Industrial Rev, Neoclassism, Postmodernism

8/11/2019 Industrial Rev, Neoclassism, Postmodernism

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Neo-Classism,Industrial Revolution,

Modernism & Post Modernism

Aparna Singh

B Arch 3

rd

Year B

Enrol No 105343693

Vastu Kala Academy

(Current 4thYr.B |

Internals Improvement)


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What was the Industrial Revolution?

The Industrial Revolution was a fundamental change in the way goods wereproduced, from human labor to machines

The more efficient means of production and subsequent higher levels of productiontriggered far-reaching changes to industrialized societies

Machines were invented which replaced human labor

New energy sources were developed to power the new machinery water, steam,electricity, oil (gas, kerosene)

Advances in atomic, solar, and wind energy at the later stages of the IndustrialRevolution

Increased use of metals and minerals

- Aluminum, coal, copper, iron, etc.


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Historical Significance of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution changed human life drastically

More was created in the last 250+ years than in the previous 2500+ years ofknown human history

1900

1800

1700

2000

2100

Time line

2013


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The Enlightenment: Enhanced the significance and the social status of every citizen.Fundamental change in political culture.

19th Century: An era ofrevolutionary changes affectingevery aspects of life.

The Industrial Revolution: spreads from England to Europe and North America,created a new type of worker : the wage-laborer or proletarian, who earn hard livingin the numerous factories.


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Great exhibitions, since their birth in Londons Hyde Park in 1851, have served repeatedly astesting grounds for new architectural ideas.

Joseph Paxtons Crystal Palacesoon became the model for other experiment in iron andglass.

The Crystal Palace was designed by

Joseph Paxton for the GreatExhibition of 1851, held in Hyde

Park, London. It was afterwards re-

erected on Sydenham Hill, where it

stood until accidentally destroyed by

fire in 1936.


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Crystal Palace

Its iron frame was prefabricated in sections and its glass panels, set

into wooden sash-bar, were of standard 4 feet lengths. In 1851, it was

the largest building ever constructed, with an area of 770,000 sq.ft.

Facade

Floor Plan


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Main Nave

Transcept

Transcept with fountain

Crystal Palace


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Paris World Exhibition 1889

Paris World Exhibition

1889 :

Machine Hall,Charles Dutert (architect)

& Victor Contamin

(engineer).

Eiffel Tower, Paris:

Gustave Eiffel


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The Eiffel TowerParis, France

Eiffel Tower, wrought-iron tower in Paris, a landmark and

an early example of wrought-iron construction on agigantic scale. It was designed and built by the French civilengineer Gustave Alexandre Eiffelfor the Paris World'sFair of 1889.
http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/wainwright/whole.jpg


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Louis Henri Sullivan,(1856-1924), American architect, whose brilliant

early designs for steel-frame skyscraper construction led to theemergence of the skyscraper as the distinctive American building type.Through his own work, especially his commercial structures, and as thefounder of what is now known as the Chicago School of architects, heexerted an enormous influence on 20th-century American architecture.His most famous pupil was the architect Frank Lloyd Wright, whoacknowledged Sullivan as his master.

The Wainwright Building stands 10 stories high, has a metal frame andwas completed in 1891 in St. Louis, Missouri.

His famous axiom, "Form followsfunction," became the touchstone for

many in his profession.

The Wainwright Building
http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/wainwright/windowdet.jpghttp://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/wainwright/whole.jpg


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The ideas of the German Bauhaus schoolof architecture and applied arts havegreatly influenced the development ofarchitecture and design in the 20th

century. Founder Walter Gropiusdesigned the unadorned, functionalbuildings for its quarters in Dessau in1925.

The Bauhaus was a school of design founded in Germany

by architect Walter Gropius in 1919. Many outstandingartists and architects served on its faculty. In 1933 theschool was shut down by Germany's Nazi government, andmany of its faculty members, including Gropius,immigrated to the United States.

The Bauhaus SchoolDessau, Germany


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The Chrysler Building(1930) in New York City isconsidered the quintessential example of art decoarchitecture. It was designed by William Van Alen, whowas inspired in part by cubist art and machine forms. Thebuilding, which rises in a series of narrowing arches to thestainless steel spire on top, is 255 m (850 ft) tall. It was thetallest building in the world for one year, before the

Empire State Building surpassed it.

The Chrysler BuildingNew York City


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Built in 1931, the Empire State Buildingin New York City, New York, stands 381 m(1250 ft) high. The construction of theworlds tallest skyscraper was planned byAmerican politician Alfred Smith.

The Empire State BuildingNew York City


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1929-1930 One of the most famous houses of the modernmovement in architecture, the Villa Savoyeis a masterpiece ofLeCorbusier'spurist design. It is perhaps the best example of

LeCorbusier's goal to create a house which would be a"machine a habiter," a machine for living (in). Located in asuburb near Paris, the house is as beautiful and functional as amachine.

Villa savoyeLe corbusier


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The 37-story bronze-and-glass Seagram Building(1958) in New York City, shown here, displays thesimplicity and elegance that are characteristic ofhis style. The building was designed incollaboration with architect Philip Johnson.

The Seagram BuildingNew York City

German American

architect LudwigMies van der Rohewas one of theleading architects ofthe 20th century. Hissleek, unornamented

glass-and-steelskyscrapers wereespecially influential.


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Neoclassicism

Neoclassicism is the name given to western movements in thedecorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drawinspiration from the "classical" art and culture of ancient greece or ancient rome.

The main neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th century age ofenlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, latterly competingwith romanticism. In architecture the style continued throughout the 19th and20th centuries and into the 21st.


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Neoclassic Architecture Origin

Neoclassical architectureis an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that

began in the mid-18th century, manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococostyle of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulas as an outgrowth of someclassicizing features of Late Baroque.

In its purest form it is a style

principally derived from thearchitecture of ClassicalGreece and Rom and thearchitecture ofthe Italian architect AndreaPalladio. In form, Neoclassicalarchitecture emphasizes the wallrather than chiaroscuro andmaintains separate identities toeach of its parts.


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Characteristics

Emphasis on planar qualities, ratherthan sculptural volumes.

Projections and recessions and theireffects of light and shade are moreflat.

Sculptural bas-reliefs are flatter andtend to be en-framed in friezes,tablets or panels.

Its clearly articulated individual

features are isolated rather thaninterpenetrating, autonomous andcomplete in themselves.

Central pavilion, tontine crescent, boston, 1793-1794, by charles bulfinch


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Neoclassical stylesThe word neoclassical is often used to describe an architectural style, but neoclassicism isnot actually any one distinct style. Neoclassicism is a trend, or approach to design, that can

incorporate a variety of styles. You'll find neoclassicism in these historic house styles:

1. Greek revivalthese stately, pillared homes became popular in the united states during the 1800s.Greek revival houses usually have these features:

Pedimented gable

Symmetrical shape Heavy cornice

Wide, plain frieze

Bold, simple moldings

Greek revival home in saratoga, new york

With its classic clapboard exterior and bold,simple lines, greek revival architecture

became the most predominant housing stylein the united states.


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2. Federalist

A federalist building does not always have imposing pillars, but its symmetry and

decorative details are classically inspired.Its features include:

Woodlawn, near Mount Vernon, Virginia, is often called"Georgian Colonial." However, the fanlight and the ellipticalwindow in the gable are characteristic of the Federal style.

Narrow side windowsflanking the front door

Decorative crown or roofover front door

Tooth-like moldings inthe cornice. Palladian window Circular or elliptical windows

shutters Decorative swags and

garlands Oval rooms and arches


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3. Antebellum architecture

Stately plantation homes built before america's civil war were often inspired by classicalarchitecture.

Antebellum means "before war" in latin. The term antebellum architecture refers to elegantplantation homes built in the american south during the 30 years or so preceding the civilwar.

Antebellum houses have many of thesefeatures:

Hipped or gabled roof Symmetrical faade Evenly-spaced windows Greek pillars and columns Elaborate friezes

Balconies Covered porch Central entryway Grand staircase Formal ballroom


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Most Antebellum homes are in the Greek Revival, Classical Revival, or Federal style: grand,symmetrical, and boxy, with centre entrances in the front and rear, balconies, and columns orpillars.

From grand, pillared Greek Revival mansions to stately Federal style estates, America'santebellum architecture reflects the power and idealism of wealthy landowners in the AmericanSouth, prior to the Civil War.

The Belle Meade Plantation

house is a Greek Revival

mansion with a wide

veranda and six massive

columns made of solid

limestone quarried from the

property


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4. Beaux Arts Architecture

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, ancient Greek and Roman ideas were combined withbalustrades, balconies, and lavish decoration.

In French, the term beaux artsmeansfine arts.Based on ideas taught at the legendary coledes Beaux-Arts in Paris, the Beaux Arts style flourished between 1885 and 1920.

Beaux Arts buildings have many of these features:

Constructed with stone

Balustrades

Balconies

Columns

Cornices

Pilasters

Triangular pediments

Grand stairway Large arches

Symmetrical faade

Union Station i

Washington Dis lavished wit

Beaux Artdetail


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The U.S. Capitol

Built: 1793-1829 and 1851-1863

Style:NeoclassicalArchitects: William Thornton,Benjamin Henry Latrobe, CharlesBulfinch

Dome: Thomas Ustick Walter

The definitive architectural style on

Capitol Hill is neoclassical, inspired

by the use of ancient Greek and

Roman styles in the design of great

public buildings.These styles are

recognized by the use of tallcolumns, symmetrical shapes,triangular pediments and domedroofs.


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Modernism

Modern architectureis generally characterizedby simplification of form and an absence ofapplied decoration.

In a broader sense, early modern architecturebegan at the turn of the 20th century withefforts to reconcile the principles underlyingarchitectural design with rapid technologicaladvancement and the modernization ofsociety.

Gaining popularity after the Second World War,architectural modernism was adopted by manyinfluential architects and architecturaleducators, and continues as a dominantarchitectural style for institutional andcorporate buildings into the 21st century.


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Notable architects important to the historyand development of the modernistmovement include:

Frank Lloyd Wright,

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier,

Louis Sullivan,

Oscar Niemeyer and

Alvar Aalto

Modernism


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Characteristics of Modernism

Common characteristics of modern architecture include:

The notion that "form follows function, a dictum originally expressed by frank lloydwrights early mentor Louis Sullivan, meaning that the result of design should derivedirectly from its purpose

Simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of "unnecessary detail

Visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of structural elements)

The related concept of "truth to materials", meaning that the true nature or naturalappearance of a material ought to be seen rather than concealed or altered to representsomething else

Use of industrially-produced materials; adoption of the machine aesthetic

Particularly in international style modernism, a visual emphasis on horizontal and verticallines


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Early Modernism

There are multiple lenses through which the evolution of modern architecture may be

viewed. Some historians see it as a social matter, closely tied to the project ofModernity and thus the Enlightenment. Modern architecture developed, in theiropinion, as a result of social and political revolutions.

Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineeringdevelopments. Still other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction

against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian and Edwardianarchitecture.

The Crystal Palace, 1851, was one of the first

buildings to have vast amounts of glass supportedby structural metal, foreshadowing trends inModernist architecture.


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Larkin buildingNew York

Wright's larkin building (1904) in buffalo, new york, unity temple (1905) in oak park,

illinois, and the robie house (1910) in chicago, illinois were some of the first examples ofmodern architecture in the united states.

The larkin buildingwas designed in 1904

The five story dark red brick building used pink tinted mortar and utilized steel frameconstruction.

Exterior details of the 200 foot long (61 m) by 134 foot


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Exterior details of the 200-foot-long (61 m) by 134-foot-wide (41 m) building were executed in red sandstone;

The entrance doors, windows, and skylights were of glass.

Floors, desktops, and cabinet tops were covered withmagnesite for sound absorption.

For floors, magnesite was mixed with excelsior and poured,and troweled like cement, over a layer of felt to impart itsresiliency.

Magnesite was also used for sculptural decoration on thepiers surrounding the light court and for panels and beamsaround the executive offices at the south end of the mainfloor.

A 76-foot-tall (23 m) light court was located in the center ofthe building which provided natural sunlight to all of thefloors. Between its support piers ran fourteen sets of threeinspiration words each,


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Later Modernism

Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machinesand it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines.

During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms thatthey felt were more human and accessible.

Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic andplayful nature. Expressionist exploration of form was revived, such as in the Sydney Opera

House in Australia by Jorn Utzon.

TWA terminal,john F. Kennedyairport, new york,1962

Saint john'sabbey church,

collegeville,minnesota, united

states

S d O H


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Sydney Opera HouseAustralia

Location:bennelong point, sydney, new south walesBuilt year:1959-1973ARCHITECHT :john utzonSTRUCTURAL SYSTEM: concrete frame & precastconcrete ribbed roof


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The Sydney Opera House is a modern expressionist design, with a series of largeprecast concrete "shells", each composed of sections of a sphere of 75.2 metres(246 ft 8.6 in) radius, forming the roofs of the structure, set on a monumentalpodium.

They are in fact not shells in a strictly structural sense, but are instead precastconcrete panels supported by precast concrete ribs.The shells are covered in a subtlechevron pattern with glossy white- and matte-cream-coloured Swedish-made tiles,though, from a distance, the shells appear a uniform white.

Apart from the tile of the shells and the glass curtain walls of the foyer spaces, the

building's exterior is largely clad with aggregate panels composed of pink granitequarried at Tarana.



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Early v/s Late Modernism

Major use of glass and steel

Very simple and minimalisticregular forms

Concept of form followsfunction used

Use of straight lines, horizontalwindows, etc.

Use of glass,steel and many materialsfound due to increased needs due toworld war II

More organic, curved and irregular

forms in comparison

Concept of form follows functionkept aside very often

Use of curved lines, irregular shaped

windows, glazings, etc.


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Postmodernity in architecture is said to

be heralded by the return of "wit,ornament and reference" toarchitecture in response to theformalism of the international style ofmodernism.

Functional and formalized shapes andspaces of the modernist style arereplaced by diverse aesthetics: stylescollide, form is adopted for its ownsake, and new ways of viewing familiarstyles and space abound.

Postmodernism with its diversitypossesses sensitivity to the buildingscontext and history, and the clientsrequirements.

Post Modernism


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Post ModernismThe Solution to Modernism

The Solution to Modernism Architects started turning away from ModernFunctionalism.

They viewed it as boring, unwelcoming, and even unpleasant. Postmodernistssought to cure this by reintroducing ornament and decoration for its own sake.

Form was no longer defined only by its functional requirements it now could beanything the architect pleased!

It replaced the functional and formalized shapes seen in the modernistmovement by:

The use of diverse aesthetics, different styles colliding, form is adopted for itsown sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles


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PostmodernismTime Period

The term postmodernism is probably mostspecific and meaningful when used in relationto architecture, where it designates aninternational architectural movement thatemerged in the 1960s, became prominent inthe late 1970s and 80s, and remained a

dominant force in the 1990s.

Postmodern architecture is characterized bythe incorporation of historical details in ahybrid rather than a pure style, by the use ofdecorative elements, by a more personal and

exaggerated style, and by references topopular modes of building.


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Characteristics Of Postmodernism

Nonlinearity: Multiple styles, multiple goalsExamples:

a. Commercialism vs. anti-commercialism

b. Violence vs. peace

Influence of digital technology

Inclusion of World cultures

Visual culture: Fine art, craft, advertising

Visual studies: Combination of visual culture and social theory


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Postmodern Architecture rejects the notion of pure or perfect detail, instead

it draws from: all methods, materials, forms, & colours available to architects.

Moves away from the neutral white colours seen in modernism.

Took past components of different styles and melded them together to createnew means of design. It is known for the re-emergence of surface ornament,

reference to its surrounding buildings, and historical references.

It was a time of revival of traditional elements and techniques. Post modernistsdid not believe to ignore past architecture but looked to it in order to learn fromit. You will begin to see classical designs such as pillars, torches, arches, anddomes used in new, almost humorous ways, just to send a message to the

modernist people. It favoured personal preferences and variety over objectivetruths and principles!

Characteristics Of Postmodernism


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A controversial critic of the purely functional andspare designs of modern orthodox architecture,

Venturi has been considered acounterrevolutionary

Used classical styles in new combinations:


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Pillars, tourettes, arches, domes, curtainwall facades; green and roman conventions

Reconciled differences between old and new generations (culture wars)


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Reconciled differences between old and new generations (culture wars)Postmodern architecture takes old styles and updates them

1970s- Rebelling against the minimalism ofM d A hit t f th 60 hi h


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Modern Architecture of the 60s whichrebelled against the conformity of the 50s

P t d i / M d i


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Postmodernism v/s. Modernism

Linear progress in history

Boundaries, social class, race andgender

Formality, emphasis on authoritarianperspectives

Scientific rationality, unified theory ofprogress

Essentialism, seeking real essences

Grand narrative

Prescription

Normative

Historicity, historicization, socio-

cultural locatedness of moments inhistory

Critical study of class, race, and gender;uses other perspectives

Intertextuality, self-reflexivity, montage,

pastiche

Signs, image, reproductive social order

Local accounts

Description

Generative, Geneaological,Archaeological


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The Indian context

The concept of Modernism in 20th century Indian architectural development remains difficult tograsp, as it was used within numerous stylistic developments, following the spirit of the day. Startingwith the efforts made by Europeans in the 1920s, the idea of modern architecture as arevolutionary and innovative force started to make cautious headway in India in the early 1930s.

But at that time any Western thought and practice introduced as a British import was seen asmodern, as India had no uniform independent architectural movement in the early 20th century.

Ideas influenced by the Bauhaus and Le Corbusier and then brought to India were modern, and thesubsequent Art Deco movement, influenced by both regional and exotic motifs, also countedas modern.

Even neoclassical architecture was still pronounced modern into the 1950s and even the 1960s. ButModernism in India was more like an overall approach to life. It meant designing the world positively,improving it, doing better than the required standard, being progressive and inventive, and this

certainly included great visionary minds like Tagore and Nehru. British architects in India feltthemselves to be modern, because they could work within an experimental field, almost withoutconstraints and regulations, with an unusual degree of freedom.


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The New CapitalNEW DELHI


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Lutyens Delhi is an example of British dominance.Its planning was based on the lines of- Haussmann's Paris, Christopher Wrens London andWashington DCThe concept of axis, diagonals, focal points and impressive monuments used were inspiredby those used in above cities.

Arc-de-Triomphe,

Paris

India Gate,

New Delhi

The hexagram, a freemasonic symbol, also played a vitalconcept behind the layout of new delhi

Radial City Planning

Only the superficial aspects of the city and building design weremodeled on Indian precedents

The lotus, the snake , the elephant are some of motifs usedduring the Delhi design

VICTORIAS MEMORIALKolkata, West Bengal


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Founded By:The Prince of WaleFounded In:1906Memorializes:Queen VictoriaArchitect: Sir William Emerson

The design of the structure represents a fusionof British and Mughal architecture.White Makrana marbles were used in theconstruction of VictoriaMemorial Hall and the building was inauguratedin the year 1921.The massive hall is 338 by 228 feet and rises to aheight of 184 feet.

In the British Raj in India,

Si Ed i L t '


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His enormous influence led to the foundation of the conservative school, whose major exponentsincluded Sudlow-Ballardie- Thompson, for example, and Ganesh Deolalikar, who worked up until the1950s. His Supreme Court in New Delhi imitated the Lutyens-Baker buildings down to the last detail.

Sir Edwin Lutyens'

monumental city

planning for New

Delhi marked the sunset

of neoclassicism.

The main neoclassical periodlasted well beyond the 1930s,above all because of theinfluence of the IndianInstitute of Architectswhich existed since the 1920s,a British institution firstheaded by a Briton, ClaudeBatley. His theories werebased on studies of Graeco-Roman, but also of Indian,classicism.

SUPREME COURT,NEW DELHI


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In the early 1940s the austerity of what was later called classical Modernism started to be mixed withExpressionism and with decorative motifs, and above all fluent lines, often curved, markedly horizontaland vertical: the highly influential Art Deco movement, which spread over the whole of India, made atriumphant entry into the world of Indian architecture. France, but particularly America, stood modelfor this movement, whose architects raised Art Deco to an art form of great virtuosity. Streamlinedarchitecture, as Art Deco was also known, developed its distinctive form partly from the technicalachievements of its day, the rounded shapes of aircraft and cars.

At the time of independence in 1947, India had only about 300 trained architects in a population ofwhat was then 330 million, and only one training institution, the Indian Institute of Architects inBombay. Those who could afford it studied abroad, preferably in the USA, as some Modernist heroes,

especially from the Bauhaus, like Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer had emigratedto America from Fascist Germany. The first generation of Indian architects came back from Americawith a new optimism, free of the British influence at the Bombay school, euphoric and able to offertheir urgently needed services to a free country.

One of them was Habib Rahman, who studied under Gropius at the MIT in Boston, another AchyutKanvinde from Harvard and Gautam Sarabhai, who worked with Wright in Taliesin. Thus the influence

of the Bauhaus masters came to India for a second time, this time directly via their pupils, whosesomewhat over-functionalistic interpretations were realised by Kanvinde in particular.

Le Corbusier was invited by Nehru in person in the early 1950s and built Chandigarh, the new capital of the state of Punjab.Le Corbusiers visionary powers, which he proved in urban developments from the 1920s onwards, seemed to be precisely theright person to Nehru, who said that India needed a slap in the face.


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g p p

His bton brut, the unrendered surfaces of the buildings, still showing the marks of the rough shuttering, and theexpressive and sculptural effect made by solitaire monuments spread over a large area, came as something of a shockto the Indian architects, who had found a new hero for themselves from now on.

Chandigarh has four main working centers

The capitol complex in the south-east

Th d ti l i tit t i th th t

CHANDIGARH

b i
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The educational institutes in nthe north-west

The city center in the heart

The industrial area in the south-east

Le Corbusier

Kahn was the next significant architect for India: his

CorridorIIM, Ahmedabad
http://agingmodernism.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/grains1.jpghttp://www.google.co.in/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=ymxDBuD8z5WnAM&tbnid=khDnqvUfkuQTQM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http://www.indialine.com/travel/punjab/chandigarh/&ei=ZXoDUYLWI8fIrQfg3oGgDg&psig=AFQjCNG13zWsKYyezvk3BhymMQjhU1LK7Q&ust=1359268838076548http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=vP9j2KZo0wKrTM&tbnid=Wnwo_NEqopEAOM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http://tripwow.tripadvisor.com/tripwow/ta-03d7-0f42-c950&ei=EXoDUZnxI8HYrQeMo4HICg&psig=AFQjCNEZe4YnAWwFe_a7nnTzm5CNitLxfQ&ust=1359268754138406http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=vJ3SyuDDADqPrM&tbnid=crlv-OsKfAyLRM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http://www.gardenvisit.com/blog/2010/03/12/optimism-by-design/&ei=x3kDUe3RHovprQe184CoDw&bvm=bv.41524429,d.bmk&psig=AFQjCNFCKvGGZH3uHruCKmxb_1AflQEz8g&ust=1359268679899887


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gstructures built on pure geometry to illustrateinherent order, his turn to a pictorial language forarchitecture that went beyond functionalism andthe use of rough brick for the faade in order toexpress the nature of the material, added yetanother dimension to Indian architects experience.

IIM, Ahmedabad

KANCHENJUNGAAPARTMENTS

Charles Correa developed his work when these two towering 20th centurymasters were both building in India. His 1963 memorial for Mahatma


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Terracescovered atKanchenjungaapartments(humid)

GANDHI MEMORIAL

MUSEUM

Chatri Gandhi Memorial Museum,Ahmedabad, handloom pavilion forthe international exhibition at Delhi.

Gandhi in Ahmedabad, which is reminiscent of Kahns design for theTrenton Bath House, marks the beginning of his mature work.

The most important buildings after that were his Kanchanjunga high-rise

apartments in Mumbai, built from 1970 1983, then thegovernment building in Bhopal, 1980 1996 (see p. 26 93), and the artcentre in Jaipur, 1986 1992 where he discovered the spiritualdimension of Indian thought and integrated it into his work.

Documents

Industrial Rev, Neoclassism, Postmodernism