mahanadi b) River Indus c) River Ganga d) River Godavari 66. Which one of the following is the longitudinal extent of India? a) 68° 7´ E to 97° 25´ E b) 68° 7´ S to 97° 25´S c) 8° 4´ N to 37° 6´ N d) 8° 4´E to 37° 6´ E 67. Which of the following groups of rivers is of Peninsular rivers? a) River Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra b) River Mahanadi, Krishna, Indus c) River Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna d) River Mahanadi, Krishna, Indus 68. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?Rivers Tributaries1. Narmada Tel2. Tapi Parna3. Godavari Manjra4. Mahanadi Seonath

a) 1, 2 and 3b) 2, 3 and 4c) 1, 2 and 4d) 1, 3 and 469. The area drained by a single river system is called:

a) Water divide b) Drainage basin c) River bank d) River valleys70. The western most longitude of India is located at: a) 67°8´E b) 97°25´E c) 98°25´E d) 68°7´E 71. Which one of the following rivers is a peninsular river? a) Ganga b) Krishna c) Indus d) Brahamputra 72. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea called: a) Gulf of Kachchh b) Palk strait c) Gulf of Colombo d) Gulf of Khambat 73. Which among the following is the largest freshwater lake of India? a) Wular Lake b) Bhimtal Lake c) Dal Lake d) Pulicat Lake 74. Which one of the following rivers is known as ‘Dakshin Ganga’? a) Krishna b) Godavari c) Mahanadi d) Narmada 75.The Latitudinal extent influences the duration of the day and night as one moves from : a) South to north b) East to west c) West to east d) North to south 76. Which one of the following statement is not related to the peninsular rivers? a) Most of these rivers flow eastward and drain into Bay of Bengal. b) The drainage basins of these rivers are comparatively small in size. c) Most of these rivers are perennial. d) One of these rivers is known as Dakshin Ganga. 77. Which of the following lake is a salt water lake? a) Bhimtal Lake b) Loktak Lake c) Chilika Lake d) Wular Lake 78. Indian standard meridian does not pass through: a) Uttar Pradesh b) Chattisgarh c) Andhra Pradesh d) Tamil Nadu 79. Where does Alaknanda join Bhagirathi?

a) Gangotri b) Devprayag c) Rishikesh d) Haridwar 80. Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie to the: a) North west of the main land b) South west of the main land c) South east of the main land d) North east of the main land 81. From which place does river Narmada rise? a) Betul district b) Brahmagiri c) Satpura Hills d) Amarkantak Hills 82. Through which one of the following states does River Brahamputra enter in India? a) Assam b) Manipur c) Sikkim d) Arunachal Pradesh 83. Which one of the following is the neighboring country towards the east of India? a) Myanmar b) Pakistan c) Sri lanka d) Nepal84. At which place does the Ganga emerge on to the plains? a) Devprayag b) Allahabad c) Haridwar d) Ambala85. What is the degree of longitude of westernmost tip of India lying in Gujarat? a) 97° 25’ E b) 8°4’ N c) 68° 7’ E d) 37°6’ E86. An elevated area such as a mountain or an upland which separates two drainage basins is called - a) Drainage pattern b) Drainage basin c) Mountain basin d) Water divide 87. Which one of the following rivers flows in a rift valley? a) Ganga b) Tapi c) Kaveri d) Mahanadi 88. What is the time lag between Gujarat and Arunachal Pradesh? a) 1 hour b) 2 hours c) 3 hours d) 4 hours 89. Which one of the following tributaries is the tributary of river Ganga?

a) Wardha b) Satluj c) Yamuna d) Tungabhadra 90. The southernmost point of the Indian Union is: a) Saraswati point b) Minakshi point c) Indira point d) Durga point 91. Through which of the following cities does Standard Meridian of India pass through? a) Srinagar b) Delhi c) Mirzapur d) Kohima 92. Which of the following cities is located at the confluence of Ganga – Yamuna? a) Kanpur b) Patna c) Allahabad d) Chandigarh 93. Which one of the following river form braided channel and riverine islands. a) Tapi b) Kosi c) Ganga d) Bharamputra 94. The length of the Himalayas is about:a) 2,200 km b) 2,400 km c) 3,200 km d) 3,500 km95. Veliconda group of low hills is a structural part ofa) Nilgiri hillsb) Western Ghatsc) Eastern Ghatsd) Cardamom hills96. What would be the influence on the weather conditions when in mid- winter a feeble high pressure develops over the north- western part of India?1. High and dry winds would blow outward from this high pressure areas.2. The northern plains would become cold3. Scorching winds (locally called loo) would blow during the day time.4. There would be torrential rains brought by thunderstorms.Select the correct answer using the code given belowa) 1 and 2 onlyb) 2 and 3 onlyc) 3 and 4 onlyd) 1, 2, 3 and 497. Which of the following is/ are west flowing river(s) of India?1. Mahanadi2. Krishna3. Narmada4. Cauvery

Select the correct answer using the code given belowa) 1, 2 and 4b) 2 and 3c) 3 onlyd) 1 and 398. Amarkantak plateau in the Maikal hills marks the origin of the river: a) Gandakb) Chambalc) Narmadad) Ghaggar99. Which one among the following is the correct sequence of the rivers from north to south?a) Damodar- Brahmani- Mahanadi- Tungbhadrab) Damodar – Mahanadi- Brahmani- Tungbhadrac) Brahmani- Tungbhadra- Damodar- Mahanadid) Damodar- Brahmani- Tungbhadra- Mahanadi100. Which one among the following States does not form part of the Narmada basin?a) Madhya Pradeshb) Gujratc) Rajasthand) Maharashtra101. Which of the following statements about Nathu la pass are correct?1. It links Sikkim with Tibet2. It was the main artery of the ancient Silk Route3. It was reopened in the year 2006Select the answer using the code given below:a) 1, 2 and 3b) 1 and 2 onlyc) 2 and 3 onlyd) 1 and 3 only102. South- West monsoon in India represents the:a) N. E. Tradesb) S. E. Tradesc) Westerliesd) Easterlies103. An atoll is a/ an:a) Long but dwarf coral reefb) High and long coral depositc) Offshore bar- like coral formationd) Circular or horse- shoe shaped coral reef104. The given map of India shows the location of mountain peaks. Give their names in correct sequenceof their serial numbers:a) Dhupgarh, Doda Betta, Mahender Giri and Amarkantakb) Amarkantak, Dhupgarh, Mahender Giri and Dodda Bettac) Mahender Giri, Dhupgarh, Doda Betta and Amarkantak

d) Mahendra Giri, Doda Betta, Dhupgarh and Amarkantak

105. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists:List I (Rivers) List II (Tributaries)A. Indus 1. MahanandaB. Ganga 2. BhimaC. Krishna 3. WaingangaD. Godavari 4. Nubra

Codes: A B C Da) 4 1 2 3b) 2 4 1 3c) 2 1 3 4d) 4 2 1 3106. What is the name given to the foothills zone of Himalayas?a) Inner Himalayasb) Central Himalayasc) Middle Himalayasd) Siwaliks107. The port of India connected to the interior through the Palghat gap is:a) Madrasb) Marmagaoc) Cochind) New Mangalore 108. The length of Indian mainland is approximately:a) 4,000 Kmsb) 6,400 Kmsc) 11,000 Kms

1

2

4

3

d) 7,500 Kms109. The length of Himalayas from East to West along Indian border is approximately:a) 1,500 Kmsb) 3,000 Kmsc) 2,500 Kmsd) 4,000 Kms110. What is the correct sequence from north to south of the following coastal regions?a) Kerala- Konkan- Malabar- Gujratb) Gujrat- Konkan- Malabar- Keralac) Gujrat- Malabar- Konkan- Keralad) Gujrat- Konkan- Kerala- Malabar111. Which of the following river is older than the Himalayas?a) Sutlejb) Kosic) Beasd) Teesta112. The Peninsular region is rich in:a) Sedimentary rocksb) Argillaceous rocksc) Fossiliferous rocksd) Crystalline rocks113. Which river forms its delta in the Cuttack district?a) Gangab) Damodarc) Mahanadid) Godavari114. Name a volcanic island of India.a) Narcondamb) New Moorec) Pamband) Rameshwaram115. Other than Chilika, which among the following is a lagoon?a) Sambharb) Deedwanac) Pulicutd) Sukhna116. Which river valley has the Gondwana rocks?a) Gangab) Damodarc) Brahamaputrad) Sutlej117. How much is the breadth of the Himalayas?a) 50 to 100 Kms

b) 100 to 200 Kmsc) 250 to 400 Kms d) 400 to 550 Kms118. Which river of India is known for its course changing behavior?a) Narmadab) Kosic) Brahamaputrad) Damodar119. The Badrinath temple is situated on the banks of river:a) Gangab) Bhagirathic) Alakanandad) Gandak120. Which river forms the famous Gersoppa fall?a) Cauveryb) Sharavatic) Narmadad) Godavari121. Which river forms the famous Marble falls?a) Narmadab) Taptic) Cauveryd) Sharavati122. What is the normal date of burst of monsoon in Mumbai?a) 1st Juneb) 5th Junec) 10th uned) 15th June123. The source of winter rains in northern plains is the:a) Retreating monsoonb) South west monsoonc) Westerly depressionsd) Easterly depressions 124. The major source of rainfall in coastal Tamil Nadu is the:a) Westerly depressionsb) South west monsoonsc) Northeast monsoonsd) Easterly depressions125. The south west monsoon is established over the entire country usually by:a) 15th Juneb) 29th Junec) 5th Julyd) 30th July

126. How much is the approximate length of India’s land frontier?a) 12,600 Kmsb) 15, 200 Kmsc) 13, 800 Kmsd) 15, 600 Kms127. The term Tethys is associated with:a) Old fold structureb) New fold structurec) The old plateau regiond) A geosynclines128. Structurally, the Meghalaya Plateau is a part of:a) Himalayasb) Ganga Plainc) Deccan Plateaud) Trans Himalayas129. The Maikal range is situated in:a) Biharb) Madhya Pradeshc) Tamil Nadud) Rajasthan130. The Peninsular Plateau north of the Vindhyas is called:a) Deccan Trapb) Chhota Nagpur Plateauc) Bundelkhand Plateaud) Malwa Plateau131. Cardamom hills (Yelagiri) is a branch of:a) Sahyadrisb) Palani Hillsc) Nilgiri Hillsd) Annamalai Hills132. Which region of India has an internal drainage?a) Central Himalayasb) Siwalik regionc) Thar regiond) Chhota Nagpur region133. The northward shift of the ITC over India leads to the onset of:a) Northeast monsoonb) Retreating monsoonc) Southwest monsoond) Westerly depressions134. What is the major cause of low rainfall in Tamil Nadu during the summer season?a) Rain shadow of Western Ghatsb) Land to sea winds

c) Very high temperatured) Lack of moisture in the air135. Which place in India will receive maximum lnsolation in the month of January?a) Delhib) Amritsarc) Chennaid) Kanyakumari136. Which place has the highest daily and annual range of temperature?a) Kolkatab) Mumbaic) Chennaid) Amritsar137. What is the location of the Gulf of Mannar?a) West of Gujratb) West of Keralac) East of Tamil Nadud) East of Orissa138. Teesta is a tributary of:a) Gangab) Brahamaputrac) Meghnad) Yamuna139. Which one of the following hills are not a part of Purvanchals:a) Naga hillsb) Manipur hillsc) Garo hillsd) Mizo hills140. Which one of the following coastal strip is situated along the eastern coast?a) Coromandel Coastb) Malabar Coastc) Konkan Coastd) Kannad Coast141. In which state is the largest salt water lake of Asia located?a) Andhra Pradeshb) West Bengalc) Keralad) Orissa142. Where is India’s only active volcano found?a) Lakshadweep Islandsb) Barren Islandsc) Pitli Islandsd) Nicobar Islands143. Mumbai has the maximum heat in the month of:

a) Marchb) Aprilc) Mayd) July144. Which Himalayan peak is also called Sagarmatha?a) Nanga Parvatb) Dhaulagiric) Kanchenjungad) Mt Everest145. India has both floods and droughts as the:a) Monsoon causes heavy rainfall in a few monthsb) Behaviour of monsoon is highly variablec) Size of the country is very larged) Relief of India is highly uneven146. In which state is the Lonar lake situated:a) Gujratb) Maharashtrac) Tamil Nadud) Kerala147. What is the character of the jet streams over India during the southwest monsoon season?a) Easterly jet occupies a position over central Indiab) Westerly jet is located over south Indiac) The easterly jet moves beyond Himalayasd) No jet stream is positioned over India148. Which of the following statements with regards to the western coastal plain of India are correct?1. It is a narrow belt.2. It is an example of submerged coastal plain.3. It provides natural conditions for development of ports.4. It has well developed deltas.Select the correct answer using the code given belowa) 1, 2 and 3 onlyb) 1 and 2 onlyc) 1, 2, 3 and 4d) 3 and 4 only149. Telengana state is surrounded bya) 5 Statesb) 4 Statesc) 6 Statesd) 3 States150. Which of the following place is closest to the intersection of Tropic of Cancer and Indian Standard Meridian?a) Koriya Districtb) Ambikapur District

c) Surajpur Districtd) Mirjapur District151. Loktak lake is situated in the state ofa) Sikkimb) Manipurc) Odishad) Mizoram152. Which river forms Hondru falls?a) Betwab) Subernarekhac) Mahanadid) Indrawati153. Thalaiyar falls, also known as Rat Tal Falls is situated in……………………a) Keralab) Karnatakac) Tamil Nadud) Andhra Pradesh154. Consider the following statements:1. Winds called Jet Streams blow parallel to the isobars.2. Southwest monsoon over India is favourably affected by an easterly jet stream.Which of these statements is/ are true?a) 1 onlyb) 2 onlyc) Both 1 and 2d) Neither 1 nor 2155. In which region is the Makurti peak located?a) Eastern Ghatsb) Satpurasc) Nilgiri Hillsd) Siwaliks