Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Chapter 12 Emotions, Health, and Stress

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. KalatChapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress

Chapter 12

Emotions, Health, and Stress


Emotion

Myth -- despite the pop culture lore that promotes this idea.

Brain damaged people with impaired emotions are generally inferior decision-makers (e.g., Phineas Gage)

Emotions are a powerful informer of our decisions, closely related to motivation, as almost any motivation has an emotion tied to it.

Emotion A crucial part of our experience as humans An elusive concept, difficult to define and measure.

Truth or Myth? If we could keep our emotions in check we would

make better decisions?


Module 12.1

The Nature of Emotions


Measuring Emotions

Measuring emotion poses challenges. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses. Self-reports are fast and easy but may have

questionable accuracy. Behavioral observations; especially of facial

expressions are useful. Although facial emotions can be suppressed, micro-expressions can be very revealing.

Physiological measures use autonomic nervous activity. These are harder to control or suppress, although their meaning is subject to interpretation.


Excitement and Physiological Arousal

The role of the autonomic nervous system The autonomic nervous system is the division that

controls the functioning of the internal organs. The ANS has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and

parasympathetic nervous systems.


The Autonomic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system -- “crisis management” It prepares the body for intense activity, “fight or flight”

and other stress-related behaviors (increases the heart rate, breathing rate, production of sweat, and flow of adrenaline).

The parasympathetic nervous system -- “long-term survival” decreases heart rate and supports non-emergency

functions (e.g., digestion) that keep an organism alive in the long-term.



The two divisions of the ANS Both systems are active, and the shifting between the

two systems helps to keep the body in a balanced condition called homeostasis.

Emergencies mainly activate the sympathetic nervous system, but also may involve some parasympathetic activity (i.e., being frightened causes an individual to lose bowel or bladder control).



The two divisions of the ANS We generally cannot directly control autonomic

responses, but we can influence them by voluntary cognition and behavior, for example, athletes learn to control breathing and focus their concentration for improved aim.


Concept Check:

If you ride on the back of your friend’s brand-new high-powered motorcycle, does your heart rate increase or decrease?

During the ride, your heart rate will increase.

What happens when the ride is over?

When you get off the motorcycle, it will slow down.


Emotion and Perceived Arousal

Which comes first, the psychological experience of emotion or the physiological arousal?


Where do Emotions Come From?

The Common-Sense View

How do emotions work?



1. Smiley




• But ... Smiley sees that someone has stolen his trophy!

• Therefore he becomes annoyed!










• This leads to physiological changes: heart pounding, temperature rising ...





Smiley perceives an annoying event

Psychological response

Physiological changes



The James-Lange View

1. Smiley




1. Smiley









• Right away he feels physiological changes: heart pounding, temperature rising ...











• Smiley perceives these physiological changes ... and THEN feels annoyed.




• Smiley perceives these physiological changes ... and THEN feels annoyed.






Perception of an annoying event

Physiological changes

Psychological response




Effects of decreased perceived arousal Some medical conditions cause people to feel little

physiological arousal. In the condition called pure autonomic failure the ANS

stops regulating the internal organs. People who suffer from pure autonomic failure recognize

situations that call for strong emotions (fear, elation) but they report that their emotions are much less intense.

This is what the James-Lange theory predicts.


The Cannon-Bard Critiques

1. We still feel emotions even if we are totally disconnected from physiological changes.

Parapeligiacs still feel emotions




2. The same physiological changes happen with different emotions.

1. We still feel emotions even if we are totally disconnected from physiological changes.




1. We still feel emotions even if we are totally disconnected from these physiological changes.




The Cannon-Bard View

1. We still feel emotions even if we are totally disconnected from these physiological changes.


The psysiological response and the subjective

experience occur simultaneously, and neither one causes the other.



Schachter & Singer: The Two-Factor Theoy of Emotion

+

Non-specific physiological reaction(necessary but not sufficient

for the experience of emotion)

Interpretation of the situation(determines what emotion it will be)

The same physiological sensation could be ... shame, fear, excitement, love ...



Concept Check:

You arrive at your psychology class and realize that there is a test today and you completely forgot about it. You feel nervous and start to sweat. According to the James-Lange theory, which comes first, the feeling of fear or the sweating?

The sweating


Figure 12.4 According to the James-Lange theory, physiological arousal determines the nature of the emotion. According to Schachter and Singer’s theory, physiological arousal determines the intensity of an emotion, but not which emotion is experienced.


Concept Check:

According to the Schachter-Singer theory, which comes first, the realization that you forgot about the test, or the feeling of fear?

The realization (cognitive appraisal)


Fear and Anxiety

Some researchers are investigating the relationship between emotions and brain activity. There is evidence linking the emotions of fear or anxiety

to the amygdala. When the amygdala is damaged, a person’s ability to

experience these feelings may be impaired.


Figure 12.19 Certain structures in the pons and medulla control unlearned fear reactions, such as a startle response to a sudden unexpected loud sound. Another structure, the amygdala, sends information to the pons and medulla. Damage to the amygdala eliminates learned fears but does not affect the automatic startle response to a loud sound. This drawing is of a human brain, although the relevant experiments were conducted with rats.


Fear and Anxiety

Damage to the amygdala also diminishes the ability to recognize the signs of these feelings in other people.

There is also impairment in the ability to recognize anger, disgust and surprise.

The amygdala may be specialized to process information relative to several kinds of emotions


Module 12.3

Stress, Coping and Health


Health Psychology

Health psychology—the study of how psychological factors influence health, illness, and health-related behaviors


Health Psychology

Stress Selye’s Concept of Stress

An enormous variety of experiences can cause stress.

The physician Hans Selye defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it.”

Selye’s definition emphasizes the role that changes in one’s life play in causing stress, and so it does not fully consider the effects of more chronic problems such as poverty or discrimination.


Health Psychology

Selye’s concept of stress Selye proposed that the body responds to stress in three

distinct stages: Alarm – a brief period of high arousal of the

sympathetic nervous system, which readies the body for vigorous activity.

Resistance – if the stressor goes on for longer than a few minutes, the body enters a phase of prolonged but moderate arousal.

Exhaustion – intense and long-lasting stress causes a depletion of proteins in the immune system. The end result is increased vulnerability to illness, fatigue, and weakness.


Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

A prolonged period of anxiety and depression following the experience of an extremely stressful event is known as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This disorder has been well-documented in war veterans

and those who have survived violent crimes and serious accidents.

Some people who endure these events do not suffer PTSD, so the causes of this disorder are still not fully understood.

People with PTSD suffer from nightmares, emotional outbursts, guilt, and flashbacks that may cause debilitating panic.


Measuring Stress

Life is inherently stressful. How much stress is detrimental to one’s health? In order to answer this question, psychologists need to

measure both stress and health. Both of these conditions are difficult to measure. Checklists that have been devised for this purpose have

been found to have low reliability and validity.


Measuring Stress

A given event will have different meanings to different people, depending on the circumstances.

A lost job is unlikely to be more than a minor annoyance to a 16-year-old fast-food worker who still lives at home.

Because of these difficulties in measuring stress according to Selye’s definition, psychologist Arnold Lazarus devised a different perspective on it.


Measuring Stress

According to Lazarus, a stressful situation is one that a person regards as threatening and possibly exceeding his or her resources.

Thus, divorce could be a major life stressor for an abandoned spouse with several children, but perhaps an easier (though probably not stress-free) transition for a childless couple in their 20’s who are more or less in agreement about the decision to end the marriage.

Lazarus’ view also suggests that people can learn to think differently and deal with events actively instead of feeling threatened by them.


Figure 12.24 Lazarus stated that evaluation of some kind, conscious or unconscious, always precedes emotion. Thus, a given event can be highly stressful for one person yet only slightly stressful or not at all for someone else.


Measuring Stress

To summarize, in Lazarus’ view the degree of stressfulness of any event depends upon: Our interpretation of the event Our reaction to it The nature of the other events in our lives


Concept Check:

16-year-old Brenda has broken up with her boyfriend, lost her job as a cashier at Burger Tyrant, and been kicked off the varsity girl’s soccer team. Yet she scores in the mild stress range on the stress checklist that her guidance counselor administered to her yesterday. What are some possible interpretations of these facts?


Concept Check:

Although it is possible the Brenda is showing signs of an emotional problem or drug use (or both), it is also possible that her feelings towards her boyfriend had changed, that she hated her job at restaurant, and that she disliked playing soccer but was doing so to please her parents (for example).


Coping Styles and Strategies

Psychologists have developed two major categories for classifying how people handle their stress. Monitoring (problem focused)– the style in which

people attend carefully to the stressful event and try to take effective action.

Blunting – (emotion focused) the style adopted by those who try to avoid the stressful event or avoid thinking about it.


Coping Styles and Strategies

People tend to prefer one style to the other, but the most effective strategy depends on the nature of the stressor.

If you are experiencing stress due to an upcoming psychology test, a monitoring strategy of taking effective action is probably warranted. Form a study group and hit the books!

If you are caught in a major traffic tie-up, blunting is probably a better tack, as there is really nothing you can do about your situation. Turn on the radio and chill out.


Coping with Stress

The StressorThe next three seconds play out at a tenth of their normal speed. Time dilates, as if I'm dreaming, and my reactions decelerate. In slow motion: The rock smashes my left hand against the south wall; my eyes register the collision, and I yank my left arm back as the rock ricochets; the boulder then crushes my right hand and ensnares my right arm at the wrist, palm in, thumb up, fingers extended; the rock slides another foot down the wall with my arm in tow, tearing the skin off the lateral side of my forearm. Then silence.

My disbelief paralyzes me temporarily as I stare at the sight of my arm vanishing into an implausibly small gap between the fallen boulder and the canyon wall. Within moments, my nervous system's pain response overcomes the initial shock. Good Christ, my hand. The flaring agony throws me into a panic. I grimace and growl a sharp "Fuck!" My mind commands my body, "Get your hand out of there!" I yank my arm three times in a naive attempt to pull it out. But I'm stuck.


Stress ResponsesAnxiety has my brain tweaking; searing-hot pain shoots from my wrist up my arm. I'm frantic, and I cry out, "Oh shit, oh shit, oh shit!" My desperate brain conjures up a probably apocryphal story in which an adrenaline-stoked mom lifts an overturned car to free her baby. I'd give it even odds that it's made up, but I do know for certain that right now, while my body's chemicals are raging at full flood, is the best chance I'll have to free myself with brute force. I shove against the large boulder, heaving against it, pushing with my left hand, lifting with my knees pressed under the rock. I get good leverage with the aid of a twelve-inch shelf in front of my feet. Standing on that, I brace my thighs under the boulder and thrust upward repeatedly, grunting, "Come on...move!" Nothing

Coping Strategies"OK, time to relax. The adrenaline's not going to get you out of here. Let's look this over, see what we got." Amazingly, it's been half an hour since the accident. The decision to get objective with my situation and stop rushing from one brutish attempt to the next allows my energy to settle down. This isn't going to be over quickly, so I need to start thinking. To do that, I need to be calm. ---The first thing I decide to do is examine the area where the boulder has my wrist pinned. ... "My hand isn't just stuck in there, it's actually holding this boulder off the wall. Oh, man, …

An inner voice explodes into expletives at the prognosis: "Shit! How did this happen? What the fuck? How the fuck did you get your hand trapped by a fucking boulder? Look at this! Your hand is crushed; it's dying, man, and there's nothing you can do about it. If you don't get blood flow back within a couple hours, it's gone."

"No, it's not. I'll get out. I mean, if I don't get out, I'm going to lose more than my hand. I have to get out!" Reason answers, but reason is not in control here; the adrenaline isn't wholly dissipated yet.

My outlook is bleak. But it's way too early to dwell on despair. Better to keep investigating, see what I learn. … -- it's not my hand I need to worry about. There's a bigger issue. Stressing over the superficial problem will only consume my resources. Right now, I need to focus on gathering more information. With that decision made, a feeling of acceptance settles over me.


Coping

Behavioral and cognitive responses used to deal with stressors; involves:

Problem Focused -- efforts to change circumstances, or Emotion Focused -- changing interpretation of

circumstances to make them more favorable and less threatening.


Coping

A dynamic process--we adjust our coping strategy according to the situation and effectiveness


Coping

Problem-focused coping--when you feel you can control the stressor

managing or changing the stressor use if problem seems alterable E.g., figuring out how to study more effectively

Emotion-focused coping-- when you feel you cannot control the stressor reducing or regulating emotional impact of stressor (e.g.,

blunting) try to feel better about situation use if problem out of our control E.g., dealing with chronic pain

Remember coping is dynamic


Stress and Psychosomatic Illness

Heart disease In the 1970’s a physician hypothesized a link between an

impatient, success-driven personality and heart disease. Type A personality describes a highly competitive,

impatient, hurried person who typically has an angry and hostile temperament.

Type B personality designates those who are easygoing, less hurried and less hostile.


Stress and Psychosomatic Illness

Heart disease There does seem to be a link between a hostile

disposition and heart disease. But genetics, diet, exercise and other factors have a

stronger influence than personality factors or emotional tendencies.

Culture also dictates pace of life, diet, and other lifestyle factors that would relate to heart disease.


Healing: The Psychological and The Somatic

Psychological factors are just one aspect of health. Healthy diet, regular exercise, avoidance of drugs and

alcohol, regular doctor examinations will all improve one’s chances of a long and healthy life.

Controlling negative emotions on reducing stress will likely decrease the chance of heart disease.


Healing: The Psychological and The Somatic

But we cannot overestimate the impact of behavioral and psychological factors, either.

E.g., Dental healing study

One should not feel guilty if one eventually develops heart disease or cancer anyway, because many of the physical causes of these diseases (genes, accidental exposure to toxins) are beyond one’s control.


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Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress Chapter 12 Emotions, Health, and Stress