156 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 55, NO. 2, JUNE 2012

Introduction to the Special Section: Navigating theBoundaries in Global Training and Education: NewLiteracies, Competencies, and Practices—PAM ESTES BREWER, MEMBER, IEEE, JOO SENG TAN, AND JAMES MELTON

Index Terms—Education, global, literacy, training.

The twin forces of globalization and technologyhave significantly impacted the nature of work. Inthe global economy, new competencies have to bedeveloped to address the multifaceted and complexchallenges of global competition, global markets,and global coordination. Even as technology hasaddressed these complexities, it has unleashed newopportunities for connectivity and collaborationacross national, cultural, social, and organizationalboundaries. In such a global business environment,organizations need to develop new capabilities tocooperate and collaborate with diverse stakeholdersacross borders.

What, then, is the impact of such organizationalchange on global training and education? Training,which has always been an important concern inorganizations, is now an even more critical source ofcompetitive advantage in the global economy. Howemployees are developed and how organizationslearn can significantly impact organizationalperformance.

How well organizations learn depends on howeffectively they can navigate the global trainingterrain marked by cultural, linguistic, and socialboundaries. How can organizations chart theway forward in providing effective global trainingand education? What is the impact on technicaland professional communicators, trainers, andtrainees? Given the importance of these questions,one would expect a great deal of research to havebeen conducted to address them in the field ofprofessional communication, yet a review of theavailable literature reveals two significant gaps that

Manuscript received February 11, 2012; accepted March 14,2012. Date of publication May 02, 2012; date of current versionMay 18, 2012.P. E. Brewer is with the Department of English,Appalachian State University, Boone, NC 28608 USA (e-mail:brewerpe@appstate.edu).J. S. Tan is with the Nanyang Business School, NanyangTechnological University, Singapore 639798 (e-mail:ajstan@ntu.edu.sg).J. Melton is with the Business Information Systems Department,Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI 48859 USA(e-mail: james.melton@cmich.edu).

IEEE 10.1109/TPC.2012.2191834

shape the global training terrain and professionalcommunicators’ ability to navigate it.

PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION LITERATURE

ON TRAINING

Addressing one of these gaps—the relative scarcityof training-related research in the professionalcommunication literature—requires the field tolook inward. Addressing the other—the failureto effectively use the valuable research that hasbeen conducted in the fields of adult educationand human resource development (the academicdisciplines that encompass training) and theirsubfields educational technology and humanperformance technology (the academic termsfor the fields that encompass instructionaldesign)—requires us to look outward. The aim ofthis special section is to explore and find waysto address these two research gaps, as will beexplained.

First, while research on training has been conductedin the field of professional communication, we needto go further in applying our research to globaltraining contexts. With a rich history of pedagogicalresearch, much of the professional communicationliterature on pedagogy is relevant to training (forexample, [1]), but very little crossover has beenobserved. Some research has been done in areasof clear overlap between the two fields: web-basedversus face-to-face training [2]; the historical use oftechnical documentation in training [3]; the processof creating and evaluating end-user documentationand training [4]; the needs individual cultures mayhave for technical communication training [5], [6];the trends in training for technical writing andtranslation [7]; and the effects of ongoing trainingfor members of technical documentation teamsthemselves [8]. Research has also been conductedon the competencies used by professionalcommunicators working in international trainingcontexts [9], [10]. This research has begun toaddress the potential connections between trainingand professional communication, but it must

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go further to show how these relationships mayoperate in the new global training terrain.

A second gap centers on the disconnect betweenthe relatively large amount of research in theacademic disciplines of adult education, humanperformance technology, educational technology,and human performance technology and thecorrespondingly infrequent use of this resource byscholars in the field of professional communication.Beyond the fairly common neglect in academia ofother fields’ potentially relevant research, technicalcommunication and training have differentphilosophical and practical roots, as Saul Carliner’sarticle in this special issue explains. Carliner findsdifferences between the occupational culturesof the two fields, including their typical work,work processes, disciplinary roots, and preferredresearch methods. He finds that “althoughTechnical Communication and Training havemany surface similarities, they are fundamentallydifferent disciplines.”

Yet, Carliner also finds that this distinctivenessdoes not mean that there can be no intellectual andpractical exchange between the disciplines. On thecontrary, the barriers between the two disciplinesare real, low, and unseen. Thus, the real effort ofcreating connections between the two disciplinesmust focus first on recognizing and understandingthese barriers and then on surmounting them. AsCarliner concludes, “The ability to successfullymove between the two disciplines is limited bythe ability of people working in one to master theculture of the other.”

Thus, the task of technical and professionalcommunication scholars is two fold: (1) to developour own scholarship of training that is adapted toour own needs and perspectives and (2) to tap intothe high-quality research available on training andinstructional design.

To date, there has been little progress on thesetasks. A survey of the major journals in theprofessional communication field reveals no specialissues dedicated to training in the last ten years.Aside from the small number of articles cited before,research on global contexts in training is alsolacking. This scarcity contrasts with the relativelylarge amount of work that has been done on onlineeducation, including global online education, inthe professional communication journals. Perhapsonline education is a more immediate concern forprofessional communication scholars and is alsoa more accessible topic.

While the field of technical and professionalcommunication can benefit from drawingon research in training and instructionaldesign, research by technical and professionalcommunication scholars related to training inglobal contexts would also be valuable in otherfields. Journals such as Educational TechnologyResearch and Development lack empirical studieswith an emphasis on results complementingglobal workplace training. As with professionalcommunication journals, the focus is largelyon online education and general theories ofinstructional design (with an emphasis on designand graphics). Some of the journals in training anddevelopment, specifically, and in human resourcesmanagement, in general, do make references to theimportance of training in a global context. Thereare some case studies of companies conductingglobal training, in areas such as global supplychain management and global marketing. What isnot examined in a systematic way is instructionaldesign and its relationship with the global contextof training.

However, the literature also shows some potentialopenings for training-related scholarship. Theeditor’s introduction to the November 2011Technical Communication—a special issuefocusing on the professionalization of thediscipline—compares disciplinary competenciesas viewed from professional and academicsources [11]. Here, Nancy W. Coppola finds thatpractitioners and scholars generally agree on themain areas of competency. Although training is notspecifically mentioned, it would fit comfortably intomany of the competencies, including user-centereddesign, and rhetorical awareness.

These competencies assume an information-publishing context, but as editors of this specialissue, we believe this focus could be broadened,with potential benefits for the fields of professionalcommunication and training, especially in globalcontexts. For example, culturally based preferencesfor various communication channels necessitatethe crossing of disciplinary boundaries—betweenpublishing and video or in-person presentations forexample. These potential cultural differences arenot limited to national culture. For example, theyounger generations across national cultures mayprefer in-person video clips to written information.

IN THIS AND THE NEXT ISSUE

In an effort to address these gaps, this special issuecan be compared to a kind of global positioning

158 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 55, NO. 2, JUNE 2012

system (GPS) device since it provides a spectrumof perspectives on different kinds of boundariesin global training that would be of interest toresearchers and practitioners. Contributingauthors attempt to navigate the boundaries thatchallenge literacy in global training and educationby suggesting new ideas and approaches totraining. These authors contribute critical andapplied research toward a better understanding ofthe boundaries in occupation, space, culture, andlearning styles. The special issue will be publishedin two parts, with three of the articles appearingin this issue and two appearing in the Septemberissue.

In his opening paper in this issue, a tutorial,Carliner provides a framework for this issuewith a professional communicator’s perspectiveon training—through the lens of occupationalculture. After he analyzes the differences andsimilarities between the occupations of technicalcommunicators and trainers, he providesspecific suggestions for technical communicationprofessionals who wish to work in training.

In a tutorial that follows, Craig Baehr describesblended learning environments that facilitate onlinetraining. He uses a critical research approach tosuggest best practices for navigating boundaries intechnology-mediated education. He acknowledgesresearch that identifies technology appropriationand media richness as significant to learning, butextends such conclusions via critical analysis.Specifically, he writes that “ perceived richness,user expertise, usability and task complexity allaffect media richness and enhanced learning.”He suggests five areas of best practice that canhelp educators plan and implement effectiveonline training courses as well as areas for futureresearch.

In the third article in this issue, Han Yu presentsthe results of a multiple methods researchproject that informs the teaching of interculturalcommunication to engineering students. In doingso, she explores the boundaries of culturalcompetence. Using surveys, interviews, and textualanalysis, she researches student interculturalneeds and interests, and based on her findings,suggests approaches to teaching. Yu filtersthrough a large body of complex scholarshipand extracts processes and tools that can bestsupport intercultural training and education.Central to her findings is that students generallyhold a vague and passive awareness of othercultures that may lead them to form ethnocentric

views. This leads her to clarify two mistakenconcepts: “(1) intercultural communication trainingequals intercultural education and (2) effectivecultural education/training equals culture-specificeducation/training.”

In the first paper to appear in the next issue of IEEETRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION

(September 2012), Ritu Raju presents aresearch-based case study illuminating the state ofcommunication training in an off-shored branchof a US-based company. She seeks to inform theboundaries between culture and communicationand the subsequent challenges to outsourcing.Based on research, she finds that current trainingin this context is either nonexistent or inadequateand recommends that organizations considerCross’ theory of centripetal and centrifugal forcesto plan and implement effective training at themost strategic times—when such training is likelyto have the greatest effect. She identifies time asthe strongest unifying force and suggests strategicways to use it.

The second paper in the next issue presentsa teaching case on cross-cultural experientialtraining. In it, Pavel Zemliansky discusses virtualteam projects and the advantages they offerfor navigating boundaries of space to providestudents with a realistic global experience. Heacknowledges the critical nature of cross-culturaland virtual communication skills and discusseshow experiential learning offers an excellentapproach for teaching and learning these skills.He then focuses on how to plan and executecross-cultural learning experiences through virtualteams. Finally, Zemliansky discusses how to assessthe effectiveness of these experiences and reportson such a project between students in the USand the Ukraine. Using post-project interviewswith project participants, he collects data thatshed light on four aspects of learning aboutcross-cultural virtual teams: building commonground, negotiating leadership roles, choosingand using communication tools, and recognizingcultural and professional differences.

As a whole, the papers in this two-part issuecan assist managers, technical and professionalcommunicators, trainers, and educators inpreparing people for the evolving multicultural andorganizational landscape. As with exploring anyterrain and its boundaries, perspective is vital.Global training can be viewed from many vantagepoints, as demonstrated by the topics covered inthis special issue where authors explore boundaries

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of space, culture, organization, and learning as wellas their effects on training. Other important areas ofresearch for professional communication scholarswith regard to global training are extensive, butwe would like to emphasize the need for researchinto social media, legal issues, and virtual teamenvironments as they affect and are affected byglobal training.

The implications for a strong scholarship ontraining in the field of professional communicationare great. Changes in the global business terrainrequire a new assessment of the boundariesbetween professional communication and trainingand require navigational abilities for professionalcommunicators—the new literacies, competencies,and practices that this special issue seeks toaddress.

REFERENCES

[1] K. Cargile Cook, “Immersion in a digital pool: Training prospective online instructors in online environments,”Tech. Commun. Quart., vol. 16, pp. 55–82, 2007.

[2] N. W. Coppola and R. Myre, “Corporate software training: Is web-based training as effective as instructor-ledtraining?,” IEEE Trans. Prof. Commun., vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 170–186, Sep. 2002.

[3] M. L. Loges, “The value of technical documentation as an aid in training: The case of the United StatesLighthouse Board,” J. Bus. Tech. Commun., vol. 12, pp. 437–454, 1998.

[4] J. P. Barr and S. Rosenbaum, “Documentation and training productivity benchmarks,” Tech. Commun., vol.50, pp. 471–484, 2003.

[5] H. Yu, “Developing technical communication education for Chinese industry professionals: Preliminaryfindings and suggestions,” IEEE Trans. Prof. Commun., vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 102–115, Jun. 2010.

[6] E. A. Tuleja and E. Roberts, “An analysis of a communication training program for Chinese managers,” IEEETrans. Prof. Commun., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 185–200, Jun. 2011.

[7] M. Gnecchi et al., “Field convergence between technical writers and technical translators: Consequences fortraining institutions,” IEEE Trans. Prof. Commun., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 168–184, Jun. 2011.

[8] J. Catanio and T. Catanio, “The effects of integrating on-going training for technical documentation teams,” J.Tech. Writing Commun., vol. 52, pp. 77–97, 2010.

[9] J. Melton, “Lost in translation: Professional communication competencies in global training contexts,” IEEETrans. Prof. Commun., vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 198–214, Jun. 2008.

[10] J. Melton, “Going global: A case study of rhetorical invention, packaging, delivery, and collecting feedback,”IEEE Trans. Prof. Commun., vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 229–242, Sep. 2009.

[11] N. W. Coppola, “Professionalization of technical communication: Zeitgeist for our age,” Tech. Commun., vol.58, pp. 277–284, 2011.

Pam Estes Brewer (M’08) is Assistant Professor and Director ofUndergraduate Studies in the English Department, AppalachianState University, Boone, NC. She has published book chaptersand articles on topics related to virtual workplaces andintercultural technical communication. In addition to being anexperienced educator, she has been a technical communicatorfor Mead Data Central (now LexisNexis). She is currentlylaunching a virtual team consulting firm—Virtual TeamsInternational. Her research is focused on virtual workplaces andintercultural technical communication.

Joo Seng Tan is Associate Professor of Management at NanyangBusiness School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.He has published books, book chapters, and articles ontopics related to cultural intelligence as well as cross-culturalcommunication and negotiation. He has been actively involvedin consulting and training in his areas of research. His researchinterests are in cultural intelligence along with cross-culturalcommunication and negotiation.

James Melton is Assistant Professor in the BusinessInformation Systems Department, Central Michigan University,Mt. Pleasant, MI. He teaches courses in social media and globalbusiness communication in the Applied Business Practicesminor. He has published scholarly articles on translation,social media, and business communication across cultures.His current research focuses on social media and emergingcommunication technologies in business.