Individual Learning & Behavior

MotivationIndividual

Behavior & Performance

Ability

Role Perceptions

Situational Factors

MARS Model

What is learning

Relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of a persons’ interaction with the environment

Change in behavior acquired through practice / training◦Prior Experience◦Behavior modification◦Reinforced practice or experience

Learning

Social Learning

Classical Conditioning

Operant ConditioningCognitive

Learning

Theories of Learning

No Response

Before Conditioning

UR (Salivation)

ConditioningUS (Food)

UR (Salivation)

CS (Bell) CR (Salivation)

Classical Conditioning

US

Instrumental or Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning refers to the process that behavior produces certain consequences and how we behave in the future will depend on what these consequences are

Learning is a habit through enforcement or reward

Reward / Reinforcement Stimulus Response

Drive Habit

Cognitive Theories

Social Learning Theories

Observe

Mental Picture of the Behavior

Outcome (Rewards / Punishments)

Learning Curve

Time

Learning

The Learning Process

There are five major reasons why people do not learn as effectively as is desirable:

1. They do not recognize an activity as learning – they simply see it as ‘doing a piece of work’.

2. They partially see something as involving learning, but fail to use the opportunity fully.

3. An off-the-job learning experience is badly designed and/or implemented

4. The opportunity for learning is provided in a way which fits poorly with the way in which an individual likes to learn.

5. The learning opportunity is not perceived as relevant to the needs of, and benefits sought by, the learner.

The Learning Cycle

Having an experience

Concluding

Planning Reviewing

Since we learn mostly by doing things and then thinking about how we have done them, The learning sequence can be set out as a learning cycle.

All designed learning experiences should take people round the cycle in appropriate balance and sequence, and all activities at work which contain learning potential should similarly be analyzed and monitored through each stage of the cycle.

Preferred ways of Learning

• If everyone followed the learning cycle by giving sufficient attention at each stage of the cycle then we would increase the chances of learning effectively.

• Effective learning for individuals requires a recognition that one of the reasons why individuals do not learn fully from any particular experience is that it may not match the way in which they like to learn.

• Thus the fact is that different people have different reactions to an apparently similar experience which could involve learning.

• The individual’s styles are consistent with the four stages of the learning cycle – so one of the reasons why individuals do not give appropriate attention to each stage of the cycle is that they simply do not like that particular kind of learning

The Learning Cycle and Styles

ActivistHaving anexperience

TheoristConcluding From the experience

PragmatistPlanning the next steps

ReflectorReviewing theexperience

Doers: Activists & Pragmatists

Thinkers: Reflectors & Theorists

“Doers” learn best from activities where:

There are new experiences / problems They can engross themselves in short ‘here & now’

activities: role plays, etc. Where they have a lot of visibility They are put into a difficult task without support There is an obvious link between subject matter and

opportunity on the job They are shown techniques for doing things with practical

advantages currently applicable in their jobs They have the chance to try out and practice techniques

with coaching / feedback from a credible expert They can concentrate on practical issues

“Thinkers” learn best from activities where:

They are encouraged to watch / think / chew over activities They are allowed to think before action, to assimilate

before commenting They have the opportunity to review what has happened,

what they have learned They can reach a decision on their own time without

pressure and tight deadlines They have time to explore methodically the associations

and inter-relationships between ideas, events and situations

They are in structured situations with clear purposes They have a chance to question and probe the basic

methodology, assumptions or logic behind something They are intellectually stretched

Activists

• Learns best from relatively short here-and-now tasks• These may be managerial activities on the job or on

courses: such as business games and competitive teamwork exercises

• They learn less well from situations involving a passive role such as listening to lectures or reading

Strengths: Flexible & open minded; Happy to have a go; Happy to be exposed to new situations; Optimistic about anything new and therefore unlikely to resist change.

Weaknesses: Tendency to take the immediate obvious action without thinking; Often take unnecessary risks; Tendency to do too much themselves; Rush into action immediately

Reflectors

• Learn best from activities where they are able to stand back, listen and observe.

• They like collecting information and being given the opportunity to think about it.

• They learn less well when they are rushed into things without the opportunity to learn.

Strengths: Careful, thorough, methodical; Thoughtful, rarely jump to conclusions; Good at listening, assimilating information.

Weaknesses: Tendency to hold back from participation; Slow to reach a decision; Tendency to be cautious, less risks; Non-assertive – not forthcoming

Theorists

• Learn best when they can review things in terms of a system, a concept, a model or a theory.

• They are interested in and absorb ideas even where they may be distant from current reality.

• They learn less well from activities presented without this kind of explicit or implicit design.

Strengths: Logical ‘vertical’ thinkers; Rational and objective; Good at asking probing questions; Disciplined approach.

Weaknesses: Restricted in lateral thinking; Low tolerance to uncertainty, disorder and ambiguity; Intolerant of anything subjective or intuitive; Full of ‘shoulds, oughts and musts’.

Pragmatists

• Learn best when there is an obvious link between the subject matter and the problem or opportunity on the job.

• They like being exposed to techniques or processes which can be applied in their immediate circumstances.

• They learn less well from learning events which seem distant from their own reality. “Does it apply to my situation?”

Strengths: Keen to test things in practice; Practical, down to earth, realistic; Business like – straight to the point; Technique oriented.

Weaknesses: Tendency to reject without an obvious application; Not interested in theory / basic principles; Impatient with what they see as waffle; On balance, task and not people oriented; Tendency to seize first expedient solution

Strengthening under-utilized styles

Learning styles have themselves been learned from experience – hence malleable

You are forced to get out of your comfort zone

Perseverance will make it more familiar and natural

A preferred ‘doer’ can practice the thinking styles and vice versa.- you become an all round learner.

Learning Styles

• Learning style results tell us only what we are now in terms of preferred ways of learning; they are not fixed for ever.

• They are sometimes affected by the particular context in which an individual works

• It is also possible for some people to attempt deliberately to change their moderate or low learning style preferences by changing the behaviours that caused that result.

• People learn more and more effectively from work on real problems.

• (P)Programmed Knowledge + (Q) Questioning = (L) Learning

ProcessingActive Experimentation

Reflective Observation

Concrete Experience

Abstract Conceptualisation

Accomodators Divergers

AssimilatorsConvergers

Perception

David Kolb: Learning Styles InventoryCONCRETE EXPERIENTIAL

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUAL

ACTIVE REFLECTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION OBSERVER

‘WHY’ QUADRANT [35%]Learns by seeking out meaningConnects to values & emotionsSeeks outcomes & interactionBuild rapportSell the idea

Trainer role: MOTIVATOR

‘WHAT’ QUADRANT [22%]Learns by thinking through ideasSeeks facts and is impressed by researchWants to know what the experts thinksReflects on ideasUsefulness generally irrelevantInformation junkies‘Teach it like it is ….’

Trainer role: TEACHER

‘HOW’ QUADRANT [18%]Learns by testing theoriesNeeds to know how things workSeeks usabilityWants exercises and feedback‘Give me an explanation!’

‘What’s in it for me?’

‘What are the facts?’‘How does this work?’

Trainer role: COACH/FACILITATOR

‘WHAT IF’ QUADRANT [25%]How is it useful?Learns by trial and errorSeeks hidden possibilitiesWelcomes self discoveryHow can I make money out of this?

‘Where can I apply this?’Trainer role: COLLEAGUE

Preference dimensions

Perception dimension

In the vertical Perception dimension, people will have a preference along the continuum between:

· Concrete experience: Looking at things as they are, without any change, in raw detail.· Abstract conceptualization: Looking at things as concepts and ideas, after a degree of processing that turns the raw detail into an internal model.

People who prefer concrete experience will argue that thinking about something changes it, and that direct empirical data is essential. Those who prefer abstraction will argue that meaning is created only after internal processing and that idealism is a more real approach.

Processing dimension

In the horizontal Processing dimension, people will take the results of their Perception and process it in preferred ways along the continuum between:

· Active experimentation: Taking what they have concluded and trying it out to prove that it works.

· Reflective observation: Taking what they have concluded and watching to see if it works.

Divergers (Concrete experiencer/Reflective observer) Social Comfort Learner

Divergers take experiences and think deeply about them, thus diverging from a single experience to multiple possibilities in terms of what this might mean. They like to ask 'why', and will start from detail to constructively work up to the big picture.

They enjoy participating and working with others but they like a calm ship and fret over conflicts. They are generally influenced by other people and like to receive constructive feedback.

They like to learn via logical instruction or hands-one exploration with conversations that lead to discovery.

DIVERGER - Those with highest scores in Concrete Experience (CE) and Reflective Observation (RO).

Divergers have characteristics opposite from convergers. Their greatest strengths lie in creativity and imaginative ability.

A person with this learning style excels in the ability to view concrete situations from many perspectives and generate many ideas such as in a "brainstorming" session.

Research shows that Divergers are interested in people and tend to be imaginative and emotional.

They tend to be interested in the arts and often have humanities or liberal arts backgrounds.

Counselors, organizational development specialists, and personnel managers tend to be characterized by this learning style.

Convergers (Abstract conceptualization/Active experimenter) Devil’s Advocate Learner

Convergers think about things and then try out their ideas to see if they work in practice.

They like to ask 'how' about a situation, understanding how things work in practice.

They like facts and will seek to make things efficient by making small and careful changes.

They prefer to work by themselves, thinking carefully and acting independently.

They learn through interaction and computer-based learning is more effective with them than other methods.

CONVERGER - Those with highest scores in Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Active Experimentation (AE).

This person's greatest strength lies in the practical application of ideas.

A person with this style seems to do best in those situations where there is a single correct answer or solution to a question or problem and can focus on specific problems orsituations.

Research on this style of learning shows that Convergers are relatively unemotional, preferring to deal with things rather than people.

They often choose to specialize in the physicalsciences, engineering, and computer sciences.

Accomodators (Concrete experiencer/Active experimenter) Hand’s On Learner

Accommodators have the most hands-on approach, with a strong preference for doing rather than thinking.

They like to ask 'what if?' and 'why not?' to support their action-first approach.

They do not like routine and will take creative risks to see what happens.

They like to explore complexity by direct interaction and learn better by themselves than with other people.

As might be expected, they like hands-on and practical learning rather than lectures.

ACCOMMODATOR - Those with highest scores in Concrete Experience (CE) and Active Experimentation (AE).

Accommodators are polar opposites form Assimilators. Their greatest strengths lie in carrying out plans and experiments and involving themselves in new experiences.

They are risk-takers and excel in those situations requiring quick decisions and adaptations.

In situations where a theory or plan does not fit the "facts," they tend to discard it and try something else.

They often solve problems in an intuitive trial and error manner, relying heavily on other people for information.

Accomodators are at ease with people but may be seen as impatient and "pushy."

Their educational background is often in practical fields such as business or education. They prefer “action-oriented" jobs such as nursing, teaching, marketing, or sales.

Assimilators (Abstract conceptualizer/Reflective observer) Fact Oriented Learner

Assimilators have the most cognitive approach, preferring to think than to act. They ask 'What is there I can know?' and like organized and structured understanding.

They prefer lectures for learning, with demonstrations where possible, and will respect the knowledge of experts. They will also learn through conversation that takes a logical and thoughtful approach.

They often have a strong control need and prefer the clean and simple predictability of internal models to external messiness.

The best way to teach an assimilator is with lectures that start from high-level concepts and work down to the detail. They prefer reading material, like to learn with seriousness rather than play.

ASSIMILATOR - Those with highest scores in Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Reflective Observation (RO).

This person's strength lies in the ability to understand and create theories.

A person with this learning style excels in inductive reasoning and in synthesizing various ideas and observations into an integrated whole. This person, like the converger, is less interested in people and more concerned with abstract concepts, but is less concerned with the practical use of theories. For this person it is more important that the theory be logically sound and precise; in a situation where a theory or plan does not fit the "facts," the Assimilator would be likely to disregard or re-examine the facts. As a result, this learning style is more characteristic of the basic sciences and mathematics rather than the applied sciences.Assimilators often choose careers involving research and planning.

Behavior Modification

Antecedents & Consequences of Behavior

Antecedents• What happens

before the behavior

Behavior• What the

person says or does

Cosequences• What happens

after the behavior

Contingencies of Reinforcement

Consequence Introduced

No Consequence

Consequence Removed

Behavior increases or is maintained

Positive Reinforcement

Bonus / Praise

Negative Reinforcement

Stops Criticising

Behavior decreases

Punishment

Demotion / Discharge

Extinction

Do -Nothing

Punishment

Removing pleasant consequence

Applicability

Reinforcement

◦Financial Cash payments, Time off, Paid Vacations

◦Non-Financial Objective or Performance Feedback

◦Social Attention, Recognitions, Commendations, Compliments, Praise

◦Mixed