Islam - Weeblyrathjencoreprior.weebly.com/uploads/1/9/7/...islam... · bianna musliman, meaning roughly submitted ourselves to God. Islam was founded in the early seventh century

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Islam

Islam is the dominant religion of the Middle East, North Africa, andmuch of Southeast Asia. Its reach extends worldwide, and its followers

are called Muslims. The term ‘‘Muslim’’ comes from the Arabic phrasebianna musliman, meaning roughly ‘‘submitted ourselves to God.’’ Islamwas founded in the early seventh century in Mecca, a city in the Arabianpeninsula in modern-day Saudi Arabia. According to Islamic belief, in610 Islam’s prophet, Muhammad (c. 570–632), began receiving revela-tions and prophecies from the archangel Jabra �il (Gabriel). These revela-tions, which continued until his death, were recorded by Muhammad’sfollowers and preserved to become Islam’s sacred scripture, the Qur �an.In older texts Islam is sometimes called ‘‘Muhammadanism,’’ butMuslims find this term offensive because if suggests that Muhammadwas divine rather than simply God’s messenger or prophet.

Islam is a monotheistic religion, meaning that its followers believe inone supreme God. The God of Islam is called Allah, a name that comesfrom the Arabic phrase al-ilah, meaning ‘‘the One True God.’’ Corebeliefs of the religion include belief in one God, Allah, and in Allah’smessengers, the angels. Muslims believe in Allah’s many prophets,which include Muhammad, Moses (c. 1392–c. 1272 BCE), Abraham(c. 2050–c. 1950 BCE), Jesus Christ (c. 6 BCE–c. 30 CE), and others.Islam also contains as its core beliefs a last day, when the world willend; Allah’s judgment of human affairs; and life after death.

It is the world’s second largest religion, with approximately oneto 1.3 billion members. While Islam is thought of as a predominantlyMiddle Eastern religion, the country with the largest number of Muslimsis Indonesia, with 130 million, representing 90 percent of the nation’spopulation. Other countries with large Muslim populations includeIndia, with 80 million (13 percent of the population); Pakistan, 73 million(97 percent); Bangladesh, 72 million (85 percent); Turkey, 56 million(98 percent); and Iran, 35 million (98 percent). Muslims also make up

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95 percent or more of the populations of Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia,Iraq, Jordan, Yemen, and Oman. In all, approximately 760 millionMuslims live in Asia and the Middle East.

In addition, there are some 301 million African Muslims, with thelargest numbers in Egypt (38 million), Morocco (21 million), and Algeria(20 million). About 32 million Muslims live in Europe, with the largestnumber in Russia, where Muslims comprise 19 percent of the population.It is unknown how many Muslims live in the United States. Islamicorganizations put the number at a minimum of six million, while inde-pendent polling organizations put the number variously at one to threemillion. Canada’s roughly 580,000 Muslims represent about 2 percentof that nation’s population.

Becoming a Muslim requires no formal rituals or ceremonies, suchas baptism in Christianity. To become a Muslim, a person has to recitethe Shahadah, or Declaration of Faith, in front of two witnesses. This de-claration consists of the words ‘‘Ashahadu an la ilaha ill Allah wa ashahaduann Muhammadar Rasulullah,’’ or ‘‘I declare there is no god except God,and I declare that Muhammad is the Messenger of God.’’

History and developmentIn the late sixth century CE the religion of Mecca was based on idolatry, orthe worship of physical objects, such as statues, as if they were gods.These idols were kept in special houses or temples called shrines. Themost famous of the shrines of Mecca was the Ka �aba, which at thattime housed idols dedicated to the gods of the city. Mecca was an impor-tant stop in the east-west caravan trade route in the seventh century.Meccans had a financial interest in maintaining this idolatry because itwas a way of getting money from wealthy merchants and traders whotraveled through the city. Muhammad, however, did not accept idol wor-ship. As a member of one of the most prominent families of the city, andas a widely traveled merchant, he had an interest in maintaining the tour-ist trade in Mecca. Instead, he launched a movement that became one ofthe world’s most significant monotheistic religions.

Receives revelations from Allah In 610, when he was about forty yearsold, Muhammad had his first visitation from the archangel Jabra �il.According to Islamic tradition, he was meditating in a cave on MountHira, outside Mecca, when a voice spoke to him. His wife’s cousin, aChristian monk, told him that the voice was that of a holy messenger

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and that Muhammad had been selected as a prophet of God. SoonMuhammad began to preach his new religion in Mecca. He attracted anumber of followers, but Meccan leaders saw Islam as a threat. They per-secuted (mistreated) Muhammad and his followers, often beating them orhurling garbage at them. A key event took place eleven years later, when

W O R D S T O K N O W

Allah: The name of God in Islam, derived fromthe Arabic word al-ilah, meaning ‘‘the OneTrue God.’’

caliph: One of Muhammad’s successors as leaderof the faith.

fitrah: An inborn tendency to seek the creator.

Five Pillars: The core of Islamic belief referringto declaring faith, daily prayer, charitable giv-ing, fasting, and pilgrimage.

hadiths: The sayings of the prophet Muhammadrecorded by his followers.

Haj: Pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca.

halal: Permissible activities for Muslims.

haram: Prohibited activities for Muslims.

jinn: Evil spirits that tempt a person away fromdedication to Allah.

Ka �aba: The shrine built by the prophet Abrahamin the holy city of Mecca and the focal point ofpilgrimages to the city.

Mecca: A city in present-day Saudi Arabia, theholiest site of Islam, where the religion wasfounded.

muezzin: The person who issues the call toprayer.

Muslim: A follower of Islam, from the Arabicphrase bianna musliman, meaning ‘‘submittedourselves to God.’’

Qur �an: The sacred scriptures of Islam;contain the revelations given to the prophetMuhammad revealed to him beginning in 610.

ra �kah: A unit of prayer.

salat: Daily prayer.

saum: Fasting.

Shahadah: The Islamic declaration of faith.It consists of the words ‘‘Ashahadu anla ilaha ill Allah wa ashahadu annMuhammadar Rasulullah,’’ or ‘‘I declarethere is no god except God, and I declarethat Muhammad is the Messenger ofGod.’’

shari �ah: Islamic law.

Shiite: One of the main sects of Islam; from thephrase Shi �at Ali, or the party of Ali.

Sufism: A trend in or way of practicing Islam;characterized by an ecstatic, trancelikemysticism.

Sunnah: The example of the prophetMuhammad, containing the hadiths, or sayings;provides guidance to everyday questions offaith and morality.

Sunni: One of the main sects of Islam.

sura: Any chapter in the Qur �an.

tawba: Repentance.

zakat: Annual charitable giving.

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Muhammad made a startling announcement to his followers. He told themthat the archangel Jabra �il had transported him to the city of Jerusalem.From there, he had been miraculously taken to heaven, where he wasgiven a tour of paradise. The Dome of the Rock marks the spot inJerusalem from which Muslims believe that Muhammad made his ascentto heaven. It still exists and is regarded as a holy site for Muslims.

After thirteen years of hostility from Meccans, Muhammad discov-ered a plot to assassinate him. He and his followers left Mecca for thecity of Yathrib to the north. The residents of Yathrib gave Muhammada warm welcome. Soon they changed the city’s name to Medina, from theArabic phrase Madinat al-Nadi, or ‘‘city of the Prophet.’’ As Muhammadoversaw the construction of the first Muslim mosque (place of worship)and created an Islamic state, the Muslims in Medina successfully repelledat least three invasions by Meccan armies. In time they conquered Mecca,destroyed idols, and converted Mecca into a Muslim community. Meccatoday is the world’s holiest site to Muslims, who are expected to make apilgrimage there at least once during their lives.

In the seventh century the lands of Arabia were peopled by compet-ing nomadic (wandering) clans and tribes. These clans had until this timeremained largely within their own boundaries. After Muhammad spreadthe message of Islam, however, the people were inspired with a sense ofunity and purpose that lasted long past the Prophet’s death in 632. Theygathered under the banner of Islam, seeing themselves as God’s chosenpeople.

Spreading the faith: The Muslim empire By 634 Islam had spreadthroughout Arabia. Muslim armies confronted the Byzantine Empire(named for the empire’s capital city, Byzantium, also named Constantino-ple; it is now Istanbul, Turkey) and seized the province of Palestine,where Jerusalem was located. They also seized Syria, Persia (roughlymodern-day Iran), and much of Egypt. In 638 the second caliph, or suc-cessor to Muhammad, Umar, accepted the surrender of the city ofJerusalem from the Byzantines.

By the beginning of the eighth century Muslims ruled a vast empirethat stretched from North Africa through the Middle East and into cen-tral India. In the early 700s Muslims invaded the southern part of theIberian Peninsula (containing the countries of Spain and Portugal).From there they crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into France. In 732,however, they were driven back by a French army led by Charles Martel(c. 688–741) at the Battle of Tours. In the 800s Muslims captured the


Islam

Mediterranean islands of Sardinia and Corsica. In 902 the island of Sicilywas added to the empire. In the 800s Muslims attacked cities in southernItaly and even advanced on Rome, though they were driven back in the900s and 1000s by armies led by the popes (religious leaders) of theRoman Catholic Church.

The Iberian peninsula was one of the first regions where Muslims andwestern Christians came into contact. By the end of the eighth centuryMuslims occupied most of the southern regions of Iberia, limiting Chris-tians to the northern regions. On the peninsula they established the

About Islam

� Belief. The core belief of Muslims is totalallegiance to the one God, Allah, whocontrols every aspect of people’s lives andto whom people owe total submission.

� Followers. Islam is the second largest reli-gion in the world, with about one to 1.3billion followers. Most Muslims live in theMiddle East and in such Asian countries asIndia and Indonesia.

� Name of God. The God of Islam is Allah,from the Arabic term al-ilah, meaning‘‘the One True God.’’

� Symbols. Because it forbids any kind ofworship of physical representations, Islamhas no real physical symbols. Acts of prayeror devotion can be considered symbolic.

� Worship. The core of Islamic worship isdaily prayer (salat), conducted either indi-vidually, in the family, or at a mosque withother Muslims. Muslim men are alsorequired to attend a Friday sermon at amosque.

� Dress. Muslim men are required to avoidtight clothing, cover the area between theknees and the navel, and grow a beard, ifpossible. Many wear a loose gown and/or

a turban. Women are required to wearloose-fitting clothes and to cover them-selves to the ankles and wrists. A veil isworn to cover the hair, and excessivemakeup and perfume are discouraged.

� Texts. The major text of Islam is theQur �an, the word of God revealed to theprophet Muhammad. Many Muslims alsorely on the Sunnah, or the life example ofthe Prophet that includes the hadiths, orsayings, for guidance in matters of faithand morality.

� Sites. The holiest site for all Muslims inMecca, a city in present-day Saudi Arabia,where Islam was founded. Also consideredholy is Medina, Saudi Arabia, to whichMuhammad and his followers fled to es-cape persecution in Mecca.

� Observances. The primary observance ofall Muslims worldwide is Ramadan, amonth of fasting.

� Phrases. The most commonly used phraseby Muslims is Allahu Akbar, meaning‘‘God is greater.’’ The sentence is left in-complete because Allah is infinite andunknowable, and therefore greater thananything that could be named.


Islam

Umayyad caliphate in the city of Cordoba, Spain. A caliphate is a region ordomain ruled by a caliph; ‘‘Umayyad’’ is the name of a family dynasty.Spanish Christians were determined to reclaim their country. Theydefeated the Muslims at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, andby 1225 the Muslim empire held only the area around the city of Granada,in the far south. They were driven out of Granada in 1492, completingwhat the Spanish called the Reconquista, or ‘‘Reconquest.’’ However, the in-fluence of Muslims, or the Moors as they were called, remains evident insouthern Spanish architecture and within the Spanish language itself.

The Popularity of Islam Within fifty years of Muhammad’s death Islamhad spread across Africa and Asia from the Mediterranean to the bordersof China. Historians have identified three reasons that they believe wereimportant in the wide and rapid advancement of Islam in the seventhcentury.

1. Trade. Historians note that Islam spreads by following establishedtrade routes around the world, from Africa to southeast Asia. Theybelieve that Islam made trade easier by creating trust relationshipsbased on a common set of religious beliefs. Traders outside thecommunity of Islam had to create ties between people of differentfaiths and different backgrounds, which was much more difficult.Because Islam requires knowledge of Arabic, Muslim traders alsoshared a common language. Islam, this theory states, made tradingmuch easier and gave Muslim traders an advantage over their non-Muslim counterparts.

2. Alienation from other religions. People in general were unhappy withother religions, including Christianity and Judaism, the two othermajor monotheistic religions. Judaism at the time was an ethnicreligion, and membership was open only to people who were bornJews. Christianity promised peace and love, but the equalitypromised by the early Church was hard to come by. In many casesChurch leaders (priests and bishops) used their religion to maintaintheir own social positions. In contrast, Islam had no priesthood,and membership was open to anyone who would recite theShahadah in front of witnesses.

3. Taxes and tolerance. Although Muslim rulers imposed additional taxeson their non-Muslim subjects, in many cases those taxes were lighterthan those gathered by local rulers. In addition, the Qur �an calls onall Muslims to respect Christians and Jews (whom the Prophet


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called ‘‘the people of the Book’’). Sometimes the relationshipbetween members of different religions was so close that theyshared places of worship. In Syria, for instance, Christians andMuslims shared the Church of St. John the Baptist (an old Christianchurch). Muslims used the church as a mosque on Saturdays, whileChristians used it on Sundays.

The rapid and widespread growth of Islam as both a community offaith and a social community created a world-state that stretched fromChina to Europe. It brought people from different cultures together andgave them a common set of values. In that sense, Islam has been a majorforce for global understanding.

Internal arguments and divisions Despite its early successes Islam wasweakened by political and religious factions, or subgroups. The chief

At its height, the Islamic empire reached from the Middle East to North Africa and parts of Europe. The influences of the religionon these cultures can be seen in architecture, words within local languages, and other areas of these regions. REPRODUCED BY

PERMISSION OF THOMSON GALE.


Islam

division, between Sunni and Shiite Muslims, rose over the question ofwho would succeed Muhammad. When he died in 632, Muhammadleft no instructions about who would follow him. Shiite Muslims believedthat Muhammad’s successor needed to be a direct descendant of theProphet. Sunni Muslims did not share that belief. This central differenceled to the split. The majority of Muslims are Sunni.

What followed the election of Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law,was a long period of conflict in Islam. When the second caliph, Umar,was murdered in 644, a power struggle developed among several possiblesuccessors. Out of this struggle Uthman (d. 656), another early convertto Islam, became the third caliph. Uthman, though, came from a power-ful, aristocratic Meccan clan called the Umayyads and was resented by theShiites. Their resentment grew when he moved the capital of the Islamicempire from Mecca to Damascus, Syria. When Uthman was assassinatedby Shiites in 656,

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Ali finally became the fourth caliph.

The disputes between Sunnis and Shiites, however, were not put torest. After a civil war between the two parties,

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Ali was assassinated in661. This allowed the Umayyads, whom the Shiites believed were corruptand unfaithful to the teachings of Muhammad, to regain control of theempire. Civil war broke out again in 680, when

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Ali’s son, Hussain ibnAli, led the Shiites against the Umayyads. The war ended when he andhis family were killed in a historic battle at Karbala, south of Baghdad(in present-day Iraq ).

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Ali’s death still did not end the civil wars. As conversions (changes ofreligious belief) spread throughout the Islamic world, many new Muslimsbegan to resent the Umayyad control on power and their unfair taxes. Tooppose the Umayyads, yet another rebel group formed: the Abbasids,named after Muhammad’s uncle, Abbas. In 750 the Abbasids launcheda civil war, capturing the Muslim capital of Damascus and massacringthe Umayyad caliph and most of his family. One Umayyad, abd-er-Rahman, escaped his family’s destruction and fled to Spain, where heestablished a rival caliphate at Cordoba. The Abbasids moved the capitalto Baghdad, where they ruled until 1258.

Even in the twenty-first century tensions continue to divide Sunni andShiite Muslims. In the Middle East nation of Iraq, the early 2000s sawincreasing violence between Sunni and Shiite Muslims as the peopleattempted to form a new government after a U.S.-led invasion oustedleader Saddam Hussein (1937– ). Many factors contributed to this violence,with long-held differences between the two groups being one of them.


Islam

Muslims and the Crusades A major series of events affecting Islambegan to unfold when Europe, which largely followed Christianity,launched the Crusades in the 1090s. The Crusades were a series of mil-itary campaigns by the Europeans against the Muslims of the MiddleEast. The stated purpose of the Crusades was to reclaim the HolyLand, the country then called Palestine and particularly the city ofJerusalem, from the Muslims. From the perspective of Europe, theFirst Crusade was successful. The Crusaders captured Jerusalem in1099, beginning a two-century-long period of occasional warfare betweenMuslims and the ‘‘Franks’’ (so-called because many, though not all, of theCrusaders were Franks, or French). The major Crusades ended in 1291,when Muslim forces drove the Crusaders out of their last stronghold atAcre in Palestine. During the Crusades, one of the great heroes of Islamemerged. This was Saladin (1137–1193), the name commonly used torefer to Salah al-Din, a general who was able to unite Muslim forcesand oppose the Franks during the Third Crusade (1189–92).

Throughout this period, the Muslim response to the Crusaders wasweakened by internal fighting and rivalry. The Egyptian Muslims, a Shiitedynasty called the Fatimids (who believed that they were the descendantsof Muhammad’s daughter Fatima), hated Turkish Sunni Muslims. TheTurkish Muslims themselves were divided into two factions or clans,the Seljuks and the Danishmends. Many Muslim leaders in Palestineand throughout Arabia were more interested in maintaining controlover their small domains than they were in loyalty to the caliphate inBaghdad, so at various times they cooperated with the Crusaders.

In 1090 a rebel group called the Ismailis formed to oppose theAbbasid Baghdad regime. This group, which came to be called the Assas-sins (a Western term possibly from the word hashish, the drug that mem-bers used before carrying out their missions), vigorously opposed SunniIslam. They were also enemies of the Shiites in Egypt, who had expelledthem and driven them underground. To undermine (weaken or ruin)Sunni Islam, the Assassins frequently cooperated with the Crusadersand assassinated Muslim leaders.

From the 1600s to the 2000s From the mid-seventeenth century toabout 1950, many Muslim countries were colonies of European nations,including Britain, France, Portugal, the Netherlands, Russia, and Belgium.This colonization was responsible in part for much of the spread ofIslam. For example, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Great


Islam

Britain transported many thousands of Muslimsfrom India to work on plantations in SouthAmerica. These Muslims carried their faithwith them, and their descendants continue topractice it. Thirty percent of the populationof Suriname, a country just north of Brazil, isMuslim, descendants of these plantation work-ers. In the United States, African slaves carriedIslam with them, and many of their descendantscontinue to practice the religion. In the mid-twentieth century Islam experienced a revival inthe African American community. Many promi-nent African American leaders, such as MalcolmX (1925–1965), as well as such sports legends asboxer Muhammad Ali (1942– ) and basketballplayer Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (1947– ), convertedto Islam and made it more visible in the UnitedStates.

In the late twentieth and early twenty-firstcenturies Islam and the countries of the MiddleEast have dominated newspaper headlines. The

Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 replaced theregime of the shah (ruler) of Iran with an Islamic

government run under the shari �ah, or Islamic law.Many of the countries of the West (the countriesof Europe and the Americas) rely on resources

from Islamic countries, particularly oil and natu-ral gas. As a result, developments in these nations

are followed closely by Western leaders.

Muslims in all nations face a new challengeto their faith in the early twenty-first century.Some groups of Islamic religious extremistshave used terrorist tactics against civilian popula-tions, most notably the September 11, 2001,attacks on the United States, which resulted inthe deaths of nearly 3,000 people. Religiousextremists are people who take a strict view oftheir religion and are willing to act violently tocreate the changes around them that will bring

Saladin

By the time of the Third Crusade, Saladin(1137–1193) was the sultan, or ruler, of Syriaand Egypt. He was the most widely knownMuslim warrior in Europe, and his very namestruck fear in the hearts of Europeans. Hisvictory at the Battle of Hattin on the night ofJuly 3–4, 1187, was a turning point in thehistory of the Crusades. His army wiped outthe entire Crusader force that stood betweenhim and Jerusalem to the southwest. Jerusalemeventually fell to Saladin’s forces without afight on October 2, 1187.

A number of legends grew up around Saladin.During the Battle of Hattin a captured Cru-sader leader was brought to his tent. By therules of Arabic hospitality Saladin was obligedto offer his personal protection to the prisonerif he ate or drank with him. Saladin had littleinterest in doing so, however, because theprisoner had kidnapped and ransomed his sis-ter in the past. Instead, Saladin knocked a bowlof water from the Crusader’s grasp, led himfrom the tent, drew his sword, and promptlycut off his head.

Another story concerns his relationship withRichard the Lionheart (1157–1199), the En-glish king who led the Third Crusade in re-sponse to the defeat at the Battle of Hattinand the fall of Jerusalem. In one battle,Richard’s horse was killed. Saladin believedthat no king should have to suffer the indig-nity of fighting on foot, so he called a truceand had two horses delivered to the Englishking. On another occasion, when he learnedthat Richard was sick, he sent his own per-sonal physician to Richard, as well as gifts offruit and even snow from the top of MountAscalon to cool him. Richard recovered andreturned to the field of battle.


Islam

out their religious ideal. Because Muslim extremists were responsible forthese and later attacks, many in the Muslim community have experiencedmistreatment or persecution by others who have connected Islam withterrorism. Extremists from all religions, however, can and are willingto carry out violence to achieve their vision. Islam is a peaceful religion,and many Muslim groups have organized to combat the image of fearand misunderstanding that has resulted from these violent attacks.

Sects and schismsThroughout the history of Islam, about two dozen sects, or subgroups,have emerged. Some have disappeared over time, while others remainpart of Islam. The first sect to emerge was the Kharajites, a small politicalfaction that was part of the army of

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Ali, the fourth caliph. This groupwithdrew loyalty from

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Ali because they thought that his efforts to nego-tiate peace with his enemies were a sign of weakness. The sect never gath-ered a large following, though a small number of Kharajites live in thecountry of Oman, where their version of Islam is called ‘‘Ibadiism.’’

Sunni and Shiite Islam The major sects of Islam in the twenty-first cen-tury, the Sunnis and the Shiites, have their roots in disagreements thatdate back nearly to the founding of the religion. The division aroseover the question of who would succeed Muhammad after his death.Sunni Islam is the major sect and accounts for perhaps 85 percent ofMuslims worldwide. Sunni means ‘‘orthodox.’’ The name comes fromthe word Sunnah, or ‘‘traditions,’’ referring to writings that containMuhammad’s teachings. Sunnis accepted the appointment of Abu Bakr(c. 573–634), Muhammad’s close associate and the father of his secondwife, as first caliph to succeed Muhammad.

Immediately after Abu Bakr’s appointment, however, a party formedin opposition. This group believed that Muhammad’s successor had to bea blood descendant of the Prophet. They favored

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Ali ibn Abı Talıb, orsimply Ali (c. 600–661), who was Muhammad’s cousin and the husbandof his daughter Fatima (c. 616–633). This group became known as theShi �at

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Ali, or ‘‘party of

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Ali,’’ from which the name Shiite (often writtenas Shi �ite) comes. Shiites comprise about 10 percent of Muslims in thetwenty-first century.

The differences between Sunni and Shiite Islam grew over time.Over the centuries the Shiites developed slightly different interpretationsof the Qur �an and the hadiths. Moreover, differences emerged in rituals


Islam

and prayers. For example, Shiites are called to prayer only three timeseach day rather than five. Shiites also celebrate certain holidays that Sun-nis do not, particularly those remembering and honoring the life of

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Ali.

The major source of division, however, concerns the leadership ofIslam. While Sunnis believe that any qualified adult male can serve as asuccessor to Muhammad, Shiites believe that only a blood descendantof Muhammad can do so. Shiites believe that

�Ali and his descendants

were and are blessed with secret wisdom by virtue of their descentfrom Muhammad. Shiites use the term imam as a title to refer to thesepeople, who are believed to have a special relationship with God. In con-trast, Sunni Muslims use the title imam as one of respect, with no religioussignificance.

Throughout Islam’s history the Sunnis and the Shiites have struggledfor power and leadership. In Islam’s early history, only Egypt establisheda Shiite dynasty, the Fatimids, named after Muhammad’s daughter. In thetwenty-first century only Iran is dominated by Shiites, although significantShiite minorities live in India, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, and Iraq. Theseminorities are often persecuted (mistreated) by Sunnis and tend to bepoorer than the majority Sunnis.

Sufism Another important sect of Islam is that of the Sufis. Sufism is lessa sect than a movement, or a way of approaching Islam. Sunnis or Shiites,for example, can also be Sufis. Sufism is an mysterious branch of Islamthat relies on mystical knowledge held by a small, initiated circle of people.Sufis can often be recognized by their long robes and the turbans they weararound their heads. They emerged during Islam’s early years, when Islamwas expanding and wealth was flowing into the empire. They believedthat Islam placed too much emphasis on worldly concerns, rituals, andlegalities. They wanted a form of religion that led to inner ecstasy.

The primary beliefs of Sufis are:

A devoted Muslim can experience God only through consistentchanting, meditation, love for other people, self-discipline, andself-denial.

The way to achieve spiritual wealth is through frugality (not spendingtoo much money). Excessive worldly possessions can corrupt thesoul. Sufis are well known for their charitable work.

Sufi Muslims follow the dictates not only of the Qur �an and thehadiths but also those of Sufi masters, often contained in stories


Islam

and songs. In fact, some of the world’s best-selling poets and nov-elists have been Sufis. The poetry of Jalal ad-Dın ar-Rumı (1207–1273) continues to be read by Muslims and non-Muslims alike forits ecstatic, or blissful, vision of a loving God.

Some Sufis, known as Whirling Dervishes, follow the teachingsof Jalal by spinning rhythmically and chanting the ninety-ninenames of God.

Sufis practice patience, a total reliance on God’s knowledge of thefuture, and thankfulness to God.

Basic beliefsThere are seven core beliefs in Islam: belief in God, the angels, therevealed books of God, God’s many prophets, the last day, divine judg-ment, and life after death. Muslims believe that God, or Allah, is thesame God that revealed himself to Jews and Christians. (Arab Christianseven use the name Allah when referring to God.) This belief in the sameGod is expressed in the Qur �an, where Muslims are told to tell Christians

Islamic calligraphy praises Allah with the words Bismillah ir-Rahman ir-Rahim, meaning ‘‘In the name of God, most Gracious,most Compassionate.’’ � WORLD RELIGIONS PHOTO LIBRARY/ALAMY.


Islam

and Jews, ‘‘We believe in the Revelation which has come down to us andin that which came down to you; Our God and your God is one; and it’sto Him we surrender.’’

Allah One of the most memorized passages of the Qur �an, called theAyatul Kursi, or Verse of the Throne, expresses the Islamic concept ofGod:

Allah! There is not god but He, the Living, Who needs no other butWhom all others need. He is never drowsy [sleepy] nor does He rest.Space and the Earth belong to Him; who can intercede [intervene]without His consent? He knows everything people have done andwill do, and no one can grasp the least of His knowledge, withoutHis review. His throne extends over the heavens and the Earth andHe doesn’t tire in their safekeeping. He alone is the Most High, theLord Sovereign Supreme.

Another frequently memorized passage in the Qur �an is a chaptercalled ‘‘Sincerity’’ that states: ‘‘Tell people that He is One God; Allah,the Eternal Absolute. He neither gives birth nor was He ever begotten,and there is nothing equal to Him.’’

Allah, in other words, is the only true reality. He is eternal anduncreated, and everything that exists does so because of Allah’swill. Muslims even regard the physical universe as ‘‘Muslim,’’ for infollowing natural law as created by Allah, everything in the universesubmits to Allah’s will. Allah has no form or substance and can beknown only by his characteristics, expressed by the ‘‘Ninety-nineNames of God,’’ such as the Strong, the Loving, the Everlasting,the Caring, the Merciful, and so on. Allah is an abstract concept ratherthan a ‘‘person.’’

The word ‘‘he’’ is used to refer to Allah because Arabic does not havea word for ‘‘it.’’ Like many European languages, nouns in Arabic havegrammatical gender, so that, for example, the word for fork might be mas-culine, referred to as a ‘‘he,’’ while the word for spoon might be feminine,referred to as a ‘‘she.’’ In Arabic, the -ah ending in Allah is a feminineform. But when ‘‘Allah’’ is paired with the word hoowa, meaning ‘‘he is,’’the masculine ‘‘he’’ and the feminine ending ‘‘-ah’’ cancel one anotherout, suggesting to the Arabic ear that Allah has no gender.

Submission to Allah According to Muslim belief, each individual is givenfree will, including the opportunity to submit to Allah’s will. The process


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of submitting is not easy because of the efforts ofevil spirits that lead people to forget their creatorand give in to evil temptations. Among these spir-its, called jinn, a word that means ‘‘hidden’’ (andthat is the source of the stereotypical ‘‘genie’’ ina bottle), is one in particular called Shaytan.This name is remarkably close to the Westernword Satan, or the devil.

Shaytan and other evil jinn corrupt peopleby playing on their desires, emotions, and fears.In doing so, they persuade people to forgettheir fitrah, an inborn tendency to seek their cre-ator. A person who sins is required to go througha process of repentance (atonement or shame)called tawba, which consists of feeling remorseor guilt, repenting by saying, ‘‘My Lord forgiveme,’’ making restitution (that is, compensatingor paying back an injured party); and promisingAllah never to sin again.

The Pillars of Islam Central to Islamic religiouspractice is a system called the Arkan al Islami,meaning ‘‘Pillars of Islam.’’ The purpose of theFive Pillars to is remind Muslims of their dutyto God and to help them avoid complacency(being unconcerned or self-satisfied) and tempta-tion. The Five Pillars are:

1. The shahadah, declaration of allegiance toGod;

2. salat, daily prayer;

3. zakat, annual charitable giving;

4. saum, fasting; and

5. Haj, pilgrimage.

The Shahadah is the Declaration of Faiththat a person recites before witnesses to becomea Muslim. In addition, however, each Muslim isexpected to recite the Shahadah at least seven-teen times each day. It serves as a daily reminder

Islam and Christianity

Islam and Christianity are the two largest reli-gions in the world. Both trace their roots backto the Jewish patriarch, Abraham. Both rec-ognize one God. They each identify sites in thecity of Jerusalem as holy. For Muslims, Jerusa-lem is the site of the Haram al-Sharif, or theDome of the Rock, the location from which theProphet Muhammad ascended to heaven andtoured paradise. Christians believe that theChurch of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem isthe site where its founder, Jesus Christ, died onthe cross. Both religions teach messages oflove, compassion, and charity.

Islam recognizes Christianity’s founder as amessenger of Allah. Some scholars believe thatthe Christian holy book, the Bible, referencesMuhammad. In one instance, from the book ofIsaiah, chapter 29, verse 12, the Bible states:‘‘And the book is delivered to him that is notlearned, saying read this, I pray thee, and hesaith I am not learned.’’ ‘‘I am not learned’’means that one cannot read or write. These arethe words that Muhammad spoke to the angelJabra �il when he was commanded to read thewords of Allah. This accounting is relayed inthe Muslim holy book, the Qur �an.

In turn, the Qur �an mentions Jesus Christ as itacknowledges the validity of the messengersand faiths that came before it and notes theirunity. This passage is from the Creed of Islam,chapter 2, verse 136.

We believe in Allah, and the revela-tion given to us and to Abraham,Isma �il, Isaac, Jacob and the tribes,and that given to Moses and Jesus,and that given to (all) prophets fromtheir Lord. We make no differencebetween one and another of them,and we bow to Allah (in Islam).


Islam

to Muslims that there is only one God and that Muhammad is God’smessenger.

Daily prayer, or salat, is crucial in the life of Muslims. Daily prayerfollows a number of rituals and traditions. Depending on what subgroupof Islam a Muslim belongs to, he or she may pray three or five times aday. The prayer requirements are designed to remind one of Allah’s pres-ence throughout the day. Prayer can be done in a mosque (the Islamichouse of worship), at home, or anywhere.

The third Pillar of Islam, zakat, refers to charity, but the word actu-ally means ‘‘to purify.’’ Islam requires each Muslim to give up a portion ofhis or her wealth each year for the benefit of the poor. Islamic govern-ments have the power to tax their citizens for this purpose. Zakat is aform of purification, for it forces Muslims to ‘‘purify’’ themselves by giv-ing up part of their greed.

The fourth Pillar of Islam, saum, refers to fasting, or not eating. Thepurpose of fasting is to discipline the mind and body. The primary fastingperiod for Muslims is Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic lunar cal-endar, when Muslims are expected to observe a strict fast from dawn todusk for the duration of the month.

The fifth Pillar of Islam is the Haj, or the annual weeklong pilgrim-age to Mecca. The Haj takes place during the twelfth month of the Is-lamic lunar calendar (a calendar set according to the phases of themoon). Each Muslim is expected to make the pilgrimage to Mecca atleast once during his or her life. To remind Muslims that they are inMecca to renew their commitment to God, strict rules of behavior,dress, and ritual are enforced. Non-Muslims are not allowed to enterMecca, the holiest place in the world for Muslims, at any time.

Sacred WritingsIslam relies on two sacred texts. The first is the Qur �an, which containsthe revelations from Allah given to the Prophet Muhammad by the arch-angel Jabra �il. The second is the Sunnah, or life example of the Prophet,which contains Muhammad’s sayings, called hadiths, recorded through-out his life.

The Qur �an The holy book of Islam is the Qur �an. Muslims believe thatthe Qur �an, from an Arabic word that means ‘‘the recitation,’’ is the literalword of Allah. It was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the


Islam

archangel Jabra �il (Gabriel) over a period of twenty-three years, beginningin 610 and lasting until his death in 632. The Qur �an (often written asKoran in English) consists of 114 suras, or chapters, and totals just over6,200 ayat, or verses. While Western translations of the Qur �an numberthe suras, Muslims refer to them by name, such as ‘‘The Adoration.’’

The suras (often written as surrah) are arranged roughly according tosize rather than chronological order (the time order in which they werewritten). The longest ones tend to appear early in the Qur �an, whilethe shortest ones, some consisting of just a handful of lines, appear atthe end. Muslims also distinguish between two groups of suras. Onegroup is called the Meccan suras because they were written in the cityof Mecca. These ‘‘Meccan revelations’’ were the earliest ones. Theirmain theme was Muhammad’s opposition to idolatry and superstition(a belief or fear based on the unknown), as well as the suffering and hard-ships endured by past prophets. These suras were recorded in the earliestyears of Islam, before Muhammad and his followers fled Mecca forMedina. Later suras, called the ‘‘Medinan revelations,’’ focus on how tobuild an Islamic society. These contain laws pertaining not only to reli-gious doctrine (set of beliefs), philosophy (thought), and morality(good behavior) but also to inheritance, marriage and divorce, criminalpunishments, statecraft, and numerous other topics.

The Qur �an is written in a combination of different literary styles,including prose and rhymed poetry. The language, classical Arabic,continues to be used as a literary language, a standard of poetic ex-pression for writers in Arabic. All Muslims memorize at least a por-tion of the Qur �an and are familiar enough with the language tounderstand the meaning and to be able to participate in daily prayers.A Muslim who memorizes the entire Qur �an is known as a Hafiz, or‘‘Guardian.’’

Muslims consider translations of the Qur �an as not being the true oractual Qur �an. Allah’s word was revealed in Arabic, so Muslims believethat translations are more in the nature of commentaries or interpreta-tions. For this reason most translations are given a title such as TheHoly Qur �an or some other variant to distinguish them from the trueQur �an.

The Qur �an that is read and recited in the early twenty-first centurydiffers little from the Qur �an as it existed in the seventh century and theyears after Muhammad’s death. Muhammad himself could neither readnor write, so his followers, who acted as secretaries, recorded his


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revelations as the Prophet recited them. At that time, however, little im-portance was attached to writing down the Qur �an and compiling it inbook form, for the goal of all Muslims was to memorize it.

This changed during the rule of Abu Bakr, the first Muslim caliph,

when numerous Muslims who had memorized the Qur �an were killed

in a rebellion. Concerned that the Qur �an could be lost, Abu Bakr

had it recorded on paper, an innovation newly introduced from

China. Later, the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, learned that many

non-Arabs were recording their own versions of the Qur �an, with var-

iations in pronunciation and spelling. Uthman, concerned that among

all these competing versions the true Qur �an would be lost, ordered

production of an official version, with one copy sent to every major

Muslim city. Scribes in those cities produced additional copies for use

in that city, and faulty copies were ordered burned. Two of these official

A Muslim woman holds up a copy of the Qur �an in Arabic. The Qur �an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the angelJabra �il over a twenty-three year period in the seventh century. � MABIL MOUNZER/EPA/CORBIS.


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copies, called the Usmani Qur �ans, are pre-

served in museums in Turkey and in Tashkent,

Uzbekistan. They are the source of the text used

in the twenty-first century.

The Qur �an contains the core beliefs ofIslam. The most prominent is belief in a singlesupreme God, Allah, who created the heavenand the earth in six periods: ‘‘The Adoration’’(sura 32) states in part: ‘‘Allah is He Who createdthe heavens and the earth and what is betweenthem in six periods, and He mounted the throne(of authority).’’ The Qur �an is the basis of the Is-lamic belief in angels, including Jabra �il (Gabriel),who revealed the Qur �an to Muhammad; Mika’il,the angel who controls the weather at Allah’scommand; Israfil, the angel who will blow thehorn to signal the end of the universe; and Azra-il, the Angel of Death. Further, the Qur �anrequires Muslims to believe in the revealedbooks of Allah; in Allah’s many prophets, includ-ing Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ; acceptance that the world will endand that Allah will measure and judge human affairs; and in a belief in lifeafter death.

The Sunnah and the hadiths While the Qur �an is the central scripture, orholy text, of Islam, Muslims also turn to the hadiths, or collections ofMuhammad’s sayings, for guidance in matters ranging from law to per-sonal behavior. The hadiths were recorded to show how to practiceIslam in daily life. While the Qur �an is written in a poetic, literary style,with emphasis on repeated sounds and other poetic devices both to in-spire the reader and to make memorization easier, the hadiths are writtenin a simpler, more everyday style. One example is ‘‘Learning is a duty onevery Muslim, male and female.’’

The hadiths were written down by Muhammad’s followers. Early on,Muhammad forbade his followers to write down his sayings because hewas afraid that they might get confused with the true Qur �an. He laterallowed them to be recorded after it became clear that a large numberof people had memorized the Qur �an. The most famous compiler ofhadiths was Muhammad ibn Isma �il Bukhari (810–870), who gathered

Muslim Women in theSeventh Century

Women played a prominent role in the rise ofIslam during Muhammad’s life and after hisdeath. One was Umm Salamah, who escapedfrom Mecca to Medina, even giving up cus-tody of her children to her family, to becomeone of Muhammad’s staunchest supporters.Umm Ammarah, wielding a sword and spear,protected the wounded Muhammad when heand a group of his followers were beingattacked by the Meccans. A �ishah, thedaughter of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, wasMuhammad’s wife. She was a leader andteacher of both women and men. Barakah, anAfrican woman, was Muhammad’s caretakerwhen he was a child. She faced great dangercarrying messages between secret Muslimmeeting places in Mecca.


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some 600,000 sayings of the Prophet but was able to confirm the authen-ticity of only about 2,600. The hadiths form the basis of another text thatis important to Islam, the Sunnah, or ‘‘the Way of the Prophet,’’ used torefer to Muhammad’s life example.

Muslim doctrine is interpreted by Islamic scholars called

�

ulema. Theirfunction is to interpret and organize Islamic teachings. In doing so, theyrely on four sources, in descending order of importance: the Qur �an; theSunnah; the sahaba, or the earliest followers of Muhammad; and indepen-dent reasoning. The

�

ulema do not formulate new doctrines. They applyexisting Islamic thought to new situations in modern life, such as organdonations, the buying and selling of investments, and whether loud-speakers can be used for the call to prayer.

Sacred symbolsIslam has little in the way of symbolic objects, icons, and the like, primar-ily because the religion was founded as a reaction against idol worship.Islamic law forbids the depiction of living things, so there are no statues.This is also why traditional Islam does not depict the Prophet Muham-mad in any media, although artists from other faiths and cultures havemade likenesses of him. Islamic art, to the extent that it includes livingthings, tends to be highly abstract rather than realistic. Some people be-lieve that the star and crescent flag is an Islamic symbol, but it has noconnection with Islam. Rather, its roots lie with the Ottoman Empire,which used the star and crescent on its flag.

The primary symbols in Islam are behaviors rather than objects. Forexample, when Muslims pray, they turn in the direction of Mecca and theKa �aba, a cube-shaped shrine in the city that the prophet Abraham isbelieved to have built. This act of turning toward Mecca symbolizesthe unity of Muslims throughout the world. Before prayers, or beforehandling a copy of the Qur �an, Muslims engage in a ritual cleansing tosymbolize purity of heart in praying to Allah. Making a pilgrimage is alsothought of as symbolic of efforts to renew one’s commitment to Allah.

WorshipCentral to the life of Muslims worldwide is daily prayer, called salat, thesecond of the Five Pillars of Islam. Prayer can be conducted in a mosque.More frequently it is conducted anywhere as Muslims go about their dailylives. Muslims make a sharp distinction between supplication and prayer.


Islam

Supplication involves asking Allah for something, such as guidance, for-giveness, or relief from illness. In contrast, true prayer, or salat, is areminder to Muslims that they are the servants of Allah.

The Qur �an is specific about the times of day when people are topray. The five prayer times, all based on the position of the sun, are:

1. fajr, before sunrise.

2. zuhr, shortly after noon.

3.

�

Asr, late afternoon.

4. maghrib, after sunset.

5.

�

isha, at night.

These times are flexible depending on the season of the year. For ex-ample, during the summer, when the sun rises early, fajr may take place asearly as 4:00 AM, but in the winter it might take place as late as 6:30 AM.

Muslims are called to prayer five times a day. They may pray in a mosque, at home, or wherever they are able, and must face inthe direction of Mecca, the most holy city in Islam. While at prayer, both men and women cover their heads as a sign of modesty.� DAVID TURNLEY/CORBIS.


Islam

Pregnant women, travelers, and women who are nursing children areallowed to combine the two afternoon and the two evening prayers.

Salat requires seven preconditions:

It must be time for prayer. Prayer is not to begin early, and late pray-ers are recorded by the angels in the person’s book of deeds.

The hands, face, and feet must be washed to achieve ritual purity.The process is called wudu, and it can be done in a fountain in amosque or in a sink, wherever there is clean water. A cleansinglasts until the worshiper must use the toilet, after which wudumust be conducted again; otherwise, a wudu can potentially lastfor several prayer times.

Clean clothing must be worn. However, no shoes are worn in theprayer area of a mosque.

Prayer must be conducted in a clean place. To ensure cleanliness,Muslims typically use prayer rugs.

The body must be covered. For men, this includes pants, a shirt,and/or a robe. Women cover their bodies with appropriate cloth-ing and their heads with a veil or scarf.

Those who pray must turn in the direction of Mecca, an act thatsymbolizes the unity of Islam worldwide. Mosques all have a fea-ture that helps orient worshipers to Mecca.

The mind must be in a proper condition for prayer, meaning that theworshiper must approach daily prayer with humility, or modesty.

The Islamic ‘‘call to prayer’’ (azan) takes place five times each day.The practice originated at a time when there were no clocks or watchesto inform the people that it was time for them to come together in prayer.The call to prayer is issued by a muezzin, usually a man with a loud butpleasant voice. In the modern world, calling through loudspeakers isnot uncommon. The call to prayer is similar to the Shahadah, with re-peated calling of Allahu Akbar (‘‘God is great’’), ‘‘I declare there is nogod but God,’’ and ‘‘I declare Muhammad is the Messenger of God.’’

Prayer itself follows a set ritual, accompanied by specified posturesor positions. When Muslims pray with other Muslims, one member ofthe group usually leads the prayers. All prayer begins with the phrase‘‘Allahu Akbar,’’ with the hands placed over the ears. This is followedby recitation (saying) of the first chapter of the Qur �an with the handsfolded over the chest. Each person then recites a second passage fromthe Qur �an of his or her own choosing, followed again by ‘‘God is


Islam

great,’’ then ‘‘Glory to my great Lord,’’ then ‘‘God hears those who praiseHim,’’ all while bowing forward at the waist. The worshiper then standsupright, says ‘‘God is great,’’ then, on hands and knees with the foreheadto the ground, says ‘‘Glory to My Lord, Most High’’ three times. Again,the worshiper says ‘‘God is great,’’ before rising to a sitting position. Aftersaying ‘‘God is great’’ again, the worshiper bows forward with the fore-head touching the ground. This ritual is a ‘‘unit’’ of prayer, or a ra �kah. Asecond unit would follow the same pattern, except that a different, sec-ond passage from the Qur �an would be recited. Early morning prayerconsists of two units. The two afternoon prayers and the night prayerconsist of four units. The prayer at sunset consists of three units.

The focus of Islamic community life is the mosque, where peoplecongregate, or gather, for reflection and prayer. All Muslim men overthe age of puberty are required to attend a Friday sermon called theSalat ul-Jumu �ah, or ‘‘prayer of gathering.’’ Women are encouraged to at-tend, but those with domestic responsibilities are allowed to pray athome during this time. There are approximately two thousand mosqueson the North American continent. Many of these mosques also functionas Islamic centers, where meetings are held, homeless people are givenshelter, and children attend weekend schools in Islam.

Observances and pilgrimagesIslamic observations and pilgrimages are so important that they consti-tute two of the Five Pillars of Islam. The fourth Pillar, saum, refers tofasting. The fifth Pillar, Haj, refers to making a pilgrimage.

Fasting Fasting, the fourth Pillar of Islam, takes place primarily duringthe month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar.Ramadan begins with the new moon. Each day throughout the month,Muslims take a small early-morning breakfast, called a sahoor, beforethe sun rises. During the day Muslims are expected to refrain from allfoods, including liquids, as well as from nutritional supplements, nones-sential oral medicines, and the like. Because the lunar calendar is used,Ramadan takes place about a week earlier each year, so this daytimefast becomes more difficult during the longer days of summer, less soduring the shorter days of winter. After the sun sets the day’s fast is bro-ken with another small meal, called an iftar. At the end of the month,Muslims gather to celebrate the Eid ul Fitr, or Festival of Fast Breaking,a two-day celebration with parties, dinners, carnivals, fairs, and familyexcursions.


Islam

Pilgrimage The fifth Pillar of Islam, Haj, refers to making a pilgrimage,specifically a pilgrimage to Islam’s holiest site, the city of Mecca in SaudiArabia. The Haj takes place during one week in the twelfth month of thelunar calendar. During this week, more than two million people gather inMecca, making it among the largest gatherings of people in the world.Each Muslim is expected to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at leastonce during his or her lifetime.

The most important site in Mecca is the Ka �aba, or Cube, the focalpoint of the week’s activities, which include prayer and other events thatteach lessons or commemorate (remember) the life of the Old Testamentprophet Abraham. The history of this site reaches back to Abraham,along with his wife, Hagar, and their son, Ishmael, who traveled to thesite from Palestine. There, Abraham and his son built a shrine dedicatedto God. In later centuries, when Mecca was an important stop on the in-ternational caravan route from the East to Europe, the Ka �aba became aplace where many idols and statues were worshiped. It was this idol

The fifth Pillar of Islam is theHaj, or pilgrimage to the holy

city of Mecca in SaudiArabia. The central event ofthe Haj is to walk counter-

clockwise around the Ka �aba,or Cube, seven times.

� KAZUYOSHI NOMACHI/

CORBIS.


Islam

worship in Mecca that led Muhammad, a descendant of the prophetAbraham, to found Islam.

The Haj to Mecca imposes a number of requirements on pilgrims.No sexual relations are allowed. Neither are shaving, fingernail cutting,or the use of perfumes, colognes, or scented soaps. No living thingcan be killed, and such behaviors as fighting or arguing are strictly forbid-den. One ritual is for men to cut their hair off, signifying a rebirth intothe true faith. Women symbolically cut off just a lock of their hair.

Everyday livingDaily activities in Islam are classified according to whether they are sinfulor not. The term halal is used to refer to activities that are allowed, whileharam is used to refer to activities that are not allowed. All actions areevaluated according the Islamic halal and haram.

Muslims follow strict dietary practices. Animals to be eaten have tobe ritually slaughtered, or killed by a certain method with requiredactions, either by a Muslim or according to Jewish kosher standards.Pork is forbidden, as is meat from any animal with fangs. All intoxicants,including all forms of alcohol and mind-altering drugs, are strictly haram.

Islam forbids gambling and games of chance. They are regarded astemptations from Shaytan that distract people from their religious faith.Any winnings are regarded as unfairly received. Games of skill that offerprizes, however, are allowed. Certain forms of music, too, are regarded ascausing temptation. Women are not allowed to sing alone, but groupsinging is allowed. The rule in Islam is that any music or singing thatis sexually suggestive is haram.

Muslims adhere to a number of restrictions in monetary practices.Any kind of interest-based lending or borrowing is forbidden. Peoplecan buy or sell stocks in companies that do not produce forbiddenitems. However, futures contracts (that is, purchasing the right to owna quantity of a commodity, such as wheat or oil, in the hope that theprice will rise and the ownership right can be sold at a profit) are forbid-den, for only Allah can know the future. Muslims are expected to con-duct business through written contracts, and they are expected to behonest in their business dealings.

Muslims generally follow a number of rituals in connection with im-portant life events. For example, when a baby is born, the father whispersthe Muslim call to prayer into the baby’s right ear. Usually within seven


Islam

days, babies are given a name, and male babies are circumcised. Muslimwedding rituals vary widely by culture, but marriages tend to be regardedless as ‘‘love matches’’ and more as contracts that spell out the legal rightsand responsibilities of the bride and groom, who in many cases havebeen brought together by parents and family. Divorce is allowed. TheMuslim wedding ceremony, called a nikah, is generally a simple affair,and Islamic law does not even require the presence of a cleric. Onemajor requirement, however, is that the marriage be declared publicly; se-cret marriages are forbidden. One way to make the marriage public isthrough a wedding feast called a walimah, where the couple declaretheir marriage.

Dress codes among Muslims also vary widely by culture and nationality.The Qur �an dictates that the body be covered adequately. For men, thismeans covering from the navel to the knees. It also means wearing ahead covering as a sign of submission to Allah during prayer, but sinceprayer is conducted so frequently in daily life, head coverings are wornmost of the time. For women it technically means covering the entirebody, including the face and hands. In some countries women will weara burqa, which may cover the entire head and face or may leave the eyesuncovered. In other countries, however, this custom is not fully followed.Rather, Muslim women in those places will wear a head covering called ahijab, which covers the head but leaves the face exposed. Clothing ismeant to identify the wearer as a Muslim, and all showiness is to be avoided.

Death is regarded as the will of Allah, and so it is something to bemet with dignity and courage. After a person dies, mourners recite pas-

sages of the Qur �an, and the body is washed and wrapped. It is generally

taken to a mosque, where prayers are recited. The mourners then form aprocession, and the body is carried to a cemetery as the mourners recite

prayers. The bodies of Muslims are buried on their right sides, with thedeceased facing Mecca.

Islam’s influencesIslam’s influence on the world has been enormous. In historical terms,from about the year 500 to 1000, Islamic scholars were responsible forkeeping alive much of the knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome.This period in European history is sometimes known as the DarkAges because of the lack of cultural and scientific advances duringthe period. Muslims preserved much of the knowledge of the ancient


Islam

Greeks in libraries (Damascus alone had sev-enty libraries) and passed that knowledgeon to the Europeans. The Europeans them-selves, in the centuries after the Crusades,often traveled throughout the Islamic empire,gathering knowledge about science, medicine,and more.

Contributions to science Muslim scientists laidthe foundations for the scientific method (thesystematic investigation of a problem, includingformulating the problem, gathering data and ev-idence, and testing theories through experimen-tation) and systematized the study of chemistry(the science of the composition of substances).They also invented algebra, which is from theArabic word al-jabr, meaning ‘‘the reduction.’’Muslim scientists made great strides in astron-omy (the study of the stars and planets) andgave the world such tools as the astrolabe, a de-vice used for navigation and time-keeping at seaby plotting the position of the sun and stars.Without such tools, the European explorerChristopher Columbus (1451–1506) would nothave been able to make his voyage to the NewWorld in 1492.

Islamic countries were also the source of many words and concepts inEnglish. Alchemy, alcohol, alcove, algebra, algorithm, alkali, amalgam, and arsenalare just some of the a words that came from the Middle East. Other bor-rowings, both of concepts and words, include bazaar, benzene, borax, camphor,candy, chemistry, cotton, cipher, elixir, guitar, lemon, lilac, magazine, mascara, retina,sequin, soda, sugar, talisman, tariff, zenith, zero, and many more occur from thework of Arab scientists, geographers, poets, and astronomers. Islamicscholars established the science of optics (the branch of physics dealingwith the behavior of light), measured the circumference of Earth, andcompiled books on medical practice.

Art and architecture Islam forbids the depiction of living things. As aresult, the art that grew out of this religion is more abstract, meaning

Terms in the News: Fatwaand Jihad

Two Islamic terms appear frequently in thenews. The first of these is fatwa, which refersto a legal pronouncement by an Islamic lawspecialist, called a mufti. Some fatwas havegained much media attention, such as the oneagainst author Salman Rushdie for his 1989book, The Satanic Verses, which was said tohave blasphemed, or showed contempt for,Allah. The ruling called for Rushdie’s death,but has not been carried out. Most fatwas,however, are rulings over minor legal mattersor deal with more day-to-day concerns.

Another term seen frequently in the news isjihad, which means something like ‘‘to strive’’or ‘‘to struggle.’’ Muslims most often use theterm to refer to an internal or spiritual struggle.Striving to memorize the Qur �an, for example,or to overcome temptation or to discipline theself can be thought of as forms of jihad. Often,especially in the West, the word is translated as‘‘holy war’’ and is used to refer to the motivebehind acts of terrorism.


Islam

that it attempts to depict the meaning or spirit of things rather than theirphysical forms. It appeals to people beyond those who follow the faith.Geometric patterns, crafts, and calligraphy are among the forms of pop-ular Islamic art. Calligraphy is a stylized form of writing, often done witha brush and ink.

The circular patterns in Islamic geometric art, such as those that mayappear in vibrantly colored mosaics, are a reminder to Muslims that Allahis endless. The circle is without beginning or end and continues on for-ever, as does Allah. The repetition of a design also is a reminder of theinfinite, or never-ending. Plant motifs or decorations, called arabesques,are also commonly used. Mosques are often decorated with displays ofgeometric art, and the art form may also appear in paintings, books(such as the Qur �an), pottery, jewelry, and textiles. Crafts were designedand decorated in daily life to help make the everyday beautiful. Calligra-phy often repeats passages from the Qur �an in a stylized script that mayemploy arabesques or geometric patterns as borders or other embellish-ments to the artwork.

Islamic artists also consider their physical surroundings when theyseek to create art that makes daily life more beautiful, and this includesthe architecture, or physical structure, of the buildings in which theylive. Traditional Islamic homes are constructed around a courtyard,with only a wall showing to the outside street. This style of architecturewas meant to protect the family inside from those outside, including from

The shahadah, or call to prayer,is inscribed in calligraphy on a

mosque. Islam does not allowfor the depiction of living things

so the artwork of Islamic cul-ture uses geometric patterns and

calligraphy. Plant motifs ordecorations, called arabesques,

are commonly used. � WORLD

RELIGIONS PHOTO LIBRARY/

ALAMY.


Islam

what could often be a harsh climate. The more artistic design is reservedfor the interior of the home.

One prominent symbol of Islamic architecture is the dome, a semi-circle that sits atop the mosque as part of the roof, and the minaret, a tall,thin column that extends up from the dome. The dome symbolizes theland of heaven and the dominance of the divine, Allah, over the faithful.Domes can be large or small and are a component of many mosques,particularly in the Middle East. The minaret is the location from whichthe call to prayer would be announced by the muezzin. It symbolizesthe Shahadah, or declaration of faith, that Allah is the greatest.

Literature In the field of literature, Islam has produced a number ofworld-famous poets, and their work has grown in popularity in moderntimes. Perhaps the most famous is Jalal ad-Dın ar-Rumı, often referred to assimply Rumi (1207–1273). Rumi, who wrote in Persian, is best known forhis mystical poems. His major work is the Masnavi, a title that means‘‘Spiritual Couplets’’ (a couplet is a two-line poetic verse). Written inthree volumes, the book contains more than 25,000 lines of poetry. Itincludes folktales, fables, parables, philosophy, and lyrical poetry. His sub-jects include the saints of Islam, commentaries on the Qur �an, and mys-tical interpretations of a wide range of subjects, both religious andnonreligious. The Masnavi is the most widely read poem among Muslims.In fact, among Muslim texts, it is regarded by some as second in impor-tance only to the Qur �an. It is sometimes even called the Qur �an-e Farsi,meaning ‘‘The Qur �an in Persian.’’

Another poet who gained some fame in the Western world is OmarKhayyam (1048–1131), a Persian astronomer and mathematician whoalso wrote a long series of four-line poems called robaiyat, usually writtenas ‘‘rubaiyat’’ in English. These poems covered a range of topics, includ-ing history, law, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics. They are bestknown in the West from their translation and adaptation by the Englishpoet Edward FitzGerald (1809–1883), who in 1859 published themunder the title The Rubaiyat of Omar Kayyam.

Likely the most famous work of Islamic literature in the West is TheBook of One Thousand and One Nights, often popularly referred to as AThousand and One Nights or sometimes just Arabian Nights. The storiescontained in this long poem were first composed in Persian by variousunknown authors in the eighth century, then compiled and translatedinto Arabic in the ninth century. Together, the stories are framed by


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the story of Queen Scheherazade, who puts off her execution by tellingthem to her evil husband, the king. Each ends with the ‘‘cliff-hanger,’’ sothe king preserves her life for one more night (over a thousand and onenights) because he wants to hear the outcome of the story. Some of thefamous stories contained in the work include ‘‘Ali Baba and the FortyThieves’’ and the ‘‘Seven Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor.’’

Politics As the world’s second-largest religion, Islam continues to exertan important influence on international affairs. In 1988 the Muslim na-tion of Pakistan was one of the first modern countries in the world toelect a woman prime minister, Benazir Bhutto (1953– ). Indonesia, an-other predominantly Muslim nation, elected its first female president,Megawati Sukarnoputri (1947– ), in 2001. Muslim nations in the MiddleEast, including Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt, play an important rolein the peace process between Israel and the Palestinians, who have beenengaged in violent conflict since the mid-twentieth century.

The country of Turkey sits at a geographical crossroads betweenEurope and the Middle East. Since the end of the twentieth centuryTurkey has been preparing for membership in the European Union(E.U.), an organization that unifies economic markets and other policiesacross Europe for ease in trade, travel, and employment. When Turkeydid not make the E.U. membership list for 2004, some in the countryspeculated that the divide between the European continent and Turkeywas too great, in terms of both geography and culture, for the relation-ship to work. Some Turks worry that joining the European Union wouldlead to greater Westernization in the country, meaning the replacement ordevaluing of Islamic historical, cultural, and social values with Westernones, which can be quite different. Islamic culture, for instance, empha-sizes modest dress for both men and women, while Western cultureallows for a wide variety of acceptable dress that many may not considerto be very modest.

Perhaps the greatest challenge to Islam in the early twenty-first cen-tury is to combat the negative image of Muslims that many non-Muslimpeople developed after a series of terrorist attacks beginning in 2001.Terrorism is violence carried out by an individual or group to instillfear and insecurity in a populace. It is often done to force change orto achieve a certain effect from a government, although the targets ofterrorist actions are usually civilians not connected to the government.In September 2001 terrorists attacked the United States and killed nearly


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3,000 people. The U.S. government traced responsibility for the attacks toan Islamic extremist group called al-Qaeda. Extremists are people whoare so dedicated to their beliefs that they are willing to carry out violenceto achieve their goals. Among the goals of al-Qaeda is to remove Westerninfluences from Islamic countries, which the group perceives as respon-sible for many of the problems in these nations. Other attacks linked tothe same group or supporters of the group followed, including bombingsin Indonesia, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Spain, and England.

For people who are not very familiar with Islam, these violent attacksbecame their reference for Islam and Muslims. They developed negativeopinions about the religion and those who follow it. In their fear andinsecurity, some people acted poorly towards Muslims, even behavingviolently against them. These attacks, by the terrorists and by thosewho fear them, have strained relations between Muslims and non-Muslims. The Muslim community struggles to improve the educationand understanding of non-Muslims about Islam. At the same time,many Muslims search for a way to respond to the attacks of these Islamicextremists, who do not represent the outlook or wishes of the majorityof Muslims.

For More InformationBOOKS

Armstrong, Karen. Islam: A Short History, rev. ed. New York: Modern Library,2002.

Esposito, John L. The Oxford History of Islam. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 2000.

Esposito, John L. What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 2002.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Islam: Religion, History, Civilization. San Francisco: HarperSan Francisco, 2003.

WEB SITES

‘‘A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam.’’ http://www.islam-guide.com(accessed on June 5, 2006).

‘‘Islam.’’ Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. http://www.religioustolerance.org/islam.htm (accessed on June 5, 2006).

‘‘Religion and Ethics: Islam.’’ British Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam (accessed on June 5, 2006).


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Documents

Islam - Weeblyrathjencoreprior.weebly.com/uploads/1/9/7/...islam... · bianna musliman, meaning roughly submitted ourselves to God. Islam was founded in the early seventh century