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Silicon Photomultiplier - characteristics and applications -
Nicoleta Dinu Laboratory of Linear Accelerator, IN2P3, CNRS, Orsay, France
Seminar at Geneva University, DPNC, 21.05.2014
1
OUTLINE
PART A:
◦ Silicon Photomultiplier (SiPM)
Introduction on solid state photon detectors
SiPM design and physics principle
SiPM electrical and optical characteristics
SiPM arrays
PART B:
◦ SiPM applications
Intra-operative probes for tumors localization during cancer
surgery
Compact imaging gamma camera (SIPMED)
2
PART A: Silicon Photomultiplier
3
4
~ 4
µm
GM-APD
p+-type silicon (substrate)
-epilayer
p+ n+
high electric field
multiplication region
e-
h+
PN or PIN
P+ - Type
N – Type Silicon
APD
p-n junction,
reversed Vbias – 0-3 V
p-n junction,
reversed Vbias < VBD
p-n junction,
reversed Vbias > VBD
Gain = 1 Gain = M (~ 50-500)
- linear mode operation-
Gain → infinite
-Geiger-mode operation-
Review of solid-state photon detectors (1)
APD • VAPD < Vbias < VBD
• G = M (50 - 500)
• Linear-mode operation
• Operate at medium light level (tens of photons)
Photodiode • 0 < Vbias < VAPD (few volts)
• G = 1
• Operate at high light level
(few hundreds of photons)
GM-APD or SPAD • Vbias > VBD (Vbias-VBD ~ few volts)
• G
• Geiger-mode operation
• Can operate at single photon level
Absolute reverse voltage
Absolute reverse voltage
p-n junction working in reverse bias mode
5
Review of solid-state photon detectors (2)
6
R.H. Haitz J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 36, No. 10 (1965) 3123
J.R. McIntire IEEE Trans. Elec. Dev. ED-13 (1966) 164
h
Rs=50
GM-APD n+ (K)
p++ (A)
Rq
-Vbias
output
Passive quenching circuit
The first single photon detectors operated in Geiger-mode
Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiode
Active quenching circuit
S. Cova & al., Appl. Opt., Vol. 35, No 12 (1996) 1956
GM-APD
Active resistor made of MOS transistor
controlled by a fast electronics
SiPM cell – design & physics principle
7
GM-APD (p-n junction) connected in series with quenching resistance RQ
GM-APD and RQ – on the same substrate
Digital device Q = Q1 = Q2 = …= Qn
Volt
age (
a.u
.)
Time (a.u.)
Standard output signal No information on light
intensity
C. Piemonte, …, N. Dinu…, IEEE TNS, Vol. 54, Issue 1, 2007
8
SiPM – design & physics principle
1 pixel fired
2 pixels fired
3 pixels fired
Parallel array of -cells on the same substrate
◦ Each -cell: GM-APD in series with RQ
Analog device
Qtot = Q1 + Q2 + …= nQ1
1 m
m
1 mm
E
depth
SiPM / FBK
1 m
m
1 mm
E
depth
SiPM / Hamamatsu
Output signal number of fired
cells that is the number of
photons (if efficiency = 1)
’90s by V.M.Golovin & Z.Sadygov, Russian patents
Metal grid Rquench
pn junctions
Geiger-Mode
Si substrate
SiO2 + Si3N4 epi layer
300µ
2-4µ
OUT
10-100µ
VBIAS
9
SiPM – few examples of design & packages
1x1mm2
3x3mm2
Hamamatsu HPK (http://jp.hamamatsu.com/)
10x10, 15x15 , 25x25, 50x50, 100x100µm2 cell size
FBK-IRST (http://advansid.com/home)
50x50µm2 pixel size
KETEK (http://www.ketek.net/)
25x25, 50x50, 100x100µm2 cell size
SensL (http://sensl.com/)
20x20, 35x35, 50x50, 100x100µm2 cell size
1.2x1.2 mm2
3x3 mm2
6x6 mm2
1x1 and 3x3 mm2
10
SiPM characteristics:
• DC measurements in the dark & room temperature
• Reverse and forward IV characteristics
• AC measurements in the dark & room temperature
• Signal shape
• Gain
• Dark count rate
• Optical measurements at room temperature
• Photon detection efficiency
• Timing resolution
• Temperature dependence
11
DC characteristics @ 25°C
• Technical team: V. Chaumat, JF. Vagnucci
• Lab course @ EDIT & MC-PAD schools at CERN, 2011
Recovery time: cell RQCdiode Overvoltage: V = VBIAS - VBD
N. Dinu et al., NIM A, 610, 2009 N. Dinu et al., NIM A, 610, 2009
12
SIGNAL SHAPE @ 25°C
SiPM
Vcc
Pt100
metallic box
Climatic chamber ±0.1°C
TDS 5054
500MHz, 5GS/s
GPIB
Keithley 2611
Vbias & PicoA
0.01-
500MHz
LabView
Keithley
Multimeter 2000
Technical team: V. Chaumat, JF. Vagnucci, Z. Amara, C. Bazin
rise RD(CD+CQ)
fall slow RQ (CD+CQ)
fall fast Rload (Ctot+Cg)
N. Dinu et al., NIM A, 610, 2009
N. Dinu et al., NIM A, 610, 2009
13
GAIN @ 25°C
e
BDBIASQD
e
QD
e q
VVCC
q
VCC
q
QG
Number of charge carriers developed during avalanche discharge
G increases linearly with V = VBIAS – VBD
the slope of linear fit of G vs. V Ccell = CD + CQ
G and Ccell increase with cell geometrical
dimensions
d
AC Si 0
N. Dinu et al., NIM A, 610, 2009
N. Dinu et al., NIM A, 610, 2009
14
Dark count rate @ 25°C • The number of pulses/s registered by the SiPM in the absence of the light
• It limits the SiPM performances (e.g. single photon detection)
• Three main contributions:
• Thermal/tunneling – thermal/ tunneling carrier generation in the depleted region
looks the same as a photon pulse
• After-pulses – carriers trapped during the avalanche discharging and then released triggering a
new avalanche after the breakdown
• Optical cross-talk – 105 carriers in an avalanche breakdown emit in average 3 photons with an energy
higher than 1.14 eV (A. Lacaita et al. IEEE TED 1993)
– these photons can trigger an avalanche in an adjacent µcell
th=0.5pe
th=0.5pe
15
Dark count rate @ 25°C
Critical issues:
Quality of epitaxial layer
Gettering techniques
DCR – linear dependence due to triggering probability V
- non-linear at high V due to cross-talk and after-pulses V2
DCR scales with active surface
N. Dinu et al., NIM A, 610, 2009 N. Dinu et al., NIM A, 610, 2009
16
Photon Detection Efficiency (1)
geomphotonspulses PQENNPDE 01
QE P01 geom
Technical team: V. Chaumat, JF. Vagnucci, C. Bazin
17
Photon Detection Efficiency @ 25°C (2)
Hamamatsu cell
• p+n GM-APD on n-type substrate
• Peak of PDE optimized for blue light
(420 nm)
FBK & SensL cell
• n+p GM-APD on p-type substrate
• Peak of PDE optimized for green light (500-600nm)
•PDE is depending on the SiPM cell structure • p+/n cell is more blue sensitive than n+/p • electron triggering probability is higher than hole triggering
SiPM’s from 2007 productions, 1x1 mm2
N. Dinu et al., NIM A, 610, 2009
18
Single photon timing resolution @ 25°C
FBK-irst SiPM single photon timing resolution
Two components : • fast component of gaussian shape with σ O(100ps)
• due to photons absorbed in the depletion region
• its width depends on the statistical fluctuations of the
avalanche build-up time
(e.g. photon impact position cell size)
• slow component: minor non gaussian tail with
time scale of O(ns)
• due to minority carriers, photo-generated in the neutral
regions beneath the depletion layer that reach the junction by
diffusion
MePhI/Pulsar
Poisson
statistics:
σ ∝ 1/√Npe
SPT
R
G. Collazuol et al., NIM A, 581, 2007 Courtesy of G. Collazuol (not published)
19
Thermal effects
20
Gain vs. bias voltage vs. temperature
Breakdown voltage vs temperature
T=+55°C T=-175°C
SiPM Hamamatsu
1x1 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2007
T=+55°C T=-175°C
SiPM Hamamatsu
3x3 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2011
C.R.Crowell and S.M.Sze
Appl. Phys. Letters 9, 6(1966)
SiPM Hamamatsu
3x3 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2011
SiPM Hamamatsu
1x1 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2007
N. Dinu, A. Nagai, A. Para, not published
21
Gain vs. overvoltage vs temperature
Capacitance & quenching resistance vs. temperature
SiPM Hamamatsu
1x1 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2007
SiPM Hamamatsu
3x3 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2011
Slope → Cµcell=125±10fF
8%
SiPM Hamamatsu
1x1 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2007
Slope → Cµcell=90±5fF
5%
SiPM Hamamatsu
3x3 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2011
SiPM Hamamatsu
3x3 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2011
SiPM Hamamatsu
1x1 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2007
50 m
42 m
50 m
38 m
d
AC Si 0
N. Dinu, A. Nagai, A. Para, not published
22
Signal shape vs. temperature
Dark count rate vs. temperature
SiPM Hamamatsu
1x1 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2007
T=+55°C
T=-175°C
fall slow 40ns@+55°C250ns@-175°C
SiPM Hamamatsu
3x3 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2011
T=+55°C
T=-175°C fall slow 80ns@+55°C200ns@-175°C
SiPM Hamamatsu
1x1 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2007
T=+55°C
T=-25°C SiPM Hamamatsu
3x3 mm2, 50x50m2
Production 2011
T=+55°C
T=-25°C
T=-100°C T=-100°C
N. Dinu, A. Nagai, A. Para, not published
23
Arrays of SiPM - monolithic
Nicoleta Dinu
24
Arrays of SiPM - discrete
Nicoleta Dinu
25
PART B: SiPM applications – medical imaging
Techniques of nuclear imaging
26
Pharmaceutical product:
• organic molecules + radioactive isotope
• Radioactive isotopes • 99mTc, 123I, 201Tl, 18F, 11C
• Emitters , + or -
Techniques of nuclear imaging
• camera, topographies
• Techniques
TEMP TEP
Cancer diagnostic (homographs)
Cancer therapy Per-operative detection systems
Marking Detection • Principle
SIPMED project High resolution hand-held radiation detector for therapeutic purposes
SIPMED imaging camera
collimator
LaBr3(Ce) scintillator
16 (4x4) SiPM arrays
field of view: 30 cm2
256 readout channels (ASIC) on
miniaturized electronics boards
5.5 cm
6 c
m
S11828-3344M Hamamatsu HPK • 4x4 monolithic SiPM array
• mounted on a SMD package
• Each SiPM = one readout channel:
•3x3 mm2, 3600 cells, each cell - 50x50 m2
Radio-guided surgery
Detection system requirements in surgical conditions • reduced size and weight
• versatility of readout electronics
• adapted for sterile environment
Collaboration IMNC, LAL, Hôpital Lariboisière
28
IV of monolithic SiPM arrays from HPK
Keithley 2611
Hi Lo
0.8V VBD range
256 IV’s
16 over 23 arrays
selected for SIPMED
23 arrays (368 IV’s)
1.5V VBD range
29
Characteristics uniformity Plots by: A. Nagai
Board SiPM 1 Board SiPM 2
Board SiPM 3 Board SiPM 4
Board SiPM 2 Board SiPM1
Board SiPM 4 Board SiPM 3
VBD SIPMED camera
Board SiPM 2
Board SiPM 1 Board SiPM 4
Board SiPM 3
Idark @ VBIAS =72.5V
Board SiPM 2
Board SiPM 1
Board SiPM 4
Board SiPM 3
Idark @ overvoltage =1V
Ipost-BD qGDCR
30
Elementary module of SIPMED camera
USB interface
Board 1: 4 (2x2) SiPM arrays
64 readout channels
Board 2:
2 EASIROC chips
64 readout channels
2 ADC 12 bits
Board 3:
FPGA
FTDI & USB
Front side Back side
Elementary module
Field of view: 8 cm2 28.6 mm
T. Ait Imando et al., PoS 2012
31
256 SiPM’s = 256 readout channels
• Optical and electrical tests under progress
SIPMED camera
Weight: 2.2 kg
TRECaM camera based on MAPMT SIPMED camera
Weight: 1.2 kg
Pictures by courtesy of L. Menard
32
SIPMED energy resolution:10.5% @ 122 keV
Good linearity
TRECaM energy resolution:12.9% @ 122 keV
Preliminary characteristics of SIPMED camera
SIPMED spatial resolution:1.23 mm@ 122 keV
TRECaM spatial resolution:1.36 mm @ 122 keV
Plots by courtesy of L. Menard
33
Conclusions and perspectives
Detector point of view: understanding of device fundamentals
Detailed physical models of avalanche multiplication, triggering
probability
Reducing DCR and afterpulsing contributions
Improvement in fast timing applications
Temperature dependence of different parameters for stable operation
PDE improvements in UV & IR regions
Applications point of view
Build large detection area
Uniform electrical and optical characteristics
Low dead area (3D interconnection - cost)
Development of dedicated ASIC’s involving multichannel readout
electronics
Studies of radiation hardness for application in high energy physics
experiments
.
Additional slides
34
35
Front side Back side Board SIPMED2
Front side Back side Board SIPMED3
• EASIROC chip •32 channels
•8-bit input DAC, 0-2.5V range
•Low and high voltage pre-amplifiers, adjustable gain
•charge measured at maximum amplitude of slow shapers (50 to 175 ns peaking time) by two Track and
Hold blocks
• fast trigger line, made of a fast shaper and a discriminator, provides the hold signal
•2 EASIROC chips/ elementary module
• two-channels externals ADC 12-bit,
2MSPS
• ALTERA ciclone III FPGA
• FTDI FT2232H (USB protocol 2.0 Hi-speed, 440MBit/s)
•USB mini-connector for power supply and PC
communication
•DC/DC converter for SiPM bias
Read-out electronics of SIPMED
36
• Radiation damage effects on SiPM: • increase of dark count rate due to introduction of generation centers • increase of after-pulse rate due to introduction of trapping centers • may change VBD, leakage current, noise, PDE….
Radiation damage