IRRIGATION PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Drip Irrigation System for Citrus... · IRRIGATION PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ... Design Drip Irrigation System for Citrus Production

ISTITUTO AGRONOMICO

PER L'OLTREMARE

UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI FIRENZE

FIRST LEVEL MASTER DEGREE IN

IRRIGATION PROBLEMS

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Design Drip Irrigation System for Citrus

Production in Al-Raad Station , Abu

Ghraib, Baghdad, Iraq

Supervisor Student

Dott. Agr. Ivan Solinas Atheer Abdul Ameer Alhabeeb

Florence - Italy 2012/2013

Design Drip Irrigation System for Citrus Production in Al-Raad Station, Abu Ghraib,

Baghdad, Iraq

I

Thesis Approval

Supervisor’s Signature : ……………………….……………………………

Dott .Agr. Ivan Solinas

Date : …………………………………………………………………………

Student’s Signature : ……………………………….………………………..

Atheer Abdul Ameer Alhabeeb

Date : …………………………………………………………………………


Baghdad, Iraq

II

DEDICATION

To the spirit of my father ...

"Waiting for the following time "


Baghdad, Iraq

III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who in one way or another

made possible this master program:

My supervisor, Dott. Agr. Ivan Solinas, for his technical support and

his lofty sense of sharing.

The staff of IAO: Dr. Giovanni Totino the Director of Instituto

Agronomico per l’Oltremare, Pr. Elena Bresci, Tiberio Chiari, Paolo

Enrico Sertoli, Andrea Merli, Elisa Masi .

All the teachers who contributed and participated in this program for

their precious time and knowledge they shared with us.

All the friends, colleagues and workmates for the family spirit

maintained during the studying.

Thank you …


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IV

ABSTRACT

IRAQ is a country in the dynamic of development of its irrigated

agriculture in order to reduce the dependence on the climate conditions. The

results achieved so far with surface irrigation are not quite satisfactory and

suggest an evolution towards more efficient systems.

It’s with this objective that this study proposes to design a drip irrigation

system appropriate for Abu Gharib, one of the largest irrigated agricultural

schemes of the country.

First of all, the Citrus water requirement has been determined with the

software Cropwat based on the local climatic and field conditions.

Having identified and ranked the drip lines available in the study area with

the software Ve.Pro.LG, the drip line Python proved to be one that provides

the best uniformity (96.1%) at the plot level, according to the field feature.

Then a pipe line system has been designed with EPANET to convey water

from the basin (water intake) to the plot. The pipe line system was fully

designed with pipe of (96.8mm) of diameter that makes it possible to supply

water with a discharge of (32.04 m3/hour) and a flow velocity ( > 1.5) at a

pressure of (8.0 m.w.c.) These features ensure proper operation of Python .


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Thesis Approval ................................................................................................. I

Dedication ...................................................................................................... II

Acknowledgement ......................................................................................... III

Abstract ………..………………………………………………..………….. IV

Table of Contents ............................................................................................. V

List of Tables ................................................................................................. VI

List of Figures .............................................................................................. VII

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1

Geography of Iraq ............................................................................................. 1

Water Resources of Iraq .................................................................................... 3

Climate of Iraq ................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER I : LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................... 8

I.1 DRIP IRRIGATION .................................................................................... 8

I.1.1. Advantages of Drip irrigation .................................................................. 8

I.1.2. Disadvantages of Drip irrigation ………………………………....…….. 9

I.1.3. Crop water requirements under drip irrigation ………………………... 9

I.1.4. Irrigation requirements ....................................................................... 10

I.1.5. Percentage wetted area .......................................................................... 11

I.1.6. Area wetted by an emitter ...................................................................... 12

I.1.7. Number of emitters per plant and emitter spacing ................................. 12

I.1.8. Emitter selection .................................................................................... 13

I.2. CITRUS CULTIVATION ........................................................................ 14

I.2.1. Climate ................................................................................................... 15

I.2.2.Soils and Fertilizer dose .......................................................................... 16

I.2.3. Crop duration ......................................................................................... 18

I.2.4. Plant density ........................................................................................... 18

I.2.5. Water Requirements ............................................................................... 18

CHAPTER II: STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY .............................. 19

Presentation of The Hydro-Agricultural of Abu Ghraib ................................. 19


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VI

Agro-climatic data of Baghdad ........................................................................ 20

Climatic data determination ............................................................................ 21

SPAW and Soil Data Determination .............................................................. 23

Description of SPAW Soil Data Determination ............................................. 23

VeProLGs (1.6.0) and Design Parameter Determination ................................ 25

Description of VeProLGs ................................................................................ 25

Data for Irrigation Uniformity Distribution Determination ............................ 26

CROPWAT 8.0 and Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation Scheduling… 28

Description of Cropwat 8.0.............................................................................. 28

EPANET 2.0 and Design of The Irrigation Scheme ....................................... 31

Description of EPANET 2.0 ............................................................................ 31

The Plan of Irrigation Scheme ......................................................................... 31

Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 39

References ...................................................................................................... 40

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Values of Kr suggestion by different authors ( FAO, 1984) …..… 10

Table 2: Crop coefficient (Kc) values of Citrus ............................................. 19

Table 3: Data of the study soil from SPAW software to Cropwat ……........ 24

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 : Map of Iraq Geography .................................................................... 2

Figure 2:Map of Iraq Water Resources ........................................................... 5

Figure 3: Scheme of Iraq Climate .................................................................. 7


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VII

Figure 1 Forms indicative face moistening produced by a dispenser drip point …. 12

Figure 2 Diameter wet, in three different types of terrain …………………… 13

Figure 6: Over view of study area (by Google Earth ) …………….......... 20

Figure 7: Software design Models ………..…………………...……..…. 21

Figure 8: Climate Data, Baghdad station ………………………..……. 22

Figure 9: Rain Data, Baghdad Station ……………………………..… 22

Figure 10 : Soil characteristics ……………………………………...… 24

Figure 11 : Best Drip Line Streamline SL80 d.16 q.0,98 s. o,4 (1998) ..… 25

Figure 12: Data for uniformity determination of one line ……………….….. 26

Figure 13: Uniformity of irrigation determination of plot design ……...…. 26

Figure 14: Soil ………………………………………..…………….……… 28

Figure 15: Crop ……………………………………..…………...…………. 29

Figure 16: Crop Water Requirements ………………….……………….. 29

Figure 17: Crop Irrigation Schedule …………………………………… 30

Figure 18: Scheme Supply ….............................................................… 30

Figure 19: Pump Variety ………………………………………....……. 32

Figure 20: Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Diameter ………………….. 33

Figure 21: Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Length ……..…………..….……... 34

Figure 22 : Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Roughness …………………….… 35

Figure 23 : Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Pressure ………………….……… 36

Figure 24 : Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Flow Rate ………….……………. 37

Figure 25 : Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Velocity ………………...………. 38


Baghdad, Iraq

1

Introduction

Geography of Iraq:

The geography of Iraq is diverse and falls into four main regions: the desert

(west of the Euphrates), Upper Mesopotamia (between the upper Tigris and

Euphrates rivers), the northern highlands of Iraqi Kurdistan, and Lower

Mesopotamia, the alluvial plain extending from around Tikrit to the Persian

Gulf. Iraq is a country in western Asia encompassing the Mesopotamian

alluvial plain, the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, and the

eastern part of the Syrian Desert Iraq nutrients of the Tigris River. borders

Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the west,

Saudi Arabia to the south and southwest, and Kuwait to the south. Iraq has a

narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km on the northern Persian Gulf. The

capital city , Baghdad is in the center-east of the country (Figure 1: Map of Iraq

Geography).

-In Upper Mesopotamia:

The uplands region, between the Tigris north of Samarra and the

Euphrates north of Hit, is known as Al Jazira (the island) and is part of

a larger area that extends westward into Syria between the two rivers

and into Turkey. Water in the area flows in deeply cut valleys,

and irrigation is much more difficult than it is in the lower plain. Much

of this zone may be classified as desert.

-In Lower Mesopotamia:

An Alluvial plain begins north of Baghdad and extends to

the Persian Gulf. Here the Tigris and Euphrates rivers lie above the

level of the plain in many places, and the whole area is a river

delta interlaced by the channels of the two rivers and by irrigation

canals. Intermittent lakes, fed by the rivers in flood, also characterize

southeastern Iraq. A fairly large area (15,000 km2) just above the

confluence of the two rivers at Al Qurnah and extending east of the

Tigris beyond the Iranian border is marshland, known as Hawr al

Hammar, the result of centuries of flooding and inadequate drainage.

Much of it is permanent marsh, but some parts dry out in early winter,

and other parts become marshland only in years of great flood.


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2

Because the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates above their confluence

are heavily silt- laden, irrigation and fairly frequent flooding deposit

large quantities of silty loam in much of the delta area. Windborne silt

contributes to the total deposit of sediments. It has been estimated that

the delta plains are built up at the rate of nearly twenty centimeters in a

century. In some areas, major floods lead to the deposit in temporary

lakes of as much as thirty centimeters of mud. The Tigris and Euphrates

also carry large quantities of salts. These, too, are spread on the land by

sometimes excessive irrigation and flooding. A high water table and

poor surface and subsurface drainage tend to concentrate the salts near

the surface of the soil. In general, the salinity of the soil increases from

Baghdad south to the Persian Gulf and severely limits productivity in

the region south of Al Amarah. The salinity is reflected in the large lake

in central Iraq, southwest of Baghdad, known as Bahr Al Milh (Sea of

Salt). There are two other major lakes in the country to the north of

Bahr al Milh: Buhayrat Ath Tharthar and Buhayrat Al Habbaniyah.

Figure 3 Map of Iraq Geography


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Water Resources of Iraq

Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of

Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with

agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape

that covers most of Western Asia. Land Area total: 438,317 Km2 . The

Tigris River, its tributaries and Euphrates River are the main sources for

water in Iraq. Most of their feeding sources are located outside the country.

The normal average inflow of the Euphrates River is 27.40 BCM . Nearly

97% of the flow in the Euphrates River comes from outside Iraq’s borders

of which 88% is from Turkey and 9% is from Syria. The remaining flow

(3%) is from inside Iraq but it is un-guaranteed .The renewed as inventories

of water Groundwater (3.46) billion cubic meters while as inventories hard

stainless Investment (2,965) billion cubic meters and investment as

inventories (6,425) billion cubic meters (Central Bureau of Statistics,

Agricultural Statistical Atlas 2010).Dams were constructed in the western

desert to store the floods in case there are any. The normal average inflow

of the Tigris River is 49.48 BCM . Nearly 68% is from outside Iraq (Turkey,

Iran ) , The remaining flow ( 32% ) is from inside Iraq . Water scarcity has

become of the constraints affecting agricultural operations in the world and

in Iraq, the subject of this thesis. Despite the availability of fertile land and

sedimentary plains added to it from the reclaimed land, there is relatively

limited irrigation water. But decreasing annually despite the presence of the

Tigris and Euphrates, which controls its source of Turkey, Syria and Iran to

set up will dams them on the one hand and the other hand, Iraq was

pursuing a policy of maximum utilization of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers

through dams and water retention through stored in the lakes, but the reality

of the case is a waste of water and flow of goods to the Shatt al-Arab, and

without the benefit of them. And thus get scarcity and water scarcity in

Iraq. Hence the idea to find alternatives to traditional surface irrigation

operations when accompanied by the loss of these water resources,

including sometimes up to 50% of the requirement field. One of these


Baghdad, Iraq

4

alternatives drip irrigation specially in the northern part of Iraq and that the

nature of the soil and topography , terrain addition, the portion of these

agricultural areas do not require irrigation canals tanker being watered from

wells, which facilitates the use of drip irrigation system.

And that scientific studies indicate that this system provides up to.

Citrus belonging to the family Rutaceae, off a special type of berries called

Hesperidium, and includes family many genera, is the most important

economic genus Citrus, sources indicate that the original home of the citrus

fruit is warm areas ,which include areas under tropical Subtropical, and

these areas have spread citrus to other areas of the world, stretching between

latitudes (40) north and south of the equator (Almnasa, 1975) and (Khafaji,

et al, 1990).

Historically, Iraq was one of the most fertile countries in the region

thanks to the Tigris and Euphrates, who were holding a south-easterly

direction across the entire country. The green strip of fertile land stretching

across the center of the country fueled by rivers. However, the water levels

in the Tigris and Euphrates steadily declined in recent years due to lack of

rainfall and the construction of dams on the rivers in Turkey, Syria, and

decrease the amount of water processed from Iran, which alone account

for12%of the In addition( Figure 2: Iraq Water Resources). The government,

in response to this, the adoption of measures to regulate the amount of water

used for irrigation in each province but faced difficulties in implementation

due to control clans on distributing water, especially after the decline of the

control of local governments on the distribution of the water after the demise

of the previous political system in 2003, and in areas of this segment in Iraqi

society which controls most of the agricultural production areas in Iraq .

Agriculture currently provides about 8 % of Iraq’s GDP and 20 % of

employment, and supports a rural population of 7 million people. The sector

has declined since the 1980s and is underperforming. Over the last twenty

years, agricultural production dropped by an average of 1.1% / year, and per

capita agricultural production declined by about 3.9% / year.


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5

Productivity of the main cereal crops—wheat, barley, and rice—has fallen

dramatically. Over half of the country’s total food requirement is imported.

Under the sanctions regime, a Public Food Distribution System (PFDS),

which provided food rations to all Iraqis, attempted to support food security

at the household level, but fell short of ensuring adequate nutrition to most of

the population.

Figure 4 Map of Iraq Water Resources


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Climate of Iraq

Average temperatures in Iraq range from higher than 48°C in July and

August to below freezing in January. Most of the rainfall occurs from

December through April and averages between 100 and 180 millimeters

annually. The mountainous region of northern Iraq receives appreciably

more precipitation than the central or southern desert region.

Roughly 90% of the annual rainfall occurs between November and April,

most of it in the winter months from December through March. The

remaining six months, particularly the hottest ones of June, July, and

August, are dry.

Except in the north and northeast, mean annual rainfall ranges between

100 and 170 millimeters. Data available from stations in the foothills and

steppes south and southwest of the mountains suggest mean annual rainfall

between 320 and 570 millimeters for that area. Rainfall in the mountains is

more abundant and may reach 1000 millimeters a year in some places, but

the terrain precludes extensive cultivation. Cultivation on non irrigated

land is limited essentially to the mountain valleys, foothills, and steppes,

which have 300 millimeters or more of rainfall annually. Even in this zone,

however, only one crop a year can be grown, and shortages of rain have

often led to crop failures.

Mean minimum temperatures in the winter range from near freezing

(just before dawn) in the northern and northeastern foothills and the

western desert to 2 to 3°C and 4 to 5°C in the alluvial plains of southern

Iraq. They rise to a mean maximum of about 16 °C in the western desert

and the northeast, and 17°C in the south. In the summer mean minimum

temperatures range from about 27 to 34°C and rise to maxima between

roughly 42 and 47°C. Temperatures sometimes fall below freezing and

have fallen as low as −14°C at (Ar Rutbah) in the western desert. They

are more likely, however, to go over 49°C in the summer months, and

several stations have records of over 53°C.

The summer months are marked by two kinds of wind phenomena. The

southern and southeasterly (sharqi), a dry, dusty wind with occasional


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gusts of 80 kilometers per hour, occurs from April to early June and again

from late September through November. It may last for a day at the

beginning and end of the season but for several days at other times. This

wind is often accompanied by violent dust storms that may rise to heights

of several thousand meters and close airports for brief periods. From mid-

June to mid-September the prevailing wind, called the (shamali), is from

the north and northwest. It is a steady wind, absent only occasionally

during this period. The very dry air brought by this shamal permits

intensive sun heating of the land surface, but the breeze has some cooling

effect.

he combination of rain shortage and extreme heat makes much of Iraq a

desert. Because of very high rates of evaporation, soil and plants rapidly

lose the little moisture obtained from the rain, and vegetation could not

survive without extensive irrigation. Some areas, however, although arid,

do have natural vegetation in contrast to the desert. For example, in the

Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq there is permanent vegetation, such

as oak trees, and date palms are found in the south. Figure 3: Scheme of

Iraq Climate.

Figure 5 Scheme of Iraq Climate


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8

CHAPTER I : LITERATURE REVIEW

I.1 DRIP IRRIGATION

Drip irrigation is a controlled method of irrigation, consisting of tubes

with emitters. It allows increasing water use efficiencies by providing

precise amounts of water directly to the root zone of individual plants (Burt

and Styles, 2007).

I.1.1. Advantages of Drip irrigation

Many claims as to the advantages of Drip irrigation have been and are

still being made. Currently, the following advantages are recognized:

- The evaporative component of evapotranspiration is reduced, as

only a limited area of the soil is wetted. This is more prevalent with

young trees;

- The higher degree of inbuilt management that localized irrigation

offers reduces substantially deep percolation and runoff losses, thus

attaining higher irrigation efficiencies. Consequently, localized

irrigation is considered as a water-saving technology;

- The limited wetted area results in reduced weed growth;

- Applicable to all forms of plots;

- Unaffected by wind;

- Reduced operating costs and labor. Human intervention is reduced

to the periodic inspection of equipment for filtering and control, and

the proper operation of drippers;

- Reduced risk of fungal diseases;

- Reduced sensitivity to the use of salt water. The salts are leached to

each application and trained at the periphery of the bulb

humidifying outside the scope of the active root zone. No risk of

damage to the aerial parts of plants by spraying of saline water.


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9

I.1.2. Disadvantages of Drip irrigation

The major disadvantages of localized irrigation are:

- Localized systems are prone to clogging because of the very small

aperture of the water emitting devices hence the need for proper

filtration .

- The movement of salts to the fringes of the wetted area of the soil

may cause salinity problems through the leaching of salts by rain to

the main root volume. This can be avoided if the system is turned

on when it rains, especially when the amount of rain is not enough

to leach the salts beyond the root zone depth;

- Rodents, dogs and other animals in search of water can damage the

lateral lines;

- For crops of very high population density, the system may be

uneconomic because of the large number of laterals and emitters

required;

- The relatively high investment cost of the system;

- The spatial development of the root zone is limited and concentrated

in the vicinity of the dripper making plants more susceptible to wind

throw.

I.1.3. Crop water requirements under drip irrigation

Evapotranspiration is composed of the evaporation from the soil and the

transpiration of the plant. Since under localized irrigation only a portion of

the soil is wetted, the evaporation component of evapotranspiration can be

reduced accordingly, using the appropriate ground cover reduction factor

Kr.

For the design of localized irrigation systems:

Where:

ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration using the Penman-Monteith

method;

Kc = Crop factor Kc

Kr = Ground cover reduction factor Kr.


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FAO (1984) provides the reduction factors suggested by various researchers

in order to account for the reduction in evapotranspiration (Table 1 Values

of Kr suggested by different authors (Source: FAO, 1984)).

Table 1 Values of Kr suggested by different authors (Source: FAO, 1984)

Crop factor kr according to

Ground Cover (%)

Decroix

CTG

REF Freeman & Garzoli Keller & Karmeli

0.2 0.1 0.12 10

0.3 0.2 0.24 20

0.4 0.3 0.35 30

0.5 0.4 0.47 40

0.6 0.75 0.59 50

0.7 0.8 0.7 60

0.8 0.85 0.82 70

0.9 0.9 0.94 80

1 0.95 1 90

1 1 1 100

I.1.4. Irrigation requirements

FAO (1984) defines the net irrigation requirements (IRn) as the depth or

volume of water required for normal crop production over the whole

cropped area, excluding contribution from other sources. The following

equation is used:

By incorporating the irrigation efficiency in the calculations, we obtain the

gross irrigation requirements (IRg)


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Where:

IRn = net irrigation requirement

ETo crop = crop evapotranspiration

Kr = ground cover reduction factor

R= water received by plant from sources other than irrigation (for

example rainfall)

LR = amount of water required for the leaching of salts

Ea = field application efficiency

According to Rain bird International (1980), the following efficiencies

should be used when the surface area wetted by one emitter does not exceed

60 cm in diameter:

Hot dry climate: Ea = 0.85

Moderate climate: Ea = 0.90

Humid climate: Ea = 0.95

I.1.5. Percentage wetted area

The percentage wetted area (Pw) is the average horizontal area wetted within

the top 30 cm of the crop root zone depth in relation to the total cropped area.

This number depends on the desirable percentage wetted area and the area

wetted by one emitter.

Keller and Bliesner (1990) present a relationship that may exist between

the potential production and Pw. They suggest that Pw often approaches

100% for closely spaced crops with rows and drip laterals spaced less than

1.8 m apart

Taking this, and experience from elsewhere, into consideration, a Pw of

50-60% for low rainfall areas and 40% for high rainfall areas is proposed for

widely spaced crops (F.A.O; 2007)


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I.1.6. Area wetted by an emitter

The area wetted by an emitter, along a horizontal plane (30 cm below the

soil surface), depends on the soil and topography, on the flow rate of the

emitter and on the volume of irrigation water. It is therefore advisable to

carry out simple field tests in order to establish the area wetted by an

emitter.

Figure 6 Forms indicative face moistening produced by a dispenser drip point.


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Figure 7 Diameter wet, in three different types of terrain, in function of the

flow of the point drop (from Karmeli et al., 1985)

I.1.7. Number of emitters per plant and emitter spacing

The number of the emitters required per plant is established as follows

Where:

Area per plant (m2)

Pw = Percentage wetted area/100 (%100)

Aw = Area wetted by one emitter (m2)

I.1.8. Emitter selection

The following are some of the major emitter characteristics that affect

the system efficiency and should all be taken into consideration during the

emitter selection process :

- Emitter discharge exponent

- Discharge-pressure relationship to design specification

Sandy

loam Clay

We

tte

d d

iam

ete

r (m

)

Emitter flow-rate (l/h)


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q=Kd.Hx

Where: q = emitter discharge (lph), Kd = discharge coefficient that

characterizes each emitter, H = emitter operating pressure (m), x = emitter

discharge exponent

Stability of discharge-pressure relationship over a long time

Manufacturer coefficient of variation

Range of operating pressure

Susceptibility to clogging

Type of emitter connection to lateral and head losses

I.2. CITRUS CULTIVATION

It is rich in vitamin B. and Flavoadnat vital anti-oxidant .Works with

vitamin C to reduce the risk of cancer or heart attacks and strengthens bones

and teeth and promote healing and make the skin succulent .The original

home of citrus is India, Indochina, the Philippines and southern China.

Spread cultivated in China before the year 1500 and then moved to other

parts of the world. And citrus cultivation spread generally between latitudes

40-45 north and 34-40 in the south on the Earth's surface. The citrus fruit

trees task using fruit for domestic consumption in Iraq, and occupies orange

ranked first in, and reached the productivity of Iraq, for example, orange (92

481) thousand tons for the 2012 season, and the average production of the

tree (12.6) kg by (PCBS, 2003) The productivity of the tree is low compared

to production world, which amounted to 110 kg / tree orange Valencia in

America and Syria 107.7 kg / tree orange municipal as well as the lack of

cultivated area which reduced domestic production, and the reason for this

is the high proportion of fall fruits all the normal limit and the output from

agriculture under the palm trees (Shabana et al, 1985) and extremism

temperatures and high salinity as well as the high cost of fertilizer, thus

reducing caring for trees and led to the degradation and decline in average


Baghdad, Iraq

15

production, as well as other factors such as pollution and environmental

spread of diseases and insects. This thesis is part of the Master "Irrigation

Problems in Developing Countries" and aims to propose a design of a drip

irrigation system for the production of Citrus on the Al raad Station in Abu

Ghraib . It consists of (2) chapters: a literature review on drip irrigation, the

presentation of the study environment and the methodology, and finally

presenting the results.

I.2.1. Climate

1. Effect of temperature:

A. low temperature: necessary citrus atmosphere free of frost where it

can be considered as zero degrees Centennial and under grades

harmful to citrus trees if exposed to these grades for a long time is

the length of which is exposed through the trees to a lower

temperature is an important factor in determining the degree of

damage that hit by degrees - 2-2°C harmless for most varieties of

citrus, especially if continued for several hours, leading to the

freezing of fruits and branches of modern amounting If the

temperature has dropped to -5°C in the month of February was

preceded by high temperatures during the month of January, which

helps the growth of vegetation and bloom early will damage large,

and vice versa may happen that sometimes occur cooler in the month

of November until January and even though the temperature was -

7°C, but the damage was a few have attributed the reason to the fact

that the trees during this period at the stage of sleep, and considers

degree -2.2°C or below grades prohibitive for the cultivation of

citrus and can be arranged degree of likelihood races and types of

citrus to low temperature in descending order as follows: three

leaves, Kumquat, mandarin, bitter orange, orange, grapefruit, dahlia.

And be manifestations of the damage caused by low temperatures:

1. severe damage to the modern flowers and fruit newly knitter and

cause its downfall.

2. cause dry branches of modern growth and cracking in the bark of

trees

3. cause damage to the large branches of trees die even the earth's

surface.

Withstands frost planting windbreaks and narrow distances

Agriculture and the protection of shrubs and small seedlings from

cold and heating coverage of trees in the cold nights especially

stoves or using fans to move the air above the trees.


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B. high temperature: citrus growth begins to 13-18°C The maximum

growth occurs citrus is 32-35°C and at least gradually higher growth

even heat eliminates the growth temperature 48°C and above, rarely

reach areas citrus cultivation of such high degrees of heat and citrus

cultivation succeed at an altitude of 750 m above sea level and can

be successful in the territory of the jungle where the temperature

drops below zero.

2. Effect of Humidity:

The low relative humidity, which is an amount of water vapor in

the space of the air relative to the amount of water vapor which

saturates this space at the same temperature, and helps to increase the

damage caused by the rise in temperature, leading to increased

transpiration and the inability of the roots to absorb water, resulting

about the imbalance of water and triggering plant dispose of some

members to keep his life which leads to loss of flowers and fruits

small and dry branches apical leaves and shoots of modern

combustion-prone areas of the crust fruit and result in a decrease in

economic value and significant loss of yield and can reduce the

damage caused by low humidity means used resistance to high

temperature in addition to a method of sprinkler irrigation and

cropping environmental help to raise the relative humidity increased

humidity leads to the spread of various fungal diseases and insect and

lead to lower acidity and sugars in fruits and poor taste.

3. Effect of Light:

Citrus is one of the short-day plants, but it can become a long-day

plants if provided her with the necessary care, fertilization and

irrigation is less light from weather factors impact on the success of

citrus cultivation. In general, you need a tree citrus intensity lighting

moderate and not less than 70% and the temperature average daily of

15-16°C in a period of strong growth for parcels and fruits, as affected

by growth and fruiting the greater the intensity of illumination and

that the lack of light produced by condensing the trees and lack of

pruning and the lack of access light into the heart of the tree prevents

the flowering tree inside. If you must secure the light to the heart of

the tree pruning and removal of interlocking branches and crowded to

configure flowers on all branches of the tree.


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4. Effect of Wind:

Wind is one of the important factors in the success of citrus

cultivation, especially in areas that are exposed to the sirocco wind as

a medium and with high relative humidity is less harmful than hot, dry

winds harm is reflected in several images:

- Mechanical damage: leading to the fall of leaves, flowers, fruits

and cracking branches may lead to the uprooting of trees in

areas with light soils and increase harm if the wind blew

immediately after irrigation.

- Damage physiological: back imbalance water balance of trees

causes an increase transpiration resulting from the speed of the

passage of the wind on the surfaces of the burner / leaves - fruits

- market tender / and on the ability of roots to absorb water and

increases the damage when the winds are dry and hot, leading to

absorption of trees for water from fruits thereby forming a layer

separation in the fruit on the tree shows signs of thirst and

wilting peripheral and vegetative branches, flowers and fruits,

which ends up Fallen or distort their appearance.

- Other damages: hinder pollination by insects and so least fruits

contract as sometimes incompatible with the spraying

operations and service.

I.2.2. Soils and Fertilizer dose

Grown citrus in multiple types of land, ranging from land sand passing

through the land light, medium and even land heavy clay and each type of

these types advantages and disadvantages, should not exceed the high level

of ground water in the soil of 120 cm from the surface because the high

water level ground where this reduce and collect rainwater on the surface

for a long time lead to full fill the pores of the soil in the water and thus the

lack of oxygen inside in this case, the roots of the trees need of oxygen

needed to breathe in order to do its job core which is the absorption of

water and food, as well as wilting shoots tender modern.PH soil suitable

for citrus cultivation is that the pH value ranging from 5.5 to 5.8 .

Fermented compost uses a rate of 3-5 m3 / acre every two years once the

late autumn (November) prose on the surface of the soil. Nitrogen:

nitrogen is the most important food item in the spread of citrus trees that

need a large amount of it is associated with fruit production is closely


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linked to nitrogen nutrition to the borders of 400 kg nitrogen / ha nitrogen

incites and encourages the growth of flowering and fruiting. Phosphorus:

an important element for plant he enters in the composition of nucleic

acids This is an essential element of the blossoms and fruits contract and

the quality of the fruit also helps to early maturity and gives a smooth and

desirable fruit size naturally. 1 kg of nitrogen net tree where there would

be 3.3 kg of ammonium nitrate fertilizer 33.5 This type of fertilizer is the

best kinds of nitrogenous fertilizers for citrus tree, for ease of melting and

quickly absorbed by the roots of trees, a type that recommend its use in

fertilizing citrus.

Minor elements: zinc: When the symptoms of deficiency added to the

known sq. m amount of 1.7 kg or 4.5 kg zinc sulfate, zinc concentration of

36%. Iron: When deficiency symptoms are common occurrence, especially

in the limestone land added to the tree 50-200 g of soil around the tree.

Magnesium: The symptoms of deficiency when increasing potassium

fertilization and the large leaves first treated by spraying leaves nitrate

magnesium Mg (NO3) 2, which we get from dissolving the amount of 120 g

of magnesium sulfate with 120 g of calcium nitrate Ca (NO3) 2 in 20 liters of

water leads . Manganese: The symptoms of deficiency significantly in the

land of high-PH or containing a high percentage of lime and sometimes

added to soil or spraying on the leaves fell 0.5% manganese sulfate +0.25%

calcium hydroxide . Electrical conductivity (Ece) as representing the total

dissolved salts in the soil and measured in (mmho) This value must be less

than about +2.4 mmho / cm, because the increase of salinity in the soil lead

to increased concentration of soil solution is greater than the concentration

of juices, vegetable and under these circumstances, the roots of the trees are

unable to the absorption of water and nutrients from the soil and thus the

survival of trees dwarf and weak growth .


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I.2.3. Crop duration

The reproduction of seeds for the production of assets or new hybrid

varieties or citrus seedlings are produced on the origin of bitter orange

vaccination, where the seeds are extracted from the fruits of bitter orange

completed maturing seeds are saved in plastic bags refrigerator at 4-5°C

until the date of Agriculture, from vaccination to agriculture seedlings

ranging from 6-21 months, or reproduction reason: tracking the propagation

of species easy rooting like dahlia lemon and lemon and citron. The sweet

orange, bitter orange and orange tri securities and hybridity are classified

among medium-sized species the mind's ability to rooting. Citrus trees begin

fruiting in the third or fourth year of planting in the ground development.

And increasing crop gradually increased the age of the trees and attention to

different service operations. That the production of citrus seedlings grafted

in the traditional manner of needs (2.5 - 3) years, which is a very large, so

modern research has tended to use a modern way of propagation of citrus

seedlings in plastic bags under greenhouses.

I.2.4. Plant density

Planting distances vary according to variety, climate, soil and management

and are between (2 x4) m or (4 x 4) m or (4 x6) m .

I.2.5. Water Requirements

Being a long duration crop, the total water requirements of citrus are high.

Water requirements\ year (2003.8 ) mm. For rain fed production, average

rainfall (149.1 ) mm\ year, well-distributed, is desirable, but citrus often

grows under less rainfall. The crop coefficients for citrus water requirement

calculation are given in the (Table 2 Crop coefficient (Kc) values of

Citrus).

Table 2 Crop coefficient (Kc) values of Citrus

Crop

Crop Development Stages Total

Growing

Period Initial

Crop

Development

Middle

Season

Late

Season

Citrus 0.7 0.675 0.65 0.7 365 days


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CHAPTER II: STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

PRESENTATION OF THE HYDRO-AGRICULTURAL OF ABU

Ghraib

Total area of Abu Ghraib is 693km2 (General Directorate of

Survey2009 ). The 80% of the area of Abu Ghraib used for agricultural

purpose, it is within the administrative borders of the capital Baghdad

and it has a distance of 31 km from the capital of Iraq and 34 m above

sea level. Figure 8 Over view of study area (by Google Earth )

Figure 8 Over view of study area (by Google Earth )

Area: 400m × 150m= 60000 m²

150m

Agro-climatic data of Baghdad

The climate is hot and dry in summer, cool and damp in winter. Spring and fall

are brief but pleasant. Between May and September the average daily

maximum temperature more than 40°C. In July and August Intense daytime

heat is mitigated by low relative humidity (10 to 50 percent) and a

400m

m


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temperature decline of 17°C or more at night. In winter the average daytime

temperature is in the low 10°C, and the temperature occasionally drops below

freezing. Precipitation is sparse (6 inches [150 mm] annually) and occurs

mainly between December and April. There is no precipitation in summer. In

spring and early summer the prevailing northwesterly winds (shamali) bring

sandstorms that frequently bathe the city in a dusty mist.

Software Design Models:

For the design of our system network, we will use some software like (Figure:

5) Google Earth, CLAMWAT for the area's climatic conditions (ET0, Rain), Soil

Water Characteristics (SPAW), CROPWAT ,VeProLGs , and EPANET.

Figure 9 Software design Models

Climatic Data Determination

The precipitation and the Potential Evapotranspiration (ETo) coming from

CLIMWAT (and the metrological station of Baghdad) are shown in the

following table:


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Figure 10 Climate Data, Baghdad station .

Figure 11 Rain Data, Baghdad Station


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SPAW and Soil Data Determination

Description of SPAW

The SPAW (Soil-Plant-Air-Water) computer model simulates the daily

hydrologic water budgets of agricultural landscapes by two connected routines,

one for farm fields and a second for impoundments such as wetland ponds,

lagoons or reservoirs. Climate, soil and vegetation data files for field and pond

projects are selected from those prepared and stored with a system of

interactive screens. Various combinations of the data files readily represent

multiple landscape and pounding variations.

The objective of the SPAW model was to understand and predict agricultural

hydrology and its interactions with soils and crop production without undue

burden of computation time or input details. This required continual vigilance

of the many choices required for the representation of each physical, chemical

and biological process to achieve a "reasonable" and "balanced" approximation

of the real world with numerical solutions. In our case we used the software to

determine soil data for Crop water Requirements estimation in Cropwat.

Soil Data Determination

Data used in the software for soil characteristics determination are: Sand 35% ,

Clay 18% , Gravel 10% , Organic 0.6% , Salinity 0.7% . The figure and the

characteristics are shown as follows.


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Figure 12 Soil characteristics

The data below coming from the software are used in Cropwat for Crop Water

Requirements estimation.

Table 3 Data of the study soil from SPAW software to CROPWAT.

From SPAW. To CROPWAT

Available water 0.13cm/cm 130mm/m

Sat. Hydraulic

Conductivity/Infiltration rate.

8.31mm/hr 200mm/day

VeProLGs (1.6.0) and Design Parameter Determination

Description of VeProLGs

VeProLGs is a computer program for the verification and design of drip line

and areas of planting to save water and energy. VeProLGs is a software

application that performs operational tests on equipment design and

dimensioning of drip irrigation, with the aim of increasing the uniformity of

distribution of irrigation to save water and reduce energy consumption

.Through the use of VeProLGs is possible to evaluate the functioning of entire

sectors of irrigation on field crops, trees, flowers and plants, although grown on

slopes and strongly with changes in elevation along the line.

In particular, the program has operational tools that allow:


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*To verify the operation of equipment already installed, identifying any

changes to improve performance

*Guide the design choices in the construction of new facilities according to

criteria of high efficiency;

*Provide useful parameters for site management;

*Involve the evaluation of functional performance of the plants the costs of

amortization of the purchase of drip lines and energy costs for water delivery.

Figure 13 Best Drip Line Streamline SL80 d.16 q.0,98 s. o,4 (1998)

Data for Irrigation Uniformity Distribution Determination

Data useful and chosen in the software for the uniformity of irrigation

distribution determination :


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Figure 14 Data for uniformity determination of one line.

Using these data in the software, one obtains the following results.

Figure 15 Uniformity of irrigation determination of plot design


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The uniformity of irrigation distribution on the plot of ( 6 ) ha determined is(

96.1%) the area flow rate is (32.04.9) l/s and the irrigation intensity is

(0.54mm/hour). This uniformity is finally used in Cropwat to estimate Crop

water Requirements and the pressure is 8.0 m.


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CROPWAT 8.0 and Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation Scheduling

Description of CROPWAT 8.0

CROPWAT is a decision support tool developed by the Land and Water

Development Division of FAO

(http://www.fao.org/nr/water/infores_databases_cropwat.html).

CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows is a computer program for the calculation of

crop water requirements and irrigation requirements based on soil, climate and

crop data. In addition, the program allows the development of irrigation

schedules for different management conditions and the calculation of scheme

water supply for varying crop patterns. CROPWAT 8.0 can also be used to

evaluate farmers’ irrigation practices and to estimate crop performance under

both rain fed and irrigated conditions.

All calculation procedures used in CROPWAT 8.0 are based on the two FAO

publications of the Irrigation and Drainage Series, namely, No. 56 "Crop

Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements”

and No. 33 titled "Yield response to water".

CROPWAT 8.0 includes standard crop and soil data. When local data are

available, these data files can be easily modified or new ones can be created.

Likewise, if local climatic data are not available, these can be obtained for over

5,000 stations worldwide from CLIMWAT, the associated climatic database.

The development of irrigation schedules in CROPWAT 8.0 is based on a daily

soil-water balance using various user-defined options for water supply and

irrigation management conditions. Scheme water supply is calculated

according to the cropping pattern defined by the user, which can include up to

20 crops.

Figure 16 Soil


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Figure 17 Crop

Figure 18 Crop Water Requirements

*Calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for paddy &

upland rice, using a newly developed procedure to calculate water

requirements including the land preparation period ;


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Figure 19 Crop Irrigation Schedule

*Interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules.

*Daily soil water balance output tables.

Figure 20 Scheme Supply


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*Easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user-defined irrigation schedules.

*Graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation

schedules.

*Easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files;

*Extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers.

*Context-sensitive help system.

*Multilingual interface and help system: English, Spanish, French and Russian.

EPANET 2.0 and Design of The Irrigation Scheme

Description of EPANET 2.0

Software That Models the Hydraulic and Water Quality Behavior of Water

Distribution Piping Systems.

Developed by EPA's Water Supply and Water Resources Division

(www.epa.gov/nrmrl/wswrd/dw/epanet.html) EPANET is software that

models water distribution piping systems. It is a Windows 95/98/NT/XP

program that performs extended-period simulation of the hydraulic and water

quality behavior within pressurized pipe networks.

Pipe networks consist of pipes, nodes (pipe junctions), pumps, valves, and

storage tanks or reservoirs. EPANET tracks the flow of water in each pipe, the

pressure at each node, the height of the water in each tank, and the

concentration of a chemical species throughout the network during a simulation

period. Chemical species, water age, source, and tracing can be simulated.

EPANET provides an integrated computer environment for editing network

input data, running hydraulic and water quality simulations, and viewing the

results in a variety of formats. These include color-coded network maps, data

tables, time series graphs, and contour plots.

The Plan of Irrigation Scheme

The whole plan of the irrigation scheme is composed of (6) ha . The source of

water used for irrigation is located at (70) m from the perimeter.

We choose the pump 32-125, 115 ( Figure 17) this pump can provide the

pressure and the flow rate we need it to our design ( we have chosen the pump

on the web site www.grundfos.com )

http://www.grundfos.com/


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Figure 21 Pump Variety

And the scheme is as follows:

By choosing Poly Ethylene kind of pipes to my design and the diameter is

(96.8) mm :


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The diameter is pipe nᵒ 1( 96.8) mm and pipe nᵒ2(96.8) mm also in the

valve.

Figure 22 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Diameter

.


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The distance length between basin and the perimeter of field

is (70)m and the distance length of main field is (200)m:

Figure 23 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Length


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The roughness of pipes is (140) because it plastic :

Figure 24 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Roughness


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The pressure I get is (8) m in the enter point of field :

Figure 25 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Pressure


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The flow rate of design is (32.04)m3/h

Figure 26 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Flow Rate


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The velocity of water in pipes is (1.21)m/s it mean optimum

for design if depends it less than <1.5m/s :

Figure 27 Irrigation network for ( 6) ha Velocity

The velocity of design is less than 1.5 m/s that mean our pump is work

with low energy.


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CONCLUSION

The using of tools such as Cropwat, VeProLGs and EPANET helped to design

a complete drip irrigation system adaptable to Alraad Station.

The final system has an efficiency of 96.1% and works with a very low request

of energy by pumping, only 8 m.w.c of operating pressure. This performance

increases substantially water saving in irrigation, therefore, allows extension of

irrigated areas with the same resource and also its sustainable use.

The system also has the advantage of being designed entirely with irrigation

facilities available in the study area, which makes its eventual implementation

feasible and quite easy.

This design was made for the cultivation of Citrus on Baghdad but the same

approach might be applied to other crops on different agricultural fields.

This methodological approach and especially the final result provide a guide to

Iraq for the future of irrigated agriculture to develop.


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References

- Burt, C.M. and S. W. Styles. 2007. Drip and Micro Irrigation Design and

Management for Trees, Vines, and Field Crops. 3rd Edition. Irrigation Training

and Research Center, 2007;

- F.A.O Irrigation Manual Module 9. 2007. Localized Irrigation Systems:

Planning, Design, Operation and Maintenance;

- Rainbird International. 1980. Design manual drip irrigation systems.

- Keller, J. & Bliesner, R.D. 1990. Sprinkler and Trickle Irrigation. Chapman

& Hall, New York.

- Iraqi Academic Scientific Journals .

- D. Mohammed Saleh Hamad al-Dulaimi .The role of the electricity sector

in solving the problem of water scarcity in the agricultural sector of

government.

- Hunter Catalog \ Desert Development Center \ AUC \ Cairo \ 2009.

- Diyala Journal of Agricultural Sciences \ 2011.

- Agricultural Statistical Atlas \ Ministry of Planning and Development

Cooperation \ PCBS \ Directorate of Agricultural Statistics \ 2012.Iraq.

- Directorate of the Office of citrus \ Syrian Ministry of Agriculture \ 2011.

- FAO, 1984.Values of Kc suggestion. by different authors .

- Rainbird International, 1980. Area wetted by one emitter depending on soil

type .

- Google Earth.

- Google Map.

- Software of Irrigation Application Models

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