Instructional Design Process and

Curriculum Development

ContentsPage

Chapter 1:Instructional design process 5

Chapter 2:learning need assessment 12

Chapter 3:Selecting a title and setting instructional goals15

Chapter 4:learner characteristics 20

Chapter 5:learning objectives 24

Chapter 6:Subject contents and task analysis 31

Chapter 7:Teaching learning activities 36

Chapter 8:Instructional resources 44

Chapter 9:Support services49

Chapter 10:Evaluating learning 53

Chapter 11:An overview of curriculum development. 58

Chapter 12 :Reference. 151

Chapter 1

Instructional Design Process

Introduction :

Learning begins at birth and ends at death, learning is an

intervening variable between something that happens in the world

and the subsequent behavior of the learner. The concept of

instructional design started during and immediately following the

World War II by the military training command, The psychologists

was revealing important new information about how human

learning takes place, including the importance of specifying

details of a task to be learned or performed.

In the early 1950 much interest was being shown in educational applications

of the learning theory known as behaviorism. B.F. skinner, the psychologist,

developed a stimulus –response (S-R) model based on the principle that

learning takes place through a series of small steps in which the learner

must actively participate. The theoretical view of learning proposed by

skinner and it is applications through programmed instruction have most

influential for the emergence of the instructional design process.

Definition of instructional design process:-

It’s a procedure for identifying the instructional process to

increase learning and improve performance (kemp, 1985).

Key elements of the instructional design process.

On planning instructional design process. There are four fundamental elements.

1.For whom is the program being developed [learners characteristics]

2.What do you want the learners to Learn [Objectives]

3.How is the subject content best learned [Teaching methods ]

4.How do you know if the learning has been achieved or not {Evaluation}

Students Objectives

TeachingMethods

Evaluation

[Figure I]

Key elements of the instructional design process.

Goal

1. learning needs assessment priorities

2. select topic Constraints

Purpose

3. learner characteristics

4. learning objectives according to the goals

5. State your subject content according to your objectives.

6. teaching method according to your objectives

7. Instructional resources.

8. Support services

9. learning evaluation.

10.Pre-testing.

There are additional components which require attention to make a complete

instructional design model.

Instructional Design Plan

Pre-testing

Topic

Content

TeachingMethod

InstructionalResources

Support Services

Evaluation

learnerCh.ch.

ObjectiveNeed

Assessment

Revision

Revision

(figure3)Note: - the elements are not connected with lines. Each person can start with any element.

●Rationale of using Kemp model:-

- An oval does not have a specific starting point.

- These elements are interrelated to each other. The elements are

not connected with lines or arrows. Decisions relating to one may affect

others and encourages flexibility in the selection of elements and in the

order of their treatment.

- The indication of revision around the elements illustrates the feedback

feature which allows for change in the content or treatment of

element at any time during development.

Definition of learning

learning:- Is a change in behavior (kemp,1985).

General principles which enhance learning.

1.Relating instruction to student experience .

2.Relating instruction to student interest.

3.Relating instruction to student future.

Learning barrier

1.student are bored

2.student are frustrated

3.student are hurt emotionally

4.Students are subjected to unpleasant physical condition.

Chapter 2

Learning Need Assessment

We learned in school that human beings to have a number of basic needs which

must be satisfied. These are food, water, clothing, shelter, and economic security.

Most daily activities are devoted to satisfying these needs. Beyond the basic needs,

the motivation for action in various aspects of life is based on a desire to satisfy

interests and needs at a higher level.

Need Assessment :- it’s the process of planning, obtaining, and

applying information (kemp, 1985).

[Gathering information]

Need Assessment can be done by two ways:-

1.Internal assessment procedure.

1.Giving a test and analyzing student result.

2.Interviewing instructor's about student competencies.

3.Talking with the students and their impression about the value and success of the

program.

2. external assessment

1.Interviewing person from other institute.

2.Comparing between instructional program at other institution to our local program.

3.Distribution of questionnaire or survey to recognized needs in the field.

The process of need assessment.

1.Preparing to do a need assessment.

2.Gathering information, data collection should be done through:-

•Interviews.

•Questionnaire.

•Observation.

3.Analyzing the need assessment information.

4.Prorating needs assessment information

Once a need assessment is completed and there is a

need, give your project a title or name, then goal should

be set.

Goal:is abroad statement about the learning that will take

place. (Kemp, 1985).

Chapter 3

Selecting a title and setting instructional goals

Once a needs assessment is completed, give your project a title or name.

Types of Learning1- Cognitive Learning: deals with

information and mental processes as remembering sign and symptoms of a disease.

2- Psychomotor Learning: involves some form of physical activity and coordination between the brain and the muscles.

Affective Learning: emphasizes feeling, emotions, attitudes and values.

To interest,

To help,

To provide,

To present,

To gain,

To acquire,

To know,

To understand,

To become,

To be familiar.

Examples of the verbs that used in writing the goals

Example

Topic: Diabetes Mellitus

Goal: to acquire knowledge and understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the

disease process, and proper nursing care for the diabetic patients.

Topics and job tasks

Topic :- is a heading for a unit or component of the course that treats subject content

knowledge to be learned. (Marger, 1972)

Job task :- is a heading that relates to a physical skill that is to be performed. (Marger, 1972)

The topics and tasks should be listed in a logical sequence:

A- By chronological, numerical.By proceeding from treatment of simple to

more complex content.From an overall view to a detailed

consideration of the components.By proceeding from the concrete to the

abstract.

Topic: The digestive system

The cardiovascular system

Metabolic and endocrine function

Urinary and renal function

Examples :-

Goal : To acquire knowledge and understanding the physiology of the digestive

system and management of patients with digestive problems.

Example :-

Tasks:

1.Catheterization of the urinary bladder.

2.Irrigating an indwelling catheter.

3.Inserting a naso-gastric tube.

4.Obtaining the blood pressure.

5.Administration of subcutaneous insulin injection.

Goal :-

To present essential information and skills required for obtaining the blood pressure.

TopicTask

- Related to subject content

knowledge.

- Emphasis on accomplishing of

physical actions.

- The learner learn certain facts,

concepts and principles,

- Performing skills correctly.

- Use the information to make

problem solving,

- Required physical activity.

- Knowledge based. - Physical skill based.

Differences between a topic and task.

(table I)

Chapter 4

Learner Characteristics

When plans are to be made for lecture or group instruction, we should

obtain general indications of the academic and asocial characteristics of

potential and actual learners. The instructional planner must obtain information

a bout the abilities, needs, and interests of the learners to know the level at

which topics are introduced.

Characteristics of the student

1.Academic information

The most easily obtainable information about individual learners.

•School grade or training level completed.

•Grade- point average for academic studies.

•Score of intelligence test and basic skills such as reading, writing and mathematics

•Special courses relating to major area of training.

Note: Also we can obtain knowledge and skills information through pre-testing.

2 -personal and social characteristics

•Age and maturity level.

•Motivation and attitude toward the subject.

•Vocational aspirations.

•Work experience

These information can be obtained by observation, interviews and informational

questionnaires.

Disabled learners

The category of disabled learners includes physically handicapped

individuals and others with learning disabilities such as hearing and vision loss,

speech impairment and mild mental retardation. Each type of handicapped

requires special consideration. Instructional program may require extensive

modification in order to serve handicapped learners appropriately.

Characteristics of no conventional learners

Non conventional learners are those learners whose preparation,

behavior and expectations may not be conventional. These group include

individuals from ethnic minorities, and learners with special disabilities.]

Characteristics of adult learners

1.Adult enters the program with a high level of motivation and readiness to learn, they clearly know what

goal they want to reach.

2.Adults brings to the course extensive background experience from both their personal and professional

lives.

3.Adult may be less flexible than younger learner, before they accept change, they must see an advantage

in doing so.

4.Adult want to be treated as adults, they want to participate in decision making.

5.Most mature adult are largely self- directed and independent.

6.Adult time is important consideration because they may have outside responsibilities.

Learning styles

There are two aspects of learning styles

1.Human brain hemisphere functions

A. Left Hemisphere:- suited to the functions of language such as reading, speaking, and

writing.

B. Right. hemisphere: this side focus attention to the synthesis of information and problem

solving.

2. Learning conditions

A. physical Environment:- sound, light, temperature levels.

B. Emotionality:- motivation, and taking responsibility.

Chapter 5

Learning Objectives

We are considering a procedure for systematically planning instruction in which

the specification of learning objectives plays a key role . The objectives indicate what a

learner should be able to do after completing a unit of instruction and are expressed in

precise.

Objectives can be grouped into (3) major categories.

1.Cognitive Domain.

2.Psychomotor Domain.

3.Affective Domain

Bloom developed a taxonomy for the cognitive domain that is widely used and classified into

(6) categories.

Level of cognitive Domain

1.Knowledge :- recall of information.

Verbs applicable to

knowledge level are :- arrange, define, label, test, name, order, repeat.

2. Comprehension :- interpret information.

Verbs Applicable

classify, describe. discuss, explain, report, tell, translate, and review.

3. Application: (apply knowledge)

Verbs applicable to Application level are

Apply, choose, illustrate, prepare, practice, solve, use.

4.Analyses :- break down knowledge into parts and show

relationship among parts.

Verbs Applicable to analyses level are:-

Arrange, collect, construct, formulate, manage, prepare,

synthesize.

5. Synthesis :- Bring together parts of knowledge to form a whole and build

relationships for a new situation

Verbs applicable to evaluation level are:-

Arrange, collect, construct, formulate, manage, prepare, synthesize

6. Evaluation :- make judgments

Verbs applicable to evaluation level are:-

Appraise, estimate, support, select, evaluate, predict, assess.

Advantages of objectives1- Provide a guide for the instructor and lets the

students know clearly what the teacher intends.2- Guide the teacher on what is to be taught, and

how to design a logical sequence for learning.3- Provide a guide to the selection of appropriate

methods of instruction.4- Provide an exact guide to construction of

examinations.5- Acts as criteria for evaluation of instruction.

Writing cognitive objectives

A learning objective is a statement that answer the question or what should the

learner be able to do.

Essential parts in writing the objectives

1.Action verbs :-

To manage, operate, arrange, compare.

1.Subject content reference :-

That describe the content being treated.

Example: to define congestive heart failure.

3.Performance standards :- indicates the minimum level of acceptance.

Example: At least 8 out of 10 correct

within 3 minutes

in proper order

meeting the criteria stated in the manual

Examples of learning objectives

1.To arrange the six steps or level of cognitive domains in proper order.

2.To List at least (3) Sings and symptoms of Myocardial Infarction

according to medical surgical nursing book

GoalsObjectives

- Verbs can be used in the goal

are broad such as to know,

understand, become, and familiar

- Derived from philosophy.

- Not measurable

- Verb can be used in objectives

are not broad, (specific) such as

to solve, apply, and choose

- Derived from goal

- Measurable

Note:

Objectives derived from the goal and not from the purpose.

Differences between goal and objectives

1. knowledge: Recall of information

Arrange Name Define Order Duplicate Recognize LabelRelateList Recall Match Repeat Memorize reproduce

SHOPING LIST OF VERBSVerbs APPLICABLE TO THE Six levels in The cognitive Domain

2. comprehension : Interpret information in one’s own words

Classify Recognize

Describe Report

Discuss Restate

Explain Review

Express Select

IdentifySort

Indicate Tell

Locate Translate

Apply Operate Choose Prepare Demonstrate Practice DramatizeSchedule EmploySearchIllustrate SolveInterpret Use

3.Application

Apply knowledge or generalization to new situation

Analyze Differentiate AppraiseDiscriminateCalculate DistinguishCategorizeExamineCompareQuestionContrastTestCriticize Diagram

4. Analysis

break down knowledge into parts and show relationship among parts

Arrange Manage Assemble Organize Collect Plan Compose Prepare Construct Propose Create Set up Design Synthesize Formulate Write

5. synthesis

bring together parts of knowledge to form a whole and build relationships for new

situations

Appraise Evaluate Argue Judge AssessPredict Attack Score Choose Select Compare SupportDefend Value Estimate

6. Evaluation

make judgments on basis of given criteria

Chapter 6

Subject Content and Task Analysis

Organizing Subject Content

In organizing Subject Content, Gagne’ depends on the Level of

learning ;-

1.Verbal information : The lowest Level of Learning, requires recall and

memorization. Example : to name, define, describe .

2.Intellectual Skills : Concepts (relating together more than two facts) “or

objects”

- apple

- watermelon

- peach

Fruit

(concept)

3.Cognitive Strategy: The highest level of learning . (Problem Solving)

If subject content is carefully organized the learners can become capable of solving Problem.

Example :

objects

Diagramming Subject Content

Usually subject content is outlined from facts to generalization.

Example :

Topic :- The circulatory system

. Arteries blood plasma

capillaries

Circulation

Veins

Lt. Atrium Rt. Atrium

Heart Lt. Ventricle

Valves Rt. Ventricle

Two ways of Diagramming Subject Content

1.Inductive method : Starting from simple to complex (fact, concept,

problem solving).

2.Deductive method : Starting from complex (general) to simple (fact)

1 ) Task analysis by using detailing Task

Task analysis : A detailed inventory (list of things) of the knowing and

doing components of the skill. (kemp, 1985)

Example of task analysis by using detailing task

Task:- Correct technique for insulin administration

A. Equipment:

•Insulin syringe

•Alcohol swab

•Tray.

B. preparatory steps :-

•Wash your hands

•Inspect the bottle for the type of insulin

•wipe the top of the bottle with an alcohol swab.

•Turn the bottle and syringe upside down in one hand and draw up the insulin dose into the syringe .

C. Administration procedure :-

•Select the site of injection

•Clean the site with alcohol swab

•Push needle and inject the insulin

•Pull the needle straight out quickly.

•Dispose of the syringe and needle without recapping in the container

2) Task analysis by using flow charting :

When elements or steps within a task may follow different paths, based on choices

or decisions that must be made, it is useful to prepare a flow chart. Visually the

chart shows the sequence for performing the task.

Beginning or end of a task

Information function

Action or operation function

decision point based on a question leads to alternative paths,

including recycle to earlier step

Connector , leading to another point in the flow chart

Teaching / Learning Activities

Introduction:

The purpose is to select and plan learning activities based on the content associated with

the learning objectives in order to achieve maximum learner success. We need to provide some

basis on which satisfactory decisions can be made about teaching methods and affective

learning activities. This is necessary to enable the largest possible number of learners to master

the learning objectives at an acceptable level of achievement in a reasonable amount of time.

Chapter 7

Teaching Method: The teacher way of deliver the information.

Learning activities: What the student has to do in order to achieve the Goals and

understand the content.

The teaching method should.

1.Suit the teacher's ability.

2.Suit the student's ability.

3.Suit the type of teaching aimed.

4.Suit the time and place.

5.Suit the subject matter.

6.Suit the number of students.

7.Suit the interest and experience of the students.

8.suit the teacher relationship with the students

Methods of teaching

1. lectures

2. demonstration

3. discussion groups

1) Lecture

Definition: is one method of teaching in which the teacher give a lot of

information about the topic and the student will take notes and its one

way communication.

How to prepare a lecture

1.use your objectives

2.Gather information.

3.Choose related information

4.Arrange information

5.Divide time

6.Plan the question you will ask

7.Use simple language

8.Summarize important points

9.Ask student what they know

Delivery skills:

1.Personal warmth

2.Talk as you talk to one

3.Not too quick or slow

4.Your pitch of voice

Characteristics related to lecture:

1.Compulsory attendance

2.Time of date

3.Length: attention declines after 20 minutes

4.Recall : 20% after one week

5.Delivery speed is related to the difficulty of materials

6.Tone of voice

AdvantageDisadvantage

very efficient method of transmitting

knowledge to a large number of students

lack of involvement of the learner

Exerting a considerable saving on teacher

time.

Length and poor presentation effect.

Motivating function of a good lecturer. Inability of the method to reach the

need of the individual learner.

Advantage and Disadvantage of Lecture

2- Demonstration: It’s a visualized explanation of facts, concepts and procedure.

Purpose:

1. Designed to show the learner how to perform certain psychomotor skill

2. Designed to show learner why certain things occur.

AdvantageDisadvantage

Show learner the skill step by step. Costly if much equipment is involved.

Each learner sees what is going on. Need careful preparation.

Provide immediate practice by the

learner himself.

Need careful attention.

Can be used with individual or group.

Advantage and Disadvantage of Demonstration

3- Discussion group: we have controlled discussion group and action group

a- controlled discussion group: I will be a leader and I will give the topic

to the student.

b- Action group (role playing)

Dramatization by two or more persons of a situation relating to a problem.

Advantage of discussion group

Two ways communication, which encourage critical thinking and problem solving within

a group.

Other types of Discussion group

1.puzzle group:

Consist from 2-6 members, frequently used to provide learner involvement during a

lecture.

Purpose:

a- providing the student with social activity.

b- Helping to maintain their level of aroused during the lecture.

2.free discussion group:

It is under the control of the group members and the teacher acts as an

observer and resource person. The topic and direction are decided by the

group.

3.learning through discussion group:

Similar to the free discussion group, but the topic decided by the teacher rather

than the learner.

4.Seminar group:

It involves the reading of a paper by one group member, after which there is

discussion of the paper by the total group. The teacher or one of the group

member is the leader.

Other types of action groups:

In contrast to discussion group's action groups involves the members in activity, and involves

a greater degree of activity on the part of their members.

1.Simulation: is an abstract representation of a real life situation that requires a learner or a

team to solve a complex problem. Aspects of the situation that are close to reality are

created, and the learner must perform manipulations, make responses and take actions to

correct any deficiencies.

2. Games: A game is a formalized situation activity in which two or more participant or team

complete a set of objectives relating to a training topic. The game takes place under a set

of rules and procedures with information being provided required decision making and

follow up actions.

Chapter 8

Instructional Resources

Introduction

Audiovisual aids are important to the teaching process. In order not

to limit communication with student to voice and gesture alone.

Criteria for selecting the appropriate teaching learning material or

equipment

When you select any material or equipment you should consider

1.setting

2.number of students

3.objectives

4.learner variables reader, non reader)

Purposes of using learning resources

1.motivate learners by stimulating interest in a subject

2.involve learners in learning experiences

3.Explain and illustrate subject content and performance

skill

We have two resources to support teaching learning activities

1.Non projected materials

A. Diagram: are usually intended to show relationships between items and

help explain processes.

B. Chalk board :- Useful for displaying lists as outlines or may be used to

communicate words, symbols and drawing.

C. Models: Tangible simulations can be substitute for real items which are too

big or small.

Functions of Non Projected materials :

1.Promote correlation of information.

2.Assist organization of material

3.Meet my teaching methods

4.Help to Explain process. (More understanding and clarification of the subject)

2- Projected materials

A. Overhead correlation of information.

B. Slide and slide projector.

A.Overhead projector: it is very simple machine with few components requiring special

maintenance procedures such as keeping it as clean as possible.

To prolong the life of the lamp allow it to cool before moving the projector, and move the

projector with care.

Advantage :

1.can be used for a large audience

2.Presenter facing audience.

3.Easy to prepare.

4.It’s a very simple machine.

Disadvantage :

•Electricity required

•Equipment for making transparencies are expensive

•Usually restricted to teacher use.

B. Slide and slide projector: the term slide refers to a small- format photographic

transparency . The size is 2x2 inches or 5x5cm.

advantage

1. It's easy to produce your own slides.

2. The automatic projectors allow the presenter to remain at the front of the room.

3. Easily to handle it

4. Can be used for small and large group.

5. More flexible than filmstrips or other fixed sequent materials.

Disadvantage

1.Electricity Required

2.Equipment for making slides are expensive

3.They can easily become disorganized

4.Sides are susceptible to accumulation of dust and finger prints.

5.Careless storage or handling can easily lead to permanent damage.

Factors to consider in making final media

1- Preparation costs.

2- Time to prepare.

3- Maintenance and storage.

4- Students preference.

5- Instructors preference.

Chapter 9

Support Services

Introduction

Once the actual instruction, teaching learning activities and resources has been

planned then a attention should be given to some number of services necessary to

support the instruction. These services are:-

1. Budget:

All new programs require funds to get started. Any institution interested in

supporting its instructional program must provide money for development and

implementation of the program. We need money during the preparation and

implementation of the program.

A- During the preparation of the program, workshop and lesson plan we need money for

1- Preparation of instructional materials including transparencies and multiple copies.

2- Development of evaluation tools to evaluate the learner and program.

3- Cost for tryouts, including consumable materials, as insulin syringes

4- Administration cost, as telephone, and overhead projector.

B- During implementation of the program

1.faculty and staff salaries

2.consumable and damaged materials

3.maintenance of equipment

4.overhead charges for facilities and services

2- Facilities:

a- room for presentation to group of average (40)

b- Small room for meeting.

c- Staff meeting and working room.

3- Material:

a- transparencies.

b- Preparing graphic.

c- Taking pictures.

d- Making slides.

e- Video taping.

f- Tape recorder.

4- Equipment:

Decisions about equipment usually depend on your choice of materials.

•overhead projector.

•Recorder

•Camera

•Video

5- Personal services

a.Instructor or teacher

b.Instructional designer (this person must be experienced with the instructional

design process and know about teaching learning methods

c.Evaluation specialist

• formative Evaluation (during program)

• summative evaluation (at the end of the program)

d.Secretary to handle all office work including typing, and correspondence.

6- Time and schedules.

To do schedule for all participant.

Chapter 10

Evaluating Learning

There is a direct relationship between evaluation and objective. Some suggestions

mentioned that as soon as an objective are listed, you should immediately write the

examination questions relating to the objectives

Evaluating learning:

Is the last of the four essential elements in the instructional design process.

Types of evaluation

1.Formative Evaluation: used to know how well the program is serving the objectives

and done during the course teaching.

Example

1.giving quizzes during and after lecture

2.Summative Evaluation: It measured the degree to which the major outcomes are

attained and it's done at the end of the course.

Example

•Final examination.

3- Performance Evaluation: performance evaluation can be done by

Using checklist.

Example:

•Catheterization

4- Objectives evaluation: objectives can be evaluated be using

Questionnaire.

Types of questionnaire

A.Open ended question: the teacher gives questions and

the student allowed time to answer these questions by their

own words.

Advantage :- Easy to construct it.

Disadvantage :- Difficult to analyze it.

B. Closed ended question: The teacher gives questions with many

alternative answer and the students should select the proper answer.

Types of closed ended questions

a. Dichotomous items: yes of no questions

b. multiple- choice questions:

The teacher put the questions with 3-5 alternative answer

c. check list

Items that included several questions related to the topic.

5- pre and post-test evaluation

a.pre-test: a measurement of learning before starting the topic

b.Post-test: a measurement of learning when study of a topic is concluded.

Validity and reliability of tests

there are two important features that tests must fulfill in order for them properly to

accomplish the job for which they are intended.

Definition of validity : the ability of the instrument to measure what it is intended to

measure.

Internal validity : the ability of the independent variable (IV) to cause change on the

dependent variables not other extraneous variable.

External validity: the degree to which the finding of the study can be generalized to other

similar sitting.

Types of validity

a. Face and content validity: the question is submitted to a panel with

experience and knowledge of the topic, who make suggestion about the

adequacy of the instrument.

b. Criterion related validity: comparing the finding with data collected on the

same phenomenon by other method.

c. Construct validity: how well the questionnaire measures a particular

construct as (self esteem).

Reliability: is the degree of consistency of an instrument

Types and reliability

1.Test- retest: is used to measure the stability of the instrument by administering

the questionnaire in two occasions and comparing the responses.

2.alternate from test: asking the same question with other method

3.spilt-half test: dividing the instrument into two parts (e.g. 10 questions) the first

five score should equal the second five questions to be sure of homogenous of the

questions.