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ICRISAT REGIONAL SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM FOR WEST AFRICA
CONTENTS
Page No
1 INTRODUCTION BRIEF PROGRAM DESCRIPTION OBJECTIVES I AND ACTIVITIES
11 Introduction 1 12 Brief Progiam Descrirtion and Objectives 6 13 Broad Areas of Program Activities 7
2 BACKGROUND 9
21 Location Area and Development Indicators 9 22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa 10 23 The Curreit Sorghum Situation in West Africa 11
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems 12
232 Constraints to production 16 233 Current research on sorghum 18 234 Sientific Staff 22 235 An assessment of the limited adoption of
varieties and technologies 23
3 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION 26
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program 26
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team 27 33 Program Activities 29
331 Development of virieties and hybridso 29 332 Evaluation of local gepam30 333 Physiological ard Agronomic research 31 334 Insect pet 32 335 Diseases 32
336 Striga research 33 337 Food qaiy34
338 Seed production 34 339 Regional crossing blocks off season
nurseries and screening nurseries 34 3310 Regional trials and nurseries 34 3311 Workshop 35
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests 35 3313 Irain-ng of national program staff 36
(ii)
34 Interactions Between the Regiona Sorghum Program and other OrganisationsInstitutes 37
341 Interaction with national sorghum programs 37 342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center and other
ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Programs 38 343 Interaction with other organisations in the
region 42
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH 43
5 ANNEXURES 50
51 Recommendations of the First Regional Workshop on Sorghum Improvement in West Africa 50
52 Summary of the Proceedings and Recommendations of the Second Regional workshop on Sorghum Improvement in West Africa held at Bamako Mall 21-24 October 1985 58
53 Review of Past Research in Sorghum Improvementin West Africa o o 66
54 Training at ICRISAT Center 82 55 Principal Staff Job Descriptions 90
551 Program Manager o o 90 552 Breeders o 91 55 Production Agronomist 00000 94 554 PhysiclogistAgronomist o 95 555 Pithologist and Entomologito- o 96 556 Administrative Officer o 0 98 557 Experiment Station Development Manager 99
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1 INTRODUCTION BRIEF PROGRAM DESCRIPTION OBJECTIVES AND ACTIVITIES
1 Introduction
In West Africa sorghum is grown across a wide range of rainfall
(400-1200mm) conditions Based on rainfall as well as natural vegetation
West Africa is generally delineated into distinct bioclimatic zones
(Figure 1) Sahelian (350-600mm) Sudanian (600-900mm) and Guinean
(900-1200mmi While sorghum is predominantly cultivated in north Guinean
and Sudanian bioclimatic zones it is also grown in Sahelian bioclimatic
zone on deep soils near the swamps
Food production in general and coarse grains production in particular
have performed dismally in West Africa during the last two decades In the
face of an annual population growth rate of 29 during 196165 - 197680
regional food production increased by a rate of only 1 This has meant an
annual decline in per capita production of 19 per year In absolute
terms food production over the period has fallen from 300 to only 220
kgcapita resulting in growing pockets of endemic undernutrition
Nutritional deficits are becoming particularly acute in the sudanian and
sahelian zones where sorghum is the principle food staple In Burkina
Faso for example only 159 kg cerealcapita was produced on average in
197680 As a point of reference the FAO estimates 180 kgcapita as the
minimum nutritional requirement
Poor growth in the production of sorghum and millet underline a large
part of this poor performance Accounting for 40 of total food in West
Africa sorghum and millet output has increased at an annual rate of only
04 during the period Most of this growth has been due to area
Page la
Figure 1 Bioclimatic zones of West Africa
Scale
MAURITANIA
ALGERIA
9G 7AL ERt A v ML NIGER
BISSAU
E0 RT I C 9
5ER LEONE 9G 76
IVORY COAST GHANA 0 LIBERIA N0E Z
~CAMEROON
Growinq season Ienqth in days shown thus - 165 -_
_ IS W ot Greenwich 5 0 5 E of Greenwich is deg
(AdLpted from CIEH 1979)
Page 2
expansiorn with millet and sorghum area increasing at an annual rate of
11 Yields over the period have actually declined on average at an
annual rate of - 07
The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) has a mandate for research on the improvement of several of the
important food crops in the semi-arid portions of the region as well as
farming systems associated with them
ICRISAT was established in India in July 1972 at Patancheru near
Hyderabad Its mandate has four major objectives
a) To serve as a world ceniter for the improvement of grain yield and
quality of sorghum millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to
act as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
b) To develop improved farming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
c) To identify cnnstraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
d) To assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
Since 1975 several scientists have been posted in ICRISAT programs
located in several counries in WA through the assistance of multiple
donors With funding support from the Global and Interregional Project of
UNDP ICRISAT had initiated its sorghum research in WA by the placement of
a sorghum breeder in Burkina Faso in 1975 followed by an agronomist and a
Page 3
plant pathologist in 1977 In the same year UNDP financing supported the
posting of an entomologist in Senegal
With support from Ford Foundation a field trials officer was posted in
Mall during 1976 Subsequently through USAID support an agronomist and a
breeder were posted in Mali in 1978-79
An IDRC supported striga scientist and a core funded entomologist were
posted in Burkina Faso in 1979 followed by the posting of a core supported
economist that same year An anthropologist supported by IDRC funds was
posted in Burkina Faso in 1981
During 1978-79 an agronomist a breeder and an entomologist in
Nigeria and a soil-water agronomist in Burkina Faso were posted with
funding support from SAFGRADUSAID
In the past the scientific staff of ICRISAT as seen above were
dispersed over several locations While they have gained valuable
experience over a range of agroclimatic conditions their contribution to
different national programs in the region could not be adequately focused
and this program weakness is now rectified
Over these years a wealth of research results has been gathered on
many aspects of constraints to sorghum production These include a better
identification of farmers problems limitations imposed by the
environmental socio-economic and infrastructural factors and problems
related to varietal and technological development These results along
with other available information have helped ICRISAT reassess and better
focu its research objectives aimed at improving sorghum production in the
region At the same time some limited results have merited on-fam tests
Page 4
and utilisation by the farmers
Several areas of research and several key changes in approach are
considered esential in the regional program We clearly recognize that
the long term goal is significant yield increases in the farmers fields
through the use of management responsive varieties under improved
management and input conditions with simultaneous emphasis on resource
(soil and water) conservation However to realistically achieve
production gains in the short and medium term we also recognize that the
poverty of natural human and financial resources implies that emphasis
towards high input capital-intensive production strategies is presently
unwarranted and inappropriate More emphasis is needed on yield stability
and sustainability than on highest yield potential per unit area This
implies greater long-term accent on developing for farmers adapted means of
improving and conserving soil water and soil fertility Furthermore to
facilitate adoption by risk-averse subsistence farmers evaluation
procedures need to be modified to ensure that new varieties yield at least
as much as local cultivars under farmers management and input levels In
turn these requirements necessitate greater exploitation of the local
sorghum germplasm in combination with the most promising adapted exotics
with the twin goals of improving responsiveness to superior management and
incorporating stress (biotic and abiotic) resistance traits that contribute
to yield stabilization
The first regional sorghum workshop held at Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
in November 1984 and attended by sorghum researciers from national and
other programs in the 17 countries of WA emphasized the need to accelerate
sorghum research through a coordinated regional approach In its
recommendations (Annex-i) the workshop urged ICRISAT to assume a larger
Page 5
role in regional sorghum research ICRISATs Ten Year Plan (1980-1990)
identifies WA as a priority region for sorghum research Thus this
regional sorghum program responds to these needs
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
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SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
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Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
Sanru
Kano
ROKUPR
C
o
C0
C 0
0 F C
0
C3 a
g
Id
0
~
C
N)aaa
Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
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In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
ICRISAT REGIONAL SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM FOR WEST AFRICA
CONTENTS
Page No
1 INTRODUCTION BRIEF PROGRAM DESCRIPTION OBJECTIVES I AND ACTIVITIES
11 Introduction 1 12 Brief Progiam Descrirtion and Objectives 6 13 Broad Areas of Program Activities 7
2 BACKGROUND 9
21 Location Area and Development Indicators 9 22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa 10 23 The Curreit Sorghum Situation in West Africa 11
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems 12
232 Constraints to production 16 233 Current research on sorghum 18 234 Sientific Staff 22 235 An assessment of the limited adoption of
varieties and technologies 23
3 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION 26
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program 26
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team 27 33 Program Activities 29
331 Development of virieties and hybridso 29 332 Evaluation of local gepam30 333 Physiological ard Agronomic research 31 334 Insect pet 32 335 Diseases 32
336 Striga research 33 337 Food qaiy34
338 Seed production 34 339 Regional crossing blocks off season
nurseries and screening nurseries 34 3310 Regional trials and nurseries 34 3311 Workshop 35
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests 35 3313 Irain-ng of national program staff 36
(ii)
34 Interactions Between the Regiona Sorghum Program and other OrganisationsInstitutes 37
341 Interaction with national sorghum programs 37 342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center and other
ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Programs 38 343 Interaction with other organisations in the
region 42
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH 43
5 ANNEXURES 50
51 Recommendations of the First Regional Workshop on Sorghum Improvement in West Africa 50
52 Summary of the Proceedings and Recommendations of the Second Regional workshop on Sorghum Improvement in West Africa held at Bamako Mall 21-24 October 1985 58
53 Review of Past Research in Sorghum Improvementin West Africa o o 66
54 Training at ICRISAT Center 82 55 Principal Staff Job Descriptions 90
551 Program Manager o o 90 552 Breeders o 91 55 Production Agronomist 00000 94 554 PhysiclogistAgronomist o 95 555 Pithologist and Entomologito- o 96 556 Administrative Officer o 0 98 557 Experiment Station Development Manager 99
-
1 INTRODUCTION BRIEF PROGRAM DESCRIPTION OBJECTIVES AND ACTIVITIES
1 Introduction
In West Africa sorghum is grown across a wide range of rainfall
(400-1200mm) conditions Based on rainfall as well as natural vegetation
West Africa is generally delineated into distinct bioclimatic zones
(Figure 1) Sahelian (350-600mm) Sudanian (600-900mm) and Guinean
(900-1200mmi While sorghum is predominantly cultivated in north Guinean
and Sudanian bioclimatic zones it is also grown in Sahelian bioclimatic
zone on deep soils near the swamps
Food production in general and coarse grains production in particular
have performed dismally in West Africa during the last two decades In the
face of an annual population growth rate of 29 during 196165 - 197680
regional food production increased by a rate of only 1 This has meant an
annual decline in per capita production of 19 per year In absolute
terms food production over the period has fallen from 300 to only 220
kgcapita resulting in growing pockets of endemic undernutrition
Nutritional deficits are becoming particularly acute in the sudanian and
sahelian zones where sorghum is the principle food staple In Burkina
Faso for example only 159 kg cerealcapita was produced on average in
197680 As a point of reference the FAO estimates 180 kgcapita as the
minimum nutritional requirement
Poor growth in the production of sorghum and millet underline a large
part of this poor performance Accounting for 40 of total food in West
Africa sorghum and millet output has increased at an annual rate of only
04 during the period Most of this growth has been due to area
Page la
Figure 1 Bioclimatic zones of West Africa
Scale
MAURITANIA
ALGERIA
9G 7AL ERt A v ML NIGER
BISSAU
E0 RT I C 9
5ER LEONE 9G 76
IVORY COAST GHANA 0 LIBERIA N0E Z
~CAMEROON
Growinq season Ienqth in days shown thus - 165 -_
_ IS W ot Greenwich 5 0 5 E of Greenwich is deg
(AdLpted from CIEH 1979)
Page 2
expansiorn with millet and sorghum area increasing at an annual rate of
11 Yields over the period have actually declined on average at an
annual rate of - 07
The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) has a mandate for research on the improvement of several of the
important food crops in the semi-arid portions of the region as well as
farming systems associated with them
ICRISAT was established in India in July 1972 at Patancheru near
Hyderabad Its mandate has four major objectives
a) To serve as a world ceniter for the improvement of grain yield and
quality of sorghum millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to
act as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
b) To develop improved farming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
c) To identify cnnstraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
d) To assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
Since 1975 several scientists have been posted in ICRISAT programs
located in several counries in WA through the assistance of multiple
donors With funding support from the Global and Interregional Project of
UNDP ICRISAT had initiated its sorghum research in WA by the placement of
a sorghum breeder in Burkina Faso in 1975 followed by an agronomist and a
Page 3
plant pathologist in 1977 In the same year UNDP financing supported the
posting of an entomologist in Senegal
With support from Ford Foundation a field trials officer was posted in
Mall during 1976 Subsequently through USAID support an agronomist and a
breeder were posted in Mali in 1978-79
An IDRC supported striga scientist and a core funded entomologist were
posted in Burkina Faso in 1979 followed by the posting of a core supported
economist that same year An anthropologist supported by IDRC funds was
posted in Burkina Faso in 1981
During 1978-79 an agronomist a breeder and an entomologist in
Nigeria and a soil-water agronomist in Burkina Faso were posted with
funding support from SAFGRADUSAID
In the past the scientific staff of ICRISAT as seen above were
dispersed over several locations While they have gained valuable
experience over a range of agroclimatic conditions their contribution to
different national programs in the region could not be adequately focused
and this program weakness is now rectified
Over these years a wealth of research results has been gathered on
many aspects of constraints to sorghum production These include a better
identification of farmers problems limitations imposed by the
environmental socio-economic and infrastructural factors and problems
related to varietal and technological development These results along
with other available information have helped ICRISAT reassess and better
focu its research objectives aimed at improving sorghum production in the
region At the same time some limited results have merited on-fam tests
Page 4
and utilisation by the farmers
Several areas of research and several key changes in approach are
considered esential in the regional program We clearly recognize that
the long term goal is significant yield increases in the farmers fields
through the use of management responsive varieties under improved
management and input conditions with simultaneous emphasis on resource
(soil and water) conservation However to realistically achieve
production gains in the short and medium term we also recognize that the
poverty of natural human and financial resources implies that emphasis
towards high input capital-intensive production strategies is presently
unwarranted and inappropriate More emphasis is needed on yield stability
and sustainability than on highest yield potential per unit area This
implies greater long-term accent on developing for farmers adapted means of
improving and conserving soil water and soil fertility Furthermore to
facilitate adoption by risk-averse subsistence farmers evaluation
procedures need to be modified to ensure that new varieties yield at least
as much as local cultivars under farmers management and input levels In
turn these requirements necessitate greater exploitation of the local
sorghum germplasm in combination with the most promising adapted exotics
with the twin goals of improving responsiveness to superior management and
incorporating stress (biotic and abiotic) resistance traits that contribute
to yield stabilization
The first regional sorghum workshop held at Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
in November 1984 and attended by sorghum researciers from national and
other programs in the 17 countries of WA emphasized the need to accelerate
sorghum research through a coordinated regional approach In its
recommendations (Annex-i) the workshop urged ICRISAT to assume a larger
Page 5
role in regional sorghum research ICRISATs Ten Year Plan (1980-1990)
identifies WA as a priority region for sorghum research Thus this
regional sorghum program responds to these needs
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
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SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
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Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
Sanru
Kano
ROKUPR
C
o
C0
C 0
0 F C
0
C3 a
g
Id
0
~
C
N)aaa
Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
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In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
(ii)
34 Interactions Between the Regiona Sorghum Program and other OrganisationsInstitutes 37
341 Interaction with national sorghum programs 37 342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center and other
ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Programs 38 343 Interaction with other organisations in the
region 42
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH 43
5 ANNEXURES 50
51 Recommendations of the First Regional Workshop on Sorghum Improvement in West Africa 50
52 Summary of the Proceedings and Recommendations of the Second Regional workshop on Sorghum Improvement in West Africa held at Bamako Mall 21-24 October 1985 58
53 Review of Past Research in Sorghum Improvementin West Africa o o 66
54 Training at ICRISAT Center 82 55 Principal Staff Job Descriptions 90
551 Program Manager o o 90 552 Breeders o 91 55 Production Agronomist 00000 94 554 PhysiclogistAgronomist o 95 555 Pithologist and Entomologito- o 96 556 Administrative Officer o 0 98 557 Experiment Station Development Manager 99
-
1 INTRODUCTION BRIEF PROGRAM DESCRIPTION OBJECTIVES AND ACTIVITIES
1 Introduction
In West Africa sorghum is grown across a wide range of rainfall
(400-1200mm) conditions Based on rainfall as well as natural vegetation
West Africa is generally delineated into distinct bioclimatic zones
(Figure 1) Sahelian (350-600mm) Sudanian (600-900mm) and Guinean
(900-1200mmi While sorghum is predominantly cultivated in north Guinean
and Sudanian bioclimatic zones it is also grown in Sahelian bioclimatic
zone on deep soils near the swamps
Food production in general and coarse grains production in particular
have performed dismally in West Africa during the last two decades In the
face of an annual population growth rate of 29 during 196165 - 197680
regional food production increased by a rate of only 1 This has meant an
annual decline in per capita production of 19 per year In absolute
terms food production over the period has fallen from 300 to only 220
kgcapita resulting in growing pockets of endemic undernutrition
Nutritional deficits are becoming particularly acute in the sudanian and
sahelian zones where sorghum is the principle food staple In Burkina
Faso for example only 159 kg cerealcapita was produced on average in
197680 As a point of reference the FAO estimates 180 kgcapita as the
minimum nutritional requirement
Poor growth in the production of sorghum and millet underline a large
part of this poor performance Accounting for 40 of total food in West
Africa sorghum and millet output has increased at an annual rate of only
04 during the period Most of this growth has been due to area
Page la
Figure 1 Bioclimatic zones of West Africa
Scale
MAURITANIA
ALGERIA
9G 7AL ERt A v ML NIGER
BISSAU
E0 RT I C 9
5ER LEONE 9G 76
IVORY COAST GHANA 0 LIBERIA N0E Z
~CAMEROON
Growinq season Ienqth in days shown thus - 165 -_
_ IS W ot Greenwich 5 0 5 E of Greenwich is deg
(AdLpted from CIEH 1979)
Page 2
expansiorn with millet and sorghum area increasing at an annual rate of
11 Yields over the period have actually declined on average at an
annual rate of - 07
The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) has a mandate for research on the improvement of several of the
important food crops in the semi-arid portions of the region as well as
farming systems associated with them
ICRISAT was established in India in July 1972 at Patancheru near
Hyderabad Its mandate has four major objectives
a) To serve as a world ceniter for the improvement of grain yield and
quality of sorghum millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to
act as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
b) To develop improved farming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
c) To identify cnnstraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
d) To assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
Since 1975 several scientists have been posted in ICRISAT programs
located in several counries in WA through the assistance of multiple
donors With funding support from the Global and Interregional Project of
UNDP ICRISAT had initiated its sorghum research in WA by the placement of
a sorghum breeder in Burkina Faso in 1975 followed by an agronomist and a
Page 3
plant pathologist in 1977 In the same year UNDP financing supported the
posting of an entomologist in Senegal
With support from Ford Foundation a field trials officer was posted in
Mall during 1976 Subsequently through USAID support an agronomist and a
breeder were posted in Mali in 1978-79
An IDRC supported striga scientist and a core funded entomologist were
posted in Burkina Faso in 1979 followed by the posting of a core supported
economist that same year An anthropologist supported by IDRC funds was
posted in Burkina Faso in 1981
During 1978-79 an agronomist a breeder and an entomologist in
Nigeria and a soil-water agronomist in Burkina Faso were posted with
funding support from SAFGRADUSAID
In the past the scientific staff of ICRISAT as seen above were
dispersed over several locations While they have gained valuable
experience over a range of agroclimatic conditions their contribution to
different national programs in the region could not be adequately focused
and this program weakness is now rectified
Over these years a wealth of research results has been gathered on
many aspects of constraints to sorghum production These include a better
identification of farmers problems limitations imposed by the
environmental socio-economic and infrastructural factors and problems
related to varietal and technological development These results along
with other available information have helped ICRISAT reassess and better
focu its research objectives aimed at improving sorghum production in the
region At the same time some limited results have merited on-fam tests
Page 4
and utilisation by the farmers
Several areas of research and several key changes in approach are
considered esential in the regional program We clearly recognize that
the long term goal is significant yield increases in the farmers fields
through the use of management responsive varieties under improved
management and input conditions with simultaneous emphasis on resource
(soil and water) conservation However to realistically achieve
production gains in the short and medium term we also recognize that the
poverty of natural human and financial resources implies that emphasis
towards high input capital-intensive production strategies is presently
unwarranted and inappropriate More emphasis is needed on yield stability
and sustainability than on highest yield potential per unit area This
implies greater long-term accent on developing for farmers adapted means of
improving and conserving soil water and soil fertility Furthermore to
facilitate adoption by risk-averse subsistence farmers evaluation
procedures need to be modified to ensure that new varieties yield at least
as much as local cultivars under farmers management and input levels In
turn these requirements necessitate greater exploitation of the local
sorghum germplasm in combination with the most promising adapted exotics
with the twin goals of improving responsiveness to superior management and
incorporating stress (biotic and abiotic) resistance traits that contribute
to yield stabilization
The first regional sorghum workshop held at Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
in November 1984 and attended by sorghum researciers from national and
other programs in the 17 countries of WA emphasized the need to accelerate
sorghum research through a coordinated regional approach In its
recommendations (Annex-i) the workshop urged ICRISAT to assume a larger
Page 5
role in regional sorghum research ICRISATs Ten Year Plan (1980-1990)
identifies WA as a priority region for sorghum research Thus this
regional sorghum program responds to these needs
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
---------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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Page 22
234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
Sanru
Kano
ROKUPR
C
o
C0
C 0
0 F C
0
C3 a
g
Id
0
~
C
N)aaa
Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
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ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
Page 72
In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
-
1 INTRODUCTION BRIEF PROGRAM DESCRIPTION OBJECTIVES AND ACTIVITIES
1 Introduction
In West Africa sorghum is grown across a wide range of rainfall
(400-1200mm) conditions Based on rainfall as well as natural vegetation
West Africa is generally delineated into distinct bioclimatic zones
(Figure 1) Sahelian (350-600mm) Sudanian (600-900mm) and Guinean
(900-1200mmi While sorghum is predominantly cultivated in north Guinean
and Sudanian bioclimatic zones it is also grown in Sahelian bioclimatic
zone on deep soils near the swamps
Food production in general and coarse grains production in particular
have performed dismally in West Africa during the last two decades In the
face of an annual population growth rate of 29 during 196165 - 197680
regional food production increased by a rate of only 1 This has meant an
annual decline in per capita production of 19 per year In absolute
terms food production over the period has fallen from 300 to only 220
kgcapita resulting in growing pockets of endemic undernutrition
Nutritional deficits are becoming particularly acute in the sudanian and
sahelian zones where sorghum is the principle food staple In Burkina
Faso for example only 159 kg cerealcapita was produced on average in
197680 As a point of reference the FAO estimates 180 kgcapita as the
minimum nutritional requirement
Poor growth in the production of sorghum and millet underline a large
part of this poor performance Accounting for 40 of total food in West
Africa sorghum and millet output has increased at an annual rate of only
04 during the period Most of this growth has been due to area
Page la
Figure 1 Bioclimatic zones of West Africa
Scale
MAURITANIA
ALGERIA
9G 7AL ERt A v ML NIGER
BISSAU
E0 RT I C 9
5ER LEONE 9G 76
IVORY COAST GHANA 0 LIBERIA N0E Z
~CAMEROON
Growinq season Ienqth in days shown thus - 165 -_
_ IS W ot Greenwich 5 0 5 E of Greenwich is deg
(AdLpted from CIEH 1979)
Page 2
expansiorn with millet and sorghum area increasing at an annual rate of
11 Yields over the period have actually declined on average at an
annual rate of - 07
The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) has a mandate for research on the improvement of several of the
important food crops in the semi-arid portions of the region as well as
farming systems associated with them
ICRISAT was established in India in July 1972 at Patancheru near
Hyderabad Its mandate has four major objectives
a) To serve as a world ceniter for the improvement of grain yield and
quality of sorghum millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to
act as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
b) To develop improved farming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
c) To identify cnnstraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
d) To assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
Since 1975 several scientists have been posted in ICRISAT programs
located in several counries in WA through the assistance of multiple
donors With funding support from the Global and Interregional Project of
UNDP ICRISAT had initiated its sorghum research in WA by the placement of
a sorghum breeder in Burkina Faso in 1975 followed by an agronomist and a
Page 3
plant pathologist in 1977 In the same year UNDP financing supported the
posting of an entomologist in Senegal
With support from Ford Foundation a field trials officer was posted in
Mall during 1976 Subsequently through USAID support an agronomist and a
breeder were posted in Mali in 1978-79
An IDRC supported striga scientist and a core funded entomologist were
posted in Burkina Faso in 1979 followed by the posting of a core supported
economist that same year An anthropologist supported by IDRC funds was
posted in Burkina Faso in 1981
During 1978-79 an agronomist a breeder and an entomologist in
Nigeria and a soil-water agronomist in Burkina Faso were posted with
funding support from SAFGRADUSAID
In the past the scientific staff of ICRISAT as seen above were
dispersed over several locations While they have gained valuable
experience over a range of agroclimatic conditions their contribution to
different national programs in the region could not be adequately focused
and this program weakness is now rectified
Over these years a wealth of research results has been gathered on
many aspects of constraints to sorghum production These include a better
identification of farmers problems limitations imposed by the
environmental socio-economic and infrastructural factors and problems
related to varietal and technological development These results along
with other available information have helped ICRISAT reassess and better
focu its research objectives aimed at improving sorghum production in the
region At the same time some limited results have merited on-fam tests
Page 4
and utilisation by the farmers
Several areas of research and several key changes in approach are
considered esential in the regional program We clearly recognize that
the long term goal is significant yield increases in the farmers fields
through the use of management responsive varieties under improved
management and input conditions with simultaneous emphasis on resource
(soil and water) conservation However to realistically achieve
production gains in the short and medium term we also recognize that the
poverty of natural human and financial resources implies that emphasis
towards high input capital-intensive production strategies is presently
unwarranted and inappropriate More emphasis is needed on yield stability
and sustainability than on highest yield potential per unit area This
implies greater long-term accent on developing for farmers adapted means of
improving and conserving soil water and soil fertility Furthermore to
facilitate adoption by risk-averse subsistence farmers evaluation
procedures need to be modified to ensure that new varieties yield at least
as much as local cultivars under farmers management and input levels In
turn these requirements necessitate greater exploitation of the local
sorghum germplasm in combination with the most promising adapted exotics
with the twin goals of improving responsiveness to superior management and
incorporating stress (biotic and abiotic) resistance traits that contribute
to yield stabilization
The first regional sorghum workshop held at Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
in November 1984 and attended by sorghum researciers from national and
other programs in the 17 countries of WA emphasized the need to accelerate
sorghum research through a coordinated regional approach In its
recommendations (Annex-i) the workshop urged ICRISAT to assume a larger
Page 5
role in regional sorghum research ICRISATs Ten Year Plan (1980-1990)
identifies WA as a priority region for sorghum research Thus this
regional sorghum program responds to these needs
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
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Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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Page 22
234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
Sanru
Kano
ROKUPR
C
o
C0
C 0
0 F C
0
C3 a
g
Id
0
~
C
N)aaa
Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
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particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
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oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
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ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
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Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
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fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
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SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
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and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
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conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
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In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
Page la
Figure 1 Bioclimatic zones of West Africa
Scale
MAURITANIA
ALGERIA
9G 7AL ERt A v ML NIGER
BISSAU
E0 RT I C 9
5ER LEONE 9G 76
IVORY COAST GHANA 0 LIBERIA N0E Z
~CAMEROON
Growinq season Ienqth in days shown thus - 165 -_
_ IS W ot Greenwich 5 0 5 E of Greenwich is deg
(AdLpted from CIEH 1979)
Page 2
expansiorn with millet and sorghum area increasing at an annual rate of
11 Yields over the period have actually declined on average at an
annual rate of - 07
The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) has a mandate for research on the improvement of several of the
important food crops in the semi-arid portions of the region as well as
farming systems associated with them
ICRISAT was established in India in July 1972 at Patancheru near
Hyderabad Its mandate has four major objectives
a) To serve as a world ceniter for the improvement of grain yield and
quality of sorghum millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to
act as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
b) To develop improved farming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
c) To identify cnnstraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
d) To assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
Since 1975 several scientists have been posted in ICRISAT programs
located in several counries in WA through the assistance of multiple
donors With funding support from the Global and Interregional Project of
UNDP ICRISAT had initiated its sorghum research in WA by the placement of
a sorghum breeder in Burkina Faso in 1975 followed by an agronomist and a
Page 3
plant pathologist in 1977 In the same year UNDP financing supported the
posting of an entomologist in Senegal
With support from Ford Foundation a field trials officer was posted in
Mall during 1976 Subsequently through USAID support an agronomist and a
breeder were posted in Mali in 1978-79
An IDRC supported striga scientist and a core funded entomologist were
posted in Burkina Faso in 1979 followed by the posting of a core supported
economist that same year An anthropologist supported by IDRC funds was
posted in Burkina Faso in 1981
During 1978-79 an agronomist a breeder and an entomologist in
Nigeria and a soil-water agronomist in Burkina Faso were posted with
funding support from SAFGRADUSAID
In the past the scientific staff of ICRISAT as seen above were
dispersed over several locations While they have gained valuable
experience over a range of agroclimatic conditions their contribution to
different national programs in the region could not be adequately focused
and this program weakness is now rectified
Over these years a wealth of research results has been gathered on
many aspects of constraints to sorghum production These include a better
identification of farmers problems limitations imposed by the
environmental socio-economic and infrastructural factors and problems
related to varietal and technological development These results along
with other available information have helped ICRISAT reassess and better
focu its research objectives aimed at improving sorghum production in the
region At the same time some limited results have merited on-fam tests
Page 4
and utilisation by the farmers
Several areas of research and several key changes in approach are
considered esential in the regional program We clearly recognize that
the long term goal is significant yield increases in the farmers fields
through the use of management responsive varieties under improved
management and input conditions with simultaneous emphasis on resource
(soil and water) conservation However to realistically achieve
production gains in the short and medium term we also recognize that the
poverty of natural human and financial resources implies that emphasis
towards high input capital-intensive production strategies is presently
unwarranted and inappropriate More emphasis is needed on yield stability
and sustainability than on highest yield potential per unit area This
implies greater long-term accent on developing for farmers adapted means of
improving and conserving soil water and soil fertility Furthermore to
facilitate adoption by risk-averse subsistence farmers evaluation
procedures need to be modified to ensure that new varieties yield at least
as much as local cultivars under farmers management and input levels In
turn these requirements necessitate greater exploitation of the local
sorghum germplasm in combination with the most promising adapted exotics
with the twin goals of improving responsiveness to superior management and
incorporating stress (biotic and abiotic) resistance traits that contribute
to yield stabilization
The first regional sorghum workshop held at Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
in November 1984 and attended by sorghum researciers from national and
other programs in the 17 countries of WA emphasized the need to accelerate
sorghum research through a coordinated regional approach In its
recommendations (Annex-i) the workshop urged ICRISAT to assume a larger
Page 5
role in regional sorghum research ICRISATs Ten Year Plan (1980-1990)
identifies WA as a priority region for sorghum research Thus this
regional sorghum program responds to these needs
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
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Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
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Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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Page 22
234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
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Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
Page 72
In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
Page 2
expansiorn with millet and sorghum area increasing at an annual rate of
11 Yields over the period have actually declined on average at an
annual rate of - 07
The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) has a mandate for research on the improvement of several of the
important food crops in the semi-arid portions of the region as well as
farming systems associated with them
ICRISAT was established in India in July 1972 at Patancheru near
Hyderabad Its mandate has four major objectives
a) To serve as a world ceniter for the improvement of grain yield and
quality of sorghum millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to
act as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
b) To develop improved farming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
c) To identify cnnstraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
d) To assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
Since 1975 several scientists have been posted in ICRISAT programs
located in several counries in WA through the assistance of multiple
donors With funding support from the Global and Interregional Project of
UNDP ICRISAT had initiated its sorghum research in WA by the placement of
a sorghum breeder in Burkina Faso in 1975 followed by an agronomist and a
Page 3
plant pathologist in 1977 In the same year UNDP financing supported the
posting of an entomologist in Senegal
With support from Ford Foundation a field trials officer was posted in
Mall during 1976 Subsequently through USAID support an agronomist and a
breeder were posted in Mali in 1978-79
An IDRC supported striga scientist and a core funded entomologist were
posted in Burkina Faso in 1979 followed by the posting of a core supported
economist that same year An anthropologist supported by IDRC funds was
posted in Burkina Faso in 1981
During 1978-79 an agronomist a breeder and an entomologist in
Nigeria and a soil-water agronomist in Burkina Faso were posted with
funding support from SAFGRADUSAID
In the past the scientific staff of ICRISAT as seen above were
dispersed over several locations While they have gained valuable
experience over a range of agroclimatic conditions their contribution to
different national programs in the region could not be adequately focused
and this program weakness is now rectified
Over these years a wealth of research results has been gathered on
many aspects of constraints to sorghum production These include a better
identification of farmers problems limitations imposed by the
environmental socio-economic and infrastructural factors and problems
related to varietal and technological development These results along
with other available information have helped ICRISAT reassess and better
focu its research objectives aimed at improving sorghum production in the
region At the same time some limited results have merited on-fam tests
Page 4
and utilisation by the farmers
Several areas of research and several key changes in approach are
considered esential in the regional program We clearly recognize that
the long term goal is significant yield increases in the farmers fields
through the use of management responsive varieties under improved
management and input conditions with simultaneous emphasis on resource
(soil and water) conservation However to realistically achieve
production gains in the short and medium term we also recognize that the
poverty of natural human and financial resources implies that emphasis
towards high input capital-intensive production strategies is presently
unwarranted and inappropriate More emphasis is needed on yield stability
and sustainability than on highest yield potential per unit area This
implies greater long-term accent on developing for farmers adapted means of
improving and conserving soil water and soil fertility Furthermore to
facilitate adoption by risk-averse subsistence farmers evaluation
procedures need to be modified to ensure that new varieties yield at least
as much as local cultivars under farmers management and input levels In
turn these requirements necessitate greater exploitation of the local
sorghum germplasm in combination with the most promising adapted exotics
with the twin goals of improving responsiveness to superior management and
incorporating stress (biotic and abiotic) resistance traits that contribute
to yield stabilization
The first regional sorghum workshop held at Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
in November 1984 and attended by sorghum researciers from national and
other programs in the 17 countries of WA emphasized the need to accelerate
sorghum research through a coordinated regional approach In its
recommendations (Annex-i) the workshop urged ICRISAT to assume a larger
Page 5
role in regional sorghum research ICRISATs Ten Year Plan (1980-1990)
identifies WA as a priority region for sorghum research Thus this
regional sorghum program responds to these needs
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
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Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
---------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 22
234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
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3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
Page 72
In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
Page 3
plant pathologist in 1977 In the same year UNDP financing supported the
posting of an entomologist in Senegal
With support from Ford Foundation a field trials officer was posted in
Mall during 1976 Subsequently through USAID support an agronomist and a
breeder were posted in Mali in 1978-79
An IDRC supported striga scientist and a core funded entomologist were
posted in Burkina Faso in 1979 followed by the posting of a core supported
economist that same year An anthropologist supported by IDRC funds was
posted in Burkina Faso in 1981
During 1978-79 an agronomist a breeder and an entomologist in
Nigeria and a soil-water agronomist in Burkina Faso were posted with
funding support from SAFGRADUSAID
In the past the scientific staff of ICRISAT as seen above were
dispersed over several locations While they have gained valuable
experience over a range of agroclimatic conditions their contribution to
different national programs in the region could not be adequately focused
and this program weakness is now rectified
Over these years a wealth of research results has been gathered on
many aspects of constraints to sorghum production These include a better
identification of farmers problems limitations imposed by the
environmental socio-economic and infrastructural factors and problems
related to varietal and technological development These results along
with other available information have helped ICRISAT reassess and better
focu its research objectives aimed at improving sorghum production in the
region At the same time some limited results have merited on-fam tests
Page 4
and utilisation by the farmers
Several areas of research and several key changes in approach are
considered esential in the regional program We clearly recognize that
the long term goal is significant yield increases in the farmers fields
through the use of management responsive varieties under improved
management and input conditions with simultaneous emphasis on resource
(soil and water) conservation However to realistically achieve
production gains in the short and medium term we also recognize that the
poverty of natural human and financial resources implies that emphasis
towards high input capital-intensive production strategies is presently
unwarranted and inappropriate More emphasis is needed on yield stability
and sustainability than on highest yield potential per unit area This
implies greater long-term accent on developing for farmers adapted means of
improving and conserving soil water and soil fertility Furthermore to
facilitate adoption by risk-averse subsistence farmers evaluation
procedures need to be modified to ensure that new varieties yield at least
as much as local cultivars under farmers management and input levels In
turn these requirements necessitate greater exploitation of the local
sorghum germplasm in combination with the most promising adapted exotics
with the twin goals of improving responsiveness to superior management and
incorporating stress (biotic and abiotic) resistance traits that contribute
to yield stabilization
The first regional sorghum workshop held at Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
in November 1984 and attended by sorghum researciers from national and
other programs in the 17 countries of WA emphasized the need to accelerate
sorghum research through a coordinated regional approach In its
recommendations (Annex-i) the workshop urged ICRISAT to assume a larger
Page 5
role in regional sorghum research ICRISATs Ten Year Plan (1980-1990)
identifies WA as a priority region for sorghum research Thus this
regional sorghum program responds to these needs
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
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Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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Page 22
234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
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3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
Page 72
In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
Page 4
and utilisation by the farmers
Several areas of research and several key changes in approach are
considered esential in the regional program We clearly recognize that
the long term goal is significant yield increases in the farmers fields
through the use of management responsive varieties under improved
management and input conditions with simultaneous emphasis on resource
(soil and water) conservation However to realistically achieve
production gains in the short and medium term we also recognize that the
poverty of natural human and financial resources implies that emphasis
towards high input capital-intensive production strategies is presently
unwarranted and inappropriate More emphasis is needed on yield stability
and sustainability than on highest yield potential per unit area This
implies greater long-term accent on developing for farmers adapted means of
improving and conserving soil water and soil fertility Furthermore to
facilitate adoption by risk-averse subsistence farmers evaluation
procedures need to be modified to ensure that new varieties yield at least
as much as local cultivars under farmers management and input levels In
turn these requirements necessitate greater exploitation of the local
sorghum germplasm in combination with the most promising adapted exotics
with the twin goals of improving responsiveness to superior management and
incorporating stress (biotic and abiotic) resistance traits that contribute
to yield stabilization
The first regional sorghum workshop held at Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
in November 1984 and attended by sorghum researciers from national and
other programs in the 17 countries of WA emphasized the need to accelerate
sorghum research through a coordinated regional approach In its
recommendations (Annex-i) the workshop urged ICRISAT to assume a larger
Page 5
role in regional sorghum research ICRISATs Ten Year Plan (1980-1990)
identifies WA as a priority region for sorghum research Thus this
regional sorghum program responds to these needs
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
---------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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Page 22
234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
Sanru
Kano
ROKUPR
C
o
C0
C 0
0 F C
0
C3 a
g
Id
0
~
C
N)aaa
Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
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ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
Page 72
In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
Page 5
role in regional sorghum research ICRISATs Ten Year Plan (1980-1990)
identifies WA as a priority region for sorghum research Thus this
regional sorghum program responds to these needs
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
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Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
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Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
Sanru
Kano
ROKUPR
C
o
C0
C 0
0 F C
0
C3 a
g
Id
0
~
C
N)aaa
Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
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In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
Page 6
12 Brief Program Description and Objectives
The progrim will deal with the sorghum production problems common to
West African countries on a regional basis Direct collaborative research
will be conducted with countries which have active programs and where
sorghum is a priority cereal crop Countries with small programs and
where sorghum is relatively minor can draw direct technical support from
the more active programs in the regicn All countries regardless of
sorghum research status will benefit technically from the regional
research and training activities
A regional multidisciplinary team of scientists working in relevant
disciplines in sorghum improvement and located in a national research
center will serve the West African region The activities of the team will
consist of research and training to promote effectivw sorghum improvement
in the region Appropriate facilities and support services will be
provided to make the team effective The regional team will establish all
the necessary linkages with relevant national regional and international
organizations to serve the entire region effectively
The ultimate goal of the program is to increase the production of
sorghum which will contribute to the stabilization of food supplies in the
regio and improve nutrition and income for rural-based people
The program objectives are
a) To establish and staff a regional sorghum research base for West
Africa
b) To develop a research program sensitive to national needs
c) To develop varietal materials and reliable evaluation procedures
for yield and stress resistance traits
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
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SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
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Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
Sanru
Kano
ROKUPR
C
o
C0
C 0
0 F C
0
C3 a
g
Id
0
~
C
N)aaa
Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
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In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
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resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
Page 7
d) To conduct agronomy research relevant to the region
e) To implement a training program
f) To foster the establishment of a cooperating network of national
sorghum improvement programs in the region
The long term objective is the promotion of viable national programs
and stimulation of intra-regional scientific cooperation
13 Broad Areas of Program Activities
A multidisciplinary team of ICRISAT scientists will be placed at a
national research center in the WA region The broad areas of activity
will be
a) Iehniue and meQdolgo develpme and transfer Te develop or
adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAT Center and transfer to
interested national programs eg screening techniques for
resistance to grain mold leaf diseases charcoal rot shootfly stem
borer seedling emergence and establishment
b) Loca geplas eveuaZton To evaluate local sorghum land races in
collaboration with national programs with the objective of identifying
varieties possessing resistance traits to the major stress factors
and to make such varieties available to interested national programs
c) Breding ienwhancem To identify promising materialrmpa in
from introductions and use them in breeding programs with elite land
races and to furnish the most promising introductions and the derived
progenies (finished or partly finished) to interested national
programs for evaluation and further selection
d) Croping jmprto nt conduct basedi _ To sorghum cropping
systems research with accent on the improvement of existing systems
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
---------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 22
234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
Sanru
Kano
ROKUPR
C
o
C0
C 0
0 F C
0
C3 a
g
Id
0
~
C
N)aaa
Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
Page 72
In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
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Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
Page 8
through (M) more efficient management of soil-water and soil-fertlity
and (ii) restructuring the traditional systems by developing
alternative more productive cropping systems to aim at quantum
jumps in yield that is a more fundamental transformation of
sorghum-based production systems through the use of altered genotypes
and intensive high management With the present stage of knowledge
this is more immediately feasible in the more humid areas
e) On-farm ear In collaboration with and only through national
programs conduct on-farm research which provides technical scientists
with a better appreciation of farmers needs and capacities for
technical change and understanding of the factors conditioning the
adoption of new technologies
f) Support service To provide support to national programs for
off-season facilities for crossing work and advancing segregating
generations to assist national programs on research plans execution
and selection operation to supply relevant research information to
national programs and to facilitate useful interaction
g) Technical intteaion Systematic interaction between national
regional and international researchers will be facilitated through
several means First regional problems related to sorghum production
will be discussed in biennial workshops and priorities for
collaborative research efforts will be defined Second in the
intervening years group tours involving researchers from national
regional and international programs to selected trials and
experiments in the region will further enhance technical interoction
Third short-term consultancies of researchers from one national
program to another or from the regional unit to a national program
will contribute to practical problem solving Fourth the regional
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
---------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------
Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 22
234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
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333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
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334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
Sanru
Kano
ROKUPR
C
o
C0
C 0
0 F C
0
C3 a
g
Id
0
~
C
N)aaa
Page 63
3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
Page 72
In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
Page 86
and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
Page 87
COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Page 88
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
Page 89
ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
Page 90
ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
Page 91
9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
Page 92
3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
Page 93
9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
Page 94
17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
Page 95
6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
Page 96
7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
Page 97
and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
Page S
The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
Page 99
6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
Page 9
research program will receive researchers from cooperating national
programs to select improved sorghum lines for their programs
h) Training To offer on-the-job training of scientists and technicians
from national programs at the regional research center and to
facilitate the availing of training opportunities at ICRISAT Center in
India and at other recognized institutions
2 BACKGROUND
21 Location Area and Development Indicators
The West African region where sorghum is grown is very large and diverse
It consists of seventeen countries (see Table 1) stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to Chad and Central African Republic borders
with Sudan in the east a distance of about 4000 km Its width ranges from
about 300 to 900 km sandwiched between the wet equatorial forest zone in
the south and the Sahara desert in the north The region has a wide range
of environments
Some indicators of the present level of agricultural development of
West African countries are given in Table 1 The following points are
noteworthy
1 Over 75 of the population is engaged in agriculture and lives in
rural areas
2 The population growth rate is about 26 a year while the average
annual increase in cereal production is 005 In 9 out of the 17
countries there is a declining cereal output
3 The region imports an average of 15 of its total cereal consumption
This figure is much higher currently as a result of persistent
droughts since 1980
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------
7aLJa J Somei ndicatorsato f rcuJtutzl tecloixent of West AfIIcan1 (ountltar
Ben- But- Can- Cent Cas- Ghana Guinea Gul- Ivory- kJ I tau- Ni- Hi- Sent-in Sir- I ati namp- tcaun Ati bIa nea Coast ztA- get gt- glaso Hvp a[-D13s- i rls Lt wshysa
Crisis Countraes X x x x x x [ [ x x 3 3 x
Least devt- (a) loped co tries x x x x x
)most serxoubly (I
At ftcedco~ntrlel X I x x zx
fcod p tciryIc)CCampur tries ) 33 3 3 3y
Ftiority foud (d) oat acitceurouftriel x x x x
Populat ion(mlalions) 1979 total 35 67 13 24 06 11 49 06 77GrVwth rate 30 26 23 23
65 16 51 75 55 37 2 424 31 25 38 29 27 28 29 32 26 26 30 22(I pal yeai) Ina(I wrcultu 47 03I ) 82 so 73 53 02 84 11 so 14 30 56 6 o76 67 70 160
Cereal output 03 31 08 01 01 06 07 01 07 11 - 12 04 C7 C C 0(il Iio s) average 1377-73
Annual changecereal output 29 22 13 -05 -42 -30 -15 34 50 07 -37 -04 00 -06 25 - 9I) Avg 196i-71 to 1977-79
Cereal consumption 110 316 123 57 128 73 177 223 lit 203 135 271 245 210 206 I] 10pen person tRgy) Avg 1377-79 Import content of 11 2 8 10 20 21 7 25 20 6 69 3 10 20 6 6 3cereal corsumpt aon (It) Avg I377-)3 major cereal crops nS S S SRA sR NSA MR As RMS SR S SS SN R SPA So Souce Agricultural Development indicators A Statistical Handbook
leu York 1930 InternaLJonal Agricultural Development Laivict
(a) DesqgrarLon by t beUl ccnonc and Social Council(LI Ltr g siat or b) tUaeU l Gent er] enLLj -LO Ic) D at rnation Ly IL l W wgIc ro rd CouncilId) DOetigratur b) Lht Coisultativ Group un Mrood JroducLiult and laiL_tmcgt
kO P IeHlsel 6- Sorghur and mI1ttl P- Ricer W- Wheat
Page 10
4 With the exceptions of Nigeria and Togo all countries of the region
are among the 52 crisis countries in the world that have been
designated for special attention by international agencies
In general the low rate of growth in agricultural production combined
with high population growth has led to inadequate or poor nutrition for the
population an increasing reliance on food imports and low financial
contributions to development
22 Sorghum as a Major Food Crop in West Africa
Sorghum is one of the most important rainfed food crops in the
Sudanian and northern Guinea zones It is also grown in the Sahel on
better soils especially near swamps (bas fonds) Table 2 gives production
data for the main food crops in WA The major cereals are sorghum pearl
millet maize and rice Although each cereal has important production
areas pearl millet and sorghum clearly dominate the total cereal
production Cassava is also an important starch crop in some countries
Page 10a
Table 2 Sorghum area production of ICRISAT mandate crops and other important cropsin West African ccuntries in 191
1CRISAT crops Other important food crops
Sorghum area
Country (ha) Sorghun Millet Groundnut Maize Rice Wheat Cassava
Benin Burina Faso Cameroon Central Afr
100000 1082400 480300 76500
60 F 700 F 352 F 40 F
5 F 420 F 3 N 50 F
65 F 78 F
120 F 128 F
30 F 100 F 500 F 4 F
10 F 40 F 59 F 16 F
2 1
650 F 43 F
650 F 1005 F
Republic
Gambia (ana
22900 200000
16 N 150 F
19 N 900 F
130 F 1i0 F
11 F 420 F
35 F 90 F
6 F 1900 F
Guinea Gujlnea-Bissau Ivory Coast
22000 47500 358
5 F 5 F
37 F
NA 10 F 49 F
85 F 30F 60 F
67 F 5 F
300 F
400 F 30 F
500
620 F NA
800 F
al i Maritania
650000 30000
300 N 40 F
650 170 F 4 F
81 F 6 F
142 F 9 F
2 6 -
F
(includes Millet Niger Nigeria S al
800000 6000000
40000
350 N 3800 F 150
1295 3300 F 650
88 600 F 700 F
10 F 1650 F
75
52 1400 F 10
2 3
IfS F 11500 2B
Sierra Leoe Tc9o
15000 90000
11 F 54 N
11 F 125 F
15 F 36 F
13 150 F
550 22 F
97 F 480
Chad 450000 185 F 600 F 118 F 15 F 47 F 6 197
6ZS 7319 2537 3693 3502 38 18206
F = FAO estimate N = National estimate Unofficial source
Source FAO Production Yearbock 1981 Volume 35 and Country Reports Regional Sorghum Workshop Ouagadouou 27-30 Noverber 1984
--------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Page 11
Table 3 Relative sorghum production as percent of total caloric food production within each country in West Africa
Porcent sorghum of total caloric Country food production ----- I---------------------------------------------------------
Benin 95 Burkina Faso 555Cameroon 289 Central African Republic 69 Gambia 190
Ghana 96 Guinea 10 Guinea-B issau 100 Ivory Coast 29 Mali 250
Mauritania Niger 196 Nigeria 356 Senegal 179 Sierra Leone 17
Togo 107 Chad 198
To obtain these figures cassava production values were ad~justed to 12 moisture
Table 3 presents the relative importance of sorghum in each country
compared to the total cereal and cassava (corrected for moisture)
production It is clear from this table that sorghum is vitally important
to the total caloric food production of Burkina Faso Nigeria Cameroon
Mali Niger Chad Gambia and Senegal In the case of Burkina Faso over
501 of the caloric food production comes from sorghum
23 The Current Sorghum Situation in West Africa
The sorghum production problems can be best understood by having a
clear knowledge of the physical environment crop varieties and farming
systems in the region
Page 12
231 Production environment crop varieties and farming systems
Environment The physical environment greatly influences cropping
patterns The two major sources of variation are rainfall - its total
amount and distribution over the year - and soils In the West African
SAT average rainfall increases from north to south with isohyets more or
less parallel to the equator Even in years of normal total rainfall
the distribution tends to be erratic with drought periods of two weeks or
longer Rainfall variability is particularly high during early season
planting periods This plczes considerable stress on seedlings and due to
the staggered pattern of early rainfall also extends the first planting
period over as many as 80 days in the northern Guinea savanna Annual
potential evapotranspiration varies between 2 to 4 times the average annual
rainfall Moreover evaporative demands are highest in May and September
during planting and grain-filling periods respectively which increases
the risk of early and late season water stress
Within rainfall zones various soil types occur usually linked to a
specific position in the topography Shallow gravelly soils are generally
associated with upland areas whereas deeper soils (sandy loams or silt
loams) occur on the slopes gradually changing to hydromorphic soils in the
lowlands Considerable water flow through the soil from upland areas is
common and as a result the best agricultural land is most often found on
the lower slopes bordering rainy-season swamps
Soils where sorghum is grown are mostly Alfisols with low clay content
(mostly of kaolinitic types) and as a result water holding capacity is low
Avalable soil moisture contents for many West African SAT soils are in the
range of 30-100 mm Low cation exchange capacity (less than 5 MEqv) and
Page 13
low exchangeable cations are common and also make these soils poor in
fertl Ity
Low water holding capacity with low and irregular rainfall combine to
make sorghum farming risky Moreover drought conditions during the last
15 years have accentuated the low soil moisture resulting in poor sorghum
production
=vaieti The white-grain sorghum varieties are predominant
and are used for food the less predominant red-grain varieties increase
in importance in the more humid southern portions of the region and are
mostly utilized for beer making and exceptionally for food In normal
rainfall years average grain yields may range from 400 to 900 kgha in
drier to wetter areas Stovers have important use for fencing mat making
roof thatching animal feed and fuel The relative importance of these
varies across the region as a function of the availability of alternative
sources of forage fuel etc
Although a major proportion of white varieties are tall have poor
harvest indices and are late and photoperiod sensitive a snall proportion
do have intermediate plant height earliness andor a low level of
photoperiod sensitivity The red-grain varieties are generally relatively
early and partially photoperiod sensitive As the crop is grown on a wide
range of rainfall (400-1200 mm) its maturity cycle is closely related to
the rainfall duration and latitude of a given location
The good adaptation of local landraces in particular good emergence
seedling vigor and tolerance to water and nutrient stress make them well
adapted to low input management under conditions of environmental stress
However most have low response to improved soil water and fertility A
Page 14
majority of local cultivars belong to the group Guineense Caudatums and
Durras are also available in the drier zones
Farming eyms Superimposed on the major variables of soils and
rainfall is an array of farming systems which have evolved to adapt to
historical local conditions Each system has its own potential and
constraints West African farmers have generally adopted crops and
developed cropping systems that provide low risk in meeting subsistence
needs and which attempt to exploit the entire duration of the rainy season
In the south where the season is long various cerealcereal intercropping
combinations are common The actual system varies with soil type and often
includes the combination of a short-duration photoperiod-insensitive cereal
with a full-season photoperiod-sensitive cereal Further to the north the
rainy season is shorter and a single photoperiod sensitive cereal planted
with first rains is often mixed with cowpea as a minor crop The choice
of the dominant cereal sorghum or millet depends on rainfall and the
nature of the soil Sorghum is grown on those soils which are relatively
deeper and more fertile A further risk-reducing strategy of farmers is
the reduction of plant populations in lower rainfall areas and on sandy
soils
Cropping systems based on post-rainy season residual moisture are
locally important in effluent basins along the Senegal river Niger river
and Lake Chad It is estimated that over 30 of cultivated sorghum in the
Cameroun depends on residual moisture Typically residual moisture
sorghums are late maturing (6 to 10 months) and highly responsive to
photoperiod
Page 15
Despite the variability In production practices several common
elements can be found in most rainfed systems First production is almost
exclusively organized around small household production and consumption
units These units generally have highly diversified production
activities In addition to agriculture livestock rearing and a variety of
non-farm activities compete for household resources Within agriculture
cropping systems of thousehold production units also tend to be highly
diversified with a large number of crops cultivated in often complex
intercrop and rotation systems Thus even in predominantly sorghum areas
sorghum rarely occupies greater than 50 of toal cultivated area The
diversified cropping systems aim to satisfy different dietary requirements
to spread labor peaks and to reduce risks caused by weather pests and
market fluctuations These systems are also highly flexible adapting
cropping patterns to micro-variations in land type leading to highly
fragmented field patterns
Another characteristic of most West African sorghum-based cropping
systems is that they have historically been highly extensive with low use
of non-labor inputs Application rates of organic matter are low (200-500
kgha) and concentrated around dwellings Chemical fertilizer use on
sorghum is negligible and mechanical tillage Is the exception with less
than 5 of the area plowed before planting
Due to rapidly rising population pressure however extensive land use
systems which concentrate cultivation on the better land types and which
maintain soil quality through bush fallow rotations are failing in many
parts of the region This is reflected by increasing areas of continuous
cultivation and in expansion onto shallower and less fertile soils These
patterns are ultimately reflected in stagnant or declining yields during
Page 16
the last two decades and in increasing problems of soil degradation in
areas of higher population pressure
232 Constraints to Production
The constraints to sorghum production in WA are many Soil water
(rainfall) temperature and solar energy constitute the natural resources
for sorghum production While within-season variability in solar energy
and temperature are not limiting soil fertility and water (rainfall)
constitute the major constraints Sorghum varieties and socio-economic
conditions which limit farmers capacity for change impose additional
constraints
Soil In general the upper horizons of the soils are predominantly
sandy-loam and the clay fraction is low A great proportion of clay is
kaolinite and amorphous ferrous hydroxide Thus the water holding
capacity and fertilizer use efficiency are low The soils are generally
low in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations The most
important mineral deficiencies that affect growth and production are
phosporous and nitrogen
The physical properties of the upper horizons have poor structure low
porosity (maximumr 40-43) which hinders root growth and water
permeability and a strong tendency for compaction and hardening during the
dry season Infiltration capacity is generally low (except for soils
originating from eoline deposits) with a tendency to form a superficial
crust The potential for erosion is very high when cultivated Finally
the soils are fragile and can be rapidly degraded under some forms of
management
Page 17
Water As sorghum is predominantly rainfed its production is
dependent on rainfall (amount duration and distribution) and soil quality
The Guinean and southern Sudanian zone have longer duration of rainfall and
a higher number of rainy days whereas the northern Sudanian and Sahelian
zones have a lower number of rainy eays and higher coefficient of variation
which results in higher risks to agricultural production Due to surface
crusting and high intensity storms up to 80 of rainfall is not available
to crops Combined with the highly variable rainfall distribution this can
contribute to frequent periodic drought stress
Q=variety A range of factors is responsible for poor and unstable
yields Local sorghum varieties generally selected by farmers during past
periods of more adequate rainfall and for cultivation on more favorable
land types are becoming poorly adapted to farmers changing needs
Variability for early maturity is limited Therefore in recent years due
to the reduced duration of rainfall short-cycle varieties with higher and
more stable yields under harsh soil conditions are increasingly in demand
but are not available Moreover yield potential is low for local
varieties Notwithstanding the above constraints local varieties have
excellent adaptation to low input management systems
In addition to the severe physical environment there are a number of
insect pests and diseases which adversely affect production Shootfly
(Athrinona soccata) reduces plant stands in late-planted crops in high
rainfall zones Stemborer (Buseola fusca) infestations are severe in the
same areas Midge (Conta iiai sorghikoln) can cause severe grain abortion
where there is staggered flowering within a location Covered smut
(Spaclothea sonrhl) can cause significant losses when seed is not dressed
with fungicides Long smut (Tolyposportum ahranba0aii) is severe in the
Page 18
Sahelian zone and on many residual-moisture sorghums The plant parasite
striga is found throughout the region and is particularly devastating
where nutrient and water stresses prevail
Socio-economi situation Most farmers rely on traditional low-input
management practices Historically low manland ratios have encouraged
long bush-fallow systems with little use of non-labor inputs Due to power
limitations good soil preparation and incorporation of crop residues are
uncommon and the use of organic manure is low and inefficient Due to low
response rates in the local varieties and policies of fertilizer rationing
chemical fertilizer use is the lowest of any region in the developing
world Most farmers are subsistence-oriented and risk-averse Low incomes
further restrict farmers capacity to invest in modern inputs
Finally factors exogenous to the farmers also limit their capacity
for change Support services to small farmers are generally very poorly
developed Understaffing multiplicity of extension agent
responsibilities lack of transportation and insufficient training
characterise most extension services Foreign exchange constraints high
transport costs and poor management also severely hinder the input
distribution systems of most countries in the region
233 Current research on sorghum
Research on aspects of sorghum production constraints is conducted by
national regional and international organizations in several locations in
WA with widely varying program breadth and depth across countries within
the region Table 4 presents broad areas of research activity in each of
the 17 West African countries Programs in Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso
Page 19
and Mali are clearly the broadest and most active Fortunately work in
those countries spans all the major agroclimatological zones and soil types
where sorghum is grown in WA Fourteen out of the 17 countries maintain
germplasm and breeding stocks from former research programs Throughout
the region there is keen interest in identifying high yielding varieties
with that interest underlined by the fact hat 14 of the 17 countries are
currently conducting replicated variety trials Programs related to
varietal insect pest and disease resistances are active in some national
programs The Integrated Pest Management program of CILSS has given some
material and technical assistance to disease and insect pest control
programs in the CILSS countries (Senegal Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso
Gambia and Niger) There are active breeding programs in Cameroono
Nigeria Niger Mali and Burkina Faso
----------------------------------------
Page 20
Table 4 Areas of sorghum research in West African countries
Research area
Country G B V A E P Ph S FT EC
Benin X - X X - - - - - -Burkina Faso X X X X X X - X X X Cameroon X X X X - - - X - -
Central AfrRep X Gambia X X X - - - - - -
Ghana X X X X - Guinea Guinea-Bissau - - X - - - - - -Ivory Coast X X X X X - - - - -
Mali X X X X X X X X X -
Mauritania X - X - - - - - - -Niger X X X X X X - X X -Nigeria X X X X X X - X X X Senegal X X X X X X
Sierra Leone Togo X - X X Chad X - X
G=Germplasm maintenanceEvaluation B=Breeding VVariety Trials A=Agronomy EEntomology P=Pathology Ph=Physiology S=Striga FT=Food Technology EC=Economics
All of these programs have experimental varieties in the pipeline
Economics programs studying sorghum based production systems are active in
Nigeria Burkina Faso Mali and Senegal
Recently the programs in Mali Burkina Faso Cameroon and Niger (see
Table 5) have gained strength through external financing by USAID UNDP and
IDRC and technical backstopping by ICRISAT IITA and Purdue University
Similarly GTZs support of national sorghum research in Ghana is
noteworthy The Institute of Sahel since 1980 has also played an
important role in varietal testing in the eight CILSS countries with the
financial support of the European Development Fund In recent years
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Page 21
SAFGRAD has not only strengthened ICRISATs sorghum research in WA but also
has supported national efforts through the placement of Accelerated Crop
Production Officers (ACPO) in a number of national programs for
pre-extension testing of improved varieties and technologies The French
Institute IRAT has also played a significant role historically in most
French speaking countries although its presence is now considerably
restricted
Table 5 Sources of financial and technical support to sorghum improvement programs in some West African countries
Country Source of financial Source of technical support support
Burkina Faso UNDP IDRC USAID ICRISAT IPMFAO and ICRISAT core via ICRISAT
Cameroon USAID via IITA and SAFGRAD IITA-SAFGRAD
Ghana GTZ GTZ
Mali USAID via ICRISAT ICRISAT INTSORMIL IPM
Niger USAID via Purdue Univ Purdue IPMFAO
Senegal World Bank via ISRA IPMFAO
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Page 22
234 Scientific Staff
Table 6 is an inventory of scientific staff by discipline presently
working in various countries of the region It is noteworthy that only
about 60 of the current research is being conducted by national
scientists many of whom are only trained to the MSc level
Table 6 Staff presently working on sorghum research in West Airican countries
Breed- Agro- Ento- Patho- Stri- Food Eco- Pre Country ing nomy mology logy ga Tech nomics Extension
N E N E N E N E N E N E N E N E
Benin 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -Burkina Faso 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 2 1 -Cameroon - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 Cent AfRep - - - - - -Gambia 1 - 1 1 - - -
Ghana 1 1 1 1 - - Guinea - - - - - - Guinea Bissau - - 1- - - Ivory Coast 1 - -- 1 1 - - -Mali 1 1 1 1 1 1- 1 - -2 -- -1 -
Mauritania - - - - - - - - -Niger 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Nigeria 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 -1 - 3 -- -
Senegal 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 -Sierra Leone - - - - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - -- - -- - - -1 1 Chad - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL 11 7 6 8 6 2 3 2 - 1 4 - 7 3 4 2
N= National scientist E = Expatriate scientist
Page 23
235 An Assessment of the Limited Adoption of Varieties and Technologies
In some national programs a number of promising varieties have been
developed and tested under experimental conditions through straight selection
from local landraces and through hybridisation Progress is most advanced in
Nigeria Senegal Niger Mali and Burkina More recently ICRISATs research
activity in Nigeria Burkina and Mali has contributed some promising material to
the region All these varieties selected and tested under good soil
preparation fertilizer input and timely weeding have yield potential of up to
35 tonha as compared to local varieties with yield potential of about 2 tha
Recent introductions of some hybrids (CSH5 and CSH6) bred in India can yield
over 5 tonsha under similar input and management conditions (see Annex II for a
review of past research)
However it is evident that sorghum research should develop knowledge and
technologies that are responsive to both present and future needs of farmers
We must conclude that although a wealth of research results in the area of soil
water fertility varietal improvement and crop husbandry have been accumulate
most of these results have not been well adapted to farmers needs at present
and thus have not been adopted by farmers on a large scale The lack of
technologies adapted to farmers needs and resources partly explains why during
the last decade sorghum production has remained stagnant or actually fallen in
most countries of the region The lack of progress to date in developing
technologies which can be successfully transferred to the West African farmer
represents a serious challenge to past research objectives and methods
The subject of adoptionnon-adoption of improved technology by farners has
been the research topic of many economists in the region Ease of adoption
depends on the type of system (changes) the new technology imposes on the
Page 24
farmer If the new technology involves a change of variety (eg Mexican wheat
in Asia) and no important changes in management the farmer is more likely to
adjust to the new recommended system (system adjustment) The task of adoption
becomes more difficult if the innovation would demand a system revision such
as in the use of short duration varieties to achieve multiple cropping (eg two
crops of rice within the same rainy season in the Philippines) The task of
adoption becomes even harder when the new technology dictates a system
replacement involving not only new inputs but also a fundamental reorganization
of resource use patterns (such as the vertisol technology developed by ICRISAT
in India)
In the West African context one must recognize that a large proportion of
farmers are resource poor and the fanning systems they practice vary widely
responding effectively to the diverse macro-and micro-variation of the physical
environment Because of existing socio-economic conditions and limited support
structures a great majority of them may not have the capacity at present to
change the environment to provide improved responsive varieties with the
necessary conditions for even minimally acceptable yields This largely
explains the extremely low adoption rates of new sorghum cultivars to date
For adoption in the short-run more effort must be given to emphasize the
major stress resistance traits (better seedling emergence and vigor under poor
soil tillage early seedling vigor to compete well with weeds resistance to
di2eases insect pests and drought) that would provide marginal yield gains with
improved yield stability at farm level In short a criterion that can not be
over looked is that new cultivars must display yields which are equal or
superior to local varieties when cultivated by the farmer under his own
managemenit conditionsp and at the same time they must show greater yield
responsiveness to improved input and management than the local cultivars
Page 25
While this situation may be valid for now or for the near future the long
term goal of intensive land augmenting production systems is crucial Major
breakthroughs in production can only be achieved by fundamental improvements in
soil water and soil fertility wahich are the primary limiting factors Crop
improvement programs have a critical role to play in bringing about such
improved systems by developing cultivars which are not only more stable
(essential for initial adoption by risk averse small farmers) but which have
also breakthrough yield potential under improved inpu levels By increasing
returns to these inputs the farm level demand will increase providing greater
economic incentives for both public and private sectors to supply the needed
materials and services
Finally we recognize that past recommendations calling for the extension
of varieties and technologies over large regions have often not been accepted by
farmers because they did not respond wall to the wide range of
micro-environments within the region Therefore variety and technology
development must focus on more precise target groups in well defined
micro-environments This means the traditional research concept of extremely
wide adaptation of improved varieties must be reconsidered and more emphasis
should be given to developing varieties with better adaptation to specific
micro-environments
Page 2(
3 PROGRAM DESCRPITION
31 The Basic Conception of the Regional Sorghum Improvement Program
There are seventeen countries (listed in Table 1) in WA interested in
improvement of sorghum production In most countries a national sorghum
research program has been established - large small or incipient It is
clear that for the development of appropriate varietiestechnologies to
solve production constraints in farmers fields no external institution
can substitute for a strong and capable national research system
Nevertheless greater communication between national programs improved
training and technical backstopping can measurably improve the
effectiveness of those national programs It is toward this goal that a
regional sorghum improvement program inWA is conceived
It must be stressed that in WA we are dealing with a wide range of
physical environments and socio-economic conditions within which sorghum is
cultivated as a principal crop Climatically the southern Guinea zone
(rainfall 900-1200mm) with its longer rainy season and higher but less
variable rainfall offers the greatest technical potential and widest
flexibility for change This contrasts with the northern Sudanian
(600-900mm) and Sahelian (350-600mm) zones where farmers face low potential
for rainfed cultivation limited technical options for change and large
risks of not meeting even basic subsistence goals Between countries and
even between administrative units within countries the variation in
infrastructure and agricultural services is often vast Finally at the
village level itself the diversity between production units regarding
control over resources and production strategies often reflects significant
differences in technical needs and capacities for change Each sector
Page 27
defined by these several factors represents a potential target group or
recommendation domain within which research priorities can be set It is
clear that such priorities must and can only be established at the national
program level
Most national research programs in the region have in fact identified
research priorities to develop appropriate varieties and associated
technologies However they need greater precision in defining
recommendation domains to ensure greater relevance to specific target
groups This implies that on-station research needs to be complemented
with closely coordinated on-farm research aimed at understanding
environmental variability and farmers constraints
Since the task for setting priorities is rightly placed at the
national level regional sorghum improvement priorities should ideally be
based on (a) common production constraints associated with specific
sorghum-based farming systems (b) common technical problems regarding
research methodolcgy which can be applied across the region (c) common
training needs and (d) common needs for support services
32 Multidisciplinary Regional Research Team
A team of internationally-recruited principal scientists will be
assigned to the regional program Although they will be specialists in
different disciplines they will interact closely with each other in
multidisciplinary research projects depending upon the problem to be
solved The activity of each scientist will have at least three
components- research training and support to national programs
Page 28
The team will consist of the following staff and associated broad Job
responsibilities
a) Prgram Manage Overall program management and administration
interdisciplinary coordination relationship with national regional
and International programs overseer of effectiveness of regional
research network and training
b) Sprogm Bree- Regional trials (organization data collection and
analysis) and breeding cultivars for the Guinea zone with resistances
to leaf diseases grain mold sorghum midge stalk borer shootfly and
striga
c) S ader Breeding cultivars for the Sudan and Sahel zonesSah Breij
with resistances to seedling emergencestand establishment striga
drought grain mold sooty stripe charcoal rot and long smut
d) PhyslologistAronomist Conduct research on developing and adapting
drought and crop establishment screening techniques to evaluate
resistance in germplasm and breeding material and conduct research on
drought management and striga control
e) Proucttio Agronomist Research on sorghum crop interaction with
soil water and fertility over a range of agroecological conditions
Inrluding cropping systems and on-farm research
f) Path1Qist Conduct research on developing and adapting disease
resistance screening techniques to evaluate resistance in germplasm
and breeding material and studies related to resistance to striga
g) EntoQn oil Research on the biology and control of insect pests
with emphasis on the adaptation and development of resistance
screening techniques for evaluation of germplasm and breeding
material and studies related to resistance to striga
h) Ecanamisplusmn Develop in collaboration with national programs low-cost
Page 29
farm survey methods for identification of recommendation domains and
assessment of technology options work with the production agronomist
in the conduct of on-farm tests
I) Administrative Officer Assist the project manager in fiscal and
administrative management of the project (locally hired)
j) ExperimenStation Development Maage Develop and establish the
regional research program facilities and assist national programs in
experiment station development and management (locally hired)
33 Program Activities
331 Development of varieties and hybrids
Breeding objectives of variety and hybrid development must be based on
common production constraints associated with sorghum based farming systems
in a given agroecological zone Breeding projects with multidisciplinary
research input will be drawn up such that the final product is acceptable
to the broad needs of the target group It is presumed that further
refinement in selection to adapt the varieties to micro-environments is the
responsibility of national programs
For the high rainfall Guinea savanna zone (900-1200mm rainfall)
development of altered genotypes (125-135 days cycle and shortor plant
height) with resistance to leaf diseases (leaf blight grey leaf spot and
anthracnose) grain mold shootflyp stalk borer midge and striga with
good food quality diverse canopy structure to adapt to different cropping
systems and with photoperiod sensitivity to offer the farmer flexibility
in planting dates will be the basic goal for the region The goal here
will be to look for a quantum jump through the use of improved input and
management systems
Page 30
For intermediate Sudan Savanna (600-900 mm) and low Sahel (350-600 mm)
rainfall zones research will concentrate on maturity cycles of 115 to 125
days and 100-110 days respectively Varieties for these zones must
possess superior seedling emergence and establishment resistance to
drought grain mold stalk rot sooty stripe long smut midge and striga
Acceptable cooking quality of grains is an ioportant consideration
ICRISATs findings from on-farm tests in WA shows that improved
varieties must have built-in resistance characteristics to stresses as
mentioned above so as to maintain a moderate superiority in yield over the
local variety under farmers conditions but with substantial superiority
when provided with improved input and management conditions
Experience in WA and other areas in the semi-arid tropics has
indicated that some hybrids have better yield stability under drought
stress than pure line varieties Work to develop adapted hybrids would
require development of male sterile lines through a backcross program
possessing the same desiable traits as described above Male steriles can
then be combined with elite lines and varieties to identify suitable
hybrids responding to farmers needs
332 Evaluation of local germplasm
Germplasm evaluation for identifying cultivars possessing stress
(biotic and abiotic) resistance traits will be an important activity Most
national programs maintain the local collections The evaluation of these
collections will be planned jointly with the national programs
Page 31
333 Physiological and agronomic research
Drought is a high priority topic involving both breeding and
management aspects The ICRISAT Center can make an important contribution
by providing stand establishmentdrought screening techniques and some
source materials However environments differ enough between India and WA
that there should be solid contribution to this research area by the
regional team as well
Development of improved soil-fertility and soil-water management
methods require a major effort by the regional team In addition more
basic studies are required to understand yield limiting fertility factors
in different zones and particularly over time under different soil
management systems
Weeds are a relatively low privrity problem except in the higher
rainfall zones Stand establishment is of higher priority in the lower
rainfall zone It is an area where techniques developed at ICRISAT Center
can be adopted
Finally since farmers traditionally grow sorghums in combination of
one or more crops investigations of profitable intercropping and relay
cropping in different agroclimatic zones will be an important research
activity New sorghum varieties with diverse canopy structure and maturity
cycle will provide more options for crop combinations
Page 32
334 Insect pests
The major insect pests in WA are stem borer midge head bugs and
shootfly Research on all these pests is conducted at ICRISAT Center and
the program in WA will have close collaboration with the Center
Stem borer is a priority problem particularly in the higher rainfall
Guinea zone There is need to identify resistance to the borer species
found in WA
Midge is a high priority problem Resistance-screening techniques and
midge resistant varieties have been developed at ICRISAT Center The major
thrust in WA will be to adapt techniques already available for use in the
breeding of midge-resistant lines
The species of head bugs in West Africa are different from those found
in India A research thrust in the region is therefore required to
identify and breed for resistance
Shoot fly is important primarily in the high rainfall zone
Considerable work has been done at ICRISAT Center in India that could be
adapted to West African conditions
335 Diseases
The major diseases of sorghum in WA are currently grain mold sooty
stripe grey leaf spot stalk rot and anthracnose Research on grain mold
and anthracnose is conductd at ICRISAT Center and the West African program
will- collaborate with the Center on these diseases Resistance screening
techniques and sources of resistance already identified will be useful for
the WA breeding program
Page 33
Stalk rot is a complex problem requiring cross-discipline research
On-location selection for the stay green trait and lodging resistance may
be adequate at this time but more knowledge should be gathered about the
nature of the problem from work in West Africa to complement information
available at ICRISAT Center
For sooty stripe and grey leaf spot research projects will have to be
developed by the regional program with emphasis on the development of
resistance-screening techniques and their use in the breeding activities
Long smut is currently unimportant but there are indications that it
may become a greater problem with varietal change As such it is a
problem requiring monitoring and the development of resistant varieties
336 Striga research
Striga is one of the major yield limiting factors to sorghum
production in West Africa It is a complex problem requiring an integrated
approach hence the need for a multidisciplinary research effort
Breeders pathologist physiologist and agronomist will form a useful core
team for this research Research emphasis will be on development of
relevant field screening techniques for identification of resistance
development of resistant varieties and crop management factors for striga
control
337 Food quality Page 34
Food quality and processing are important for acceptance and
utilization of the products of crop improvement Tests have been evolved
both at ICRISAT Center and in the region for testing consumer
acceptability These tests can be easily carried out by technicians within
the proposed breeding programs In addition collaborative projects will
be developed with agencies within and outside the region concerned with
food quality in sorghum
338 Seed production
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids is the
responsibility of national programs However the regional program in
collaboration with other institutions can provide advice to national
programs based on specific requests
339 Regional crossing blocks off-season nurseries and screening nurseries
These would be service functions of the regional program to national
programs designed to rapidly initiate and carry forward crop improvement
There would be an inservice training component as part of the effort to
introduce these activities to national programs
3310 Regional trials and nurseries
Regional trials and nurseries organized for the different
agroecological zones of the region will be an essential part of the
project Entries for these trials and nurseries will be from various
sources including national programs the regional program ICRISAT Center
INTSORMIL and elsewhere Some nurseries would serve to screen for
resistance to yield limiting traits diseases insects crop establishment
drought and striga Staff of national programs and of the regional team
Page 35
would cooperate closely in conducting and evaluating these trials
3311 Workshop
Coordination of the regiona research activities will be facilitated
by a biennial workshop attended by the regional program scientists and all
sorghum workers in WA The workshop will essentially be an in-house review
at which progress reports will be presented and discussed and plans made
for future work Thus many activities in the region will be planned by
group action
3312 Technology assessment and on-farm tests
Given the considerable experience already accumulated ICRISAT
researchers can now collaborate effectively with national farming systems
researchers in the development of efficient farm surveys to help focus and
prioritize national sorghum research program objectives Whole-farm
modelling approaches using minimum data sets can also be developed and
adapted to individual country needs for analyses of technology
alternatives
After promising varieties and associated technologies are identified
through on-station and multilocational trials it is imperative that they
be evaluated at the farm level Such on-farm research activity can be
conducted at several levels ranging from researcher managed on-farm trials
to on-farm tests managed entirely by farmers
The key questions such evaluations address are
- What agronomic performance can be expected under farmers
conditions
- What factors in the farmers environment determine yield
Page 36
variability Under what conditions does the varietytechnology
best fit
Does the varietytechnology require farmers to change the level
or timing of their resource use and if so do such changes
conflict with their capacity or with other production activities
What returns can be expected from the new technology and how do
these compare with those from alternative economic activities
Is the varietytechnology consistent with farmers consumption
goals
What are the likely patterns and impacts of adoption
Although this is essentially the responsibility of national programs
the role of the regional program will be to promote on-farm research by
national programs The regional program will not conduct its own on-farm
research but will work on joint or collaborative projects with national
programs
3313 Training of national program staff (Annex IV)
ICRISATs WA programs will be organized by a Principal Training
Officer stationed at the Sahelian Center in Niger Within the frame-work
of approved training activities heshe will assist with training at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels This can involve identification of
and supprt for studies In universities within and outside the region
Staff of the regional program can also serve as guides for post graduate
thesis research
Page 37
Assist with the identification and support of individuals for the
range of training opportunities offered at the ICRISAT Center Also assist
with regional training activities including the participation of local
universities where appropriate Provide in-service training of technicians
in special skills such as crossing block management or resistance screening
techniques
34 Interactions between the Regional Sorghum Program and other Organisations
341 Interaction with National Sorghum Programs
It is important that regional program scientists become fully familiar
with national program conditions and opportunities in order to effectively
interact with national scientists In this activity it is estimated that a
large number of man-days of regional program scientists will be spent away
from the regional base working with scientists in national programs in the
following activities
a) Introduction and evaluation rf breeding stocks and germplasm
accessions The best of these will be provided to national programs
b) Conduct regional trials and nurseries for yield resistance traits
and food quality These activities will be on national stations and
there will be a training compoitent The various screening nurseries
will include entries from national regional and international
programs
c) Join with national scientists in the evaluation of their material and
that from the regional program and jointly plan future projects
including crossing blocks
d) Assist with crossing and screening activities on a regional basis
includng training until national program capability can undertake
Page 38
such funcntions
e) Organize an annual reporting and planning workshop so that all sorghum
workers in the region participate in regional plans
f) Assist with training functions including participation by local
universities also in-service activities such as in-service training
of technicians
g) Assist national programs in structuring their sorghum improvement
activities This can include such topics as main and sub-station
identification staff needs program priorities equipment and other
facilities required policy considerations such as varietal release
responsibility for seed production etc
h) Adapt useful techniques for sorghum improvement in national programs
i) Contribute to or cooperate with the improvement of field research
capability of national program stations
J) Cooperate in the evaluation of promising varieties for food quality
traits
k) Respond to requests from national programs on issues of concern to
them An effort would be made to keep a focus on the welfare of the
poorer farmers in the region
1) Assist in limited multiplication of promising materials for potential
use by farmers of the national programs
342 Interaction with ICRISAT Center
The regional program will interact with ICRISAT Center on all the
scientific disciplines trainingo documentation and on symposiaworkshops
There is a history of interaction between the national programs of West
Africa and ICRISAT Center dating back to 1975 This interaction will be
Page 39
strengthened via the regional program
The Center is now maintaining and evaluating a vast number of
germplasm accessions collected from many parts of the world Based on the
needs of the WA region promising accessions will continue to be introduced
from ICRISAT Center and evaluated in the national programs in the region
A number of screeng techniques for the identification of useful
traits have been developed or are in the process of development at the
ICRISAT Center eg seedling emergence through a hard soil crust and high
soil temperature resistance to drought resistance to shootfly stem
borer midge grain mold and food qualities Many of these techniques
can be directly applied in the regional program or can be adapted with
appropriate modifications
A number of animal drawn implements have been developed or improved at
ICRISAT Center These can be introduced and evaluated for adoption in the
WA region
The Sorghum and Milllet Information Center (SMIC) located at ICRISAT
Center has already proved useful to researchers in the region
nevertheless SMICs contribution to the national programs can be better
realized as national researchers capacities develop in the future
A well developed training program is under way at the Center More
than one hundred technicians and researchers from the region have already
benefited from this program and are now actively involved in the national
programs in various capacities The regional program will continue to
depend on this training facility in addition to the training facility being
established at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in Niger
Page 40
The international symposia convened by the Center have been useful to
many researchers in the region The national scientists in the region will
continue to benefit from such symposia to enhance their professional
qualities
The sorghLm scientists at ICRISAT Center have attempted to partition
the research activities (Table 7) that can be best conducted at ICRISAT
Center in the regional program and through joint work of the Center and
the regional team Such complementary scientific activities will be useful
to the regional and national programs in WA
These interactions between the West African regional program and the
ICRISAT Center and the other regional programs should contribute to the
research activities of both groups hasten the adaptation of new techniques
in the WA region by national programs through the regional program
------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
Table 7 A partioning of research activities between ICRISAT Center and the Regional Sorghum Program for West Africa
- Priorities for research by the regional team
Breeding Photoperiodism Smut Soil fertilitywdter Head bugs Striga Cropping systems Grey leaf spot Weed control Sooty stripe On-farm tests Long smut
- Priorities for research at the ICRISAT Center to be adapted for West
Africa by the regional team Breeding Midge Stalk rot Crop establishment Shoot fly Downy mildew Stem borer Grain mold Drought Anthracnose
- Priorities for which Joint work plans would be valuable
Intercropping 1-rnational Disease Resistance Testing Prob -am
Drought Stem borer Head bugs Food quality and processing Animal-drawn farm machinery
Page 42
343 Interaction with other Organizations in the Region
a CILSS
The existing cooperation between ICRISAT and the Institute of Sahel
(INSAH) can be further strengthened The Director of Research of INSAH has
interacted with many scientists at the ICRISAT Center The researchers of
INSAH have visited with ICRISAT researchers in Niger Burkina Faso and Mali
and their representatives contributed significantly to the recommendations
at the first and second WA Regional Sorghum Workshops convened by ICRISAT
at Ouagadougou in November 1984 and at Bamako in October 1985
respectively ICRISAT researchers in West Africa have usefulmade
contribution to the variety testing effort of INSAH in the CILSS countries
b SAFGRAD
SAFGRAD has been one of the important supporters of ICRISATs effort
on sorghum research in WA Through such support ICRISAT was able to work
on sorghum breedings entomology and agronomy at Samarus Nigeria and
soil-water management couldresearch be initiated at Kamboinse Burkina
Faso SAFGRAD is keen to provide further support on sorghum breeding and
agronomy and also fund scientific meetings symposia and workshops
c INTSORMIL
Some national programs in the region have received support from
INTSORMIL The latter has resources to support specific research topics
through Joint projects and to train national program scientists in the US
universities ICRISAT can collaborate with INTSORMIL in both areas
Page 43
d IPM
The Integrateo Pest Management project (IPM) for the CILSS countries
has cooperated with ICRISAT in the past and it needs to be further
strengthened The ICRISAT striga scientist in Burkina Faso has worked as a
consultant for initiating the work on integrated weed control work
ICRISATs cooperation with IPM can be most useful in the areas of
identification and use of genetic resistance to diseases and insect pests
e IRAT
Formal and informal cooperation between ICRISAT and IRAT already
exists in many areas eg exchange of germplasm research on striga
soil-water and on-farm activity IRATs past research experience in West
Africa has been very valuable to ICRISAT researciters
f GTZ
Cooperation with the GTZ program is Nyankpala Ghana was started in
1980 This has been further strengthened in later years through reciprocal
visits and germplasm exchanges
4 EXPECTED RESULTS OF RESEARCH
Past adverse trends in coarse grain production have had a number of
depressive effects on the economies of most West African countries To
meet expanding food demand caused by a growing population and rising urban
incomes the region has lost its position as a food exporter which it held
in the early 1960s and is now a major importer During the period
Page 44
196165 to 197680 food exports from WA declined at an annual rate of
54 Commercial food imports now account for more than 20 of total
imports which divert foreign exchange away from development oriented
investments Current trends indicate that the dependence on food imports
through both trade and aid will continue to increase at an alarming rate
By the year 2000 it is estimated that the food deficit in WA which was
roughly 2 million metric tons in 197680 will increase to between 20 and
30 million tons This enormous drain on scarce foreign exchange will
severely constrain growth in all economic sectors
The stagnant productivity of the West African food grains hassector
also kept rural incomes and wages at subsistence levels The ratio between
urban to rural incomes in WA is of the order of 51 or roughly double the
rate in India for example Low rural incomes and wages have at least four
important economic and social consequences First the major share of
absolute and relative property in WA is concentrated in the agricultural
sector An increasing proportion of the farm population is unable to meet
even basic human needs Second low incomes for the farm population (which
represents 80 of the regions workforce) mean low purchasing power and
restricted internal demand for domestically produced goods and services
Thus the critical linkage through which rising incomes and consumer demand
in rural areas stimulate production in industrial sectors is lacking in
essentially all countries of the region Third low rural incomes and
wages relative to urban levels have continued to fuel the exodus of workers
from rural areas to urban centers Urban growth at an annual rate greater
than 5 during the 1970s has exacerbated a host of social and economic
problems as social services infrastructures and economic opportunities
have been outstripped by rural immigrants A final economic effect of the
Page 45
stagnant food grains sector has been that food prices have increased at a
rate substantially greater than both the general consumer price index and
urban wages The average retail price of sorghum in Ouagadougou Burkina
Faso market for example has increased from 25 CFAkg during 19657 to 133
CFAkg during 197981 more than a five fold increase Since food
constitutes the major proportion of the total expeditures of the urban
poor rising food prices have seriously depressed their real incomes and
welfare In short stagnant food grains production has adversely affected
the aggregate income distribution by widening the gap between urban and
rural areas as well as between the urban rich and the urban poor
The constraints underlying the poor performance of the food grains
sector include Ill conceived fiscal and pricing policies inadequate
extensioninput-deliverymc-eting systems mismanagement climatic
reversal and most importantly a lack of appropriate technologies which
are well adapted to the production systems of resource poor sudanian and
sahellan farmers
The ICRISAT Regional Sorghum Team will help reduce this last
constraint both directly and indirectly This will be done directly
through the development of improved production systems and sorghum
varieties which will enable farmers to improve the productivity of their
limited resources thereby increasing production and rural incomes The
team will also contribute indirectly by reinforcing the capacities of
national sorghum programs through training and technical backstopping to
helpthem carry out more productive research over the long-term
Page 46
It is obvious that any attempt to predict with precision the
production payoff to a research program of this type or to research
expenditures in general is highly precarious This is due not only to the
uncertainties in the rate and magnitude of technical breakthroughs but
also because the ultimate production response is further conditioned by the
other institutional infrastructural and policy constraints mentioned
above
What is known however is that in general agricultural research is
profitable By the early 1980s the results of some 50 cost-benefit
analyses and source-of-growth studies of national agricultural research
programs throughout the world were available Average annual rates of
return across all programs were nearly 50 and only four programs had
returns of less than 20 Significantly rates of return on agricultural
research expenditures in developing countries tend to be at least equal to
or greater than those observed in developed countries
It is also known that sorghum yields can be increased greatly
Technologies already exist which under research station conditions in the
Guinean and Sudanian Savanna zones can achieve significant short-run yield
gains Single component yield responses in the order of 20 to 40 are
typicaly recorded for application of ezonomic levels of fertilizer for
plowing or for other soil-water enhancing practices when applied
separately Due to significant interactions package yield responses in
the order of 100 are not unusual Even greater increments can be attained
by adding more management responsive varieties This means that current
factorproduct price ratios existing packages of components applied at
economic levels can achieve yields of between 3-4 tons per hectare in the
Guinean zone and between 2-3 tons per hectare in the Sudanian zone
Page 47
However due to a range of factors when these technologies are
transfered to farmer conditions only a very small proportion of farmers
typically approach station performance levels Average yield gaps of
between 40 and 60 are normal resulting in a high risk of financial loss
and low adoption The focus of the current regional sorghum program is to
develop technologies which are well adapted to farmer conditions and thus
which close the gap between what is perhaps technically feasible and that
which is actually achieved
When the ultimate goal of increased productivity in sorghum-based
production systems is achieved through the contributions of the present
project a number of economic benefits in the short- and long-run will be
achieved These relate directly to the economic context described above
Short-run i In the short-run the principal economic benefits of increased sorghum productivity include thu following
1 R dUcd depecLc n cereal import Scarce foreign exchange which
is increasingly diverted to non-productive consumption purposes will
be freed to be used in more development oriented investments
2 Incrased incomes fgr sorahum produc As seen above rising farm
incomes will have the following indirect benefits
o increasing demand for domestically produced industrial goods thus
stimulating the growth of industry
o reduced incentives for rural to urban migration
o an improved inter-sectorial distribution of personal incomes
3 Dwrbsng urban food pric Lower cereal prices will directly
increase real incomes and welfare for the urban poor whose budgets are
dominated by the purchase of coarse grains
Page 48
Lonjrun impact In the long-run greatly improved productivity in
sorghum-based systems is likely to contribute to an adverse shift in terms
of trade against the sorghum sector in turn stimulating farmers to greater
crop diversification These effects are due to the two characteristics of
the demand for sorghum Demand for sorghum and for coarse grains in
general is both price and income inelastic Price inelasticity means that
a given percentage increase in production will normally mean a larger
percentage decline in price The result is that unless the increases in
productivity reduce the per unit production costs by a greater percentage
than the decline in prices farmers who produce sorghum for the market will
face economic incentives to shift their resources into the production of
other more profitable cash crops for which demand is more elastic
Similarily farmers who traditionally produce sorghum as a subsistence crop
to meet family consumption targets will be able to meet these targets with
a smaller allocation of farm resources Again long-run price changes
would encourage the shift of resources out of sorghum to cash crop
alternative which enjoy a greater price elasticity demand
These effects are reinforced by income inelasticity in the demand for
sorghum Income inelasticity means that the demand for sorghum increases
at less than the percentage increase in consumers incomes For certain
ranges in income the demand for sorghum actually decreases with a rise in
income as consumers shift away from coarse grains to more prefered cereals
such as wheat and rice For sorghum producers who are at the same time
sorghum consumers this means that as rural incomes increase with improved
productivity a smaller share of their total food consumption would be
sorghum Similarily for urban consumers the share of sorghum in aggregate
foud demand will fall with rising urban incomes In both cases demand for
Page 49
other foods imported and domestically produced will increase
Page 50
ANNEX I
51 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE FIRST REGIOJAL WORKSHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN
WEST AFRICA HELD AT OUAGADOUGOU BURKINA FASO 27-30 NOVEMBER 1984
PART I REGIONAL NEEDS IN SORGHUM RESEARCH
Presentations by country representatives identified a range of
problems which inhibit effective sorghum research in the region Although
some of the problems were present in nearly all country programs others
were limited to certain countries depending upon the level of development
of national sorghum research Both sets of problems can be addressed
through a network approach by coordinating the use of resources already
within the region and by attracting additional resources Efforts should
be directed not only at crop improvement research but also at agronomic
and socio-economic research focussed on improving the overall productivity
of sorghum-based farming systems
We recognize that the following inventory of needs is only a starting
point based on a current assessment Needs and the ability to respond to
these needs will evolve with the development of national regional and
international programs The West Africdn sorghum research network should
remain flexible to respond to these changing conditions
Page 51
Plant Improvement
It was emphasized that the lack of adequate numbers of appropriate
improved sorghums for the West African region was due in large part to
inadequate national sorghum improvement programs The need for adapted and
improved sorghums targeted to different ecological zones of the region was
stressed The workshop recommended the following actions
a) Identify and describe the ecological zones in the region and develop
sorghums specific to these zones
I) Sahel
ii) Sudan savanna
iii) Northern Guinea savanna
iv) Southern Guinea savanna
Zo-es(iii) and (iv) could La com-bibred depending on their size
relationship across the region
v) Residual moisture areas located within each of the major zones
b) Improve the quality of genetic materials adapted to the different
ecological zones in the region
c) Incorporate desirable traits as detemined by the biotic and abiotic
factors in each ecological zone
d) Improve genetic materials towards developing pure line varieties and
F1 hybrids
e) Emphasize the Guinea Savannah zone since it has not previously been
adequately considered in view of its large size short and medium
season materials could be adapted to zones (iii) and (iv)
respectively
Page 52
2 Germplasm
The problems are threefold collection storage and evaluation and
exchange
a) Collections Many collections have already been made mostin West
African countries However due to seed losses and incomplete
collection there is a need to continue and complete collections in
most countries
b) Storage In most countries proper storage facilities and management
are clearly inadequate The problems are both long term for original
collected seed and short term for working collections There were
several suggestions supporting the idea of a single regional cold
storage facility which could be used by national programs
e) Evaluation and exchange Local collections need to be systematically
evaluated and more promising materials can be exchanged among
countries sharing similar adaptation zones
3 Breeding Lines
The problems are threefold inventory of presently available
materials storage and evaluation and exchange
a) Inventory Most countries in the region already have a number of
experimental materials which have been generated in existing breeding
programs or which were inherited from previous programs It would be
useful to inventory those materials and to obtain samples of all the
more interesting entries
b) Storage The problem of inadequate seed storage is critical in nearly
all programs Seed storage facilities must be upgraied In all
countries
Page 53
c) Evaluation and exchange Materials from the region should be
evaluated systematically in their appropriate environments and
exchange networks should be established among those areas sharing
similar growing conditions
4 Training
We recognize that the lack of skilled manpower at most levels - from
technicians to experienced researchers - is a major constraint faced by
many national prog-ams within the region The specific needs however
vary from country to country The regional sorghum network should address
this critical problem through the followirg actions
a) Assist in an assessment of human resource constraints and training
requirements on a country basis
b) Conduct and distribute to national programs an inventory of training
opportunities both within and outside the region and of sources of
financing to support the training of national technicians and
scientists
c) Communicate regional needs to training institutions and potential
donors in order to generate additional training opportunities and
funding
d) Facilitate training in French and English languages for needy national
scientists
Page b4
5 Workshops
We note the lack of occasions for sorghum researchers to establish
lasting exchanges and contacts permitting better utilisation of available
information and we recommend the following actions
a) An annual workshop should be held to enable all scientists working on
sorghum in West Africa to exchange views and experiences and to
develop additional means of cooperation Such regular meetings are
central to the development of the West African sorghum research
network
b) Specialist meetings should be held as required in order to discuss
specific disciplinary subjects in depth
6 Documeditation
Ready access to a comprehensive and current body of technical
literature is essential to ensure the efficient work of national
researchers However most national programs lack adequate literature
collections The problem is exacerbated in West Africa by FrenchEnglish
language barriers The regional sorghum network should address this
problem through the following actions
a) Conduct and distribute an inventory of regional documentation centers
and of other major international sources of technical literature on
sorghum
b) Provide through SNIC at ICRISAT Centor in India a current bilingual
annotated bibliography of recent sorghum related publications
c) Develop a regular updated mailing list of network participants and
institutionalize the systematic distribution of annual reports and
other Deriodic orooram publications to all network oarticioants
Page 55
d) Publish and distribute on a regular basis a newsletter on sorghum
research within the region
7 Technical Advice or Consultancy
National programs may require advice of a technical nature on specific
problems in their research eg field experimentation and statistical
design evaluation of grain for food quality traits The network would
help identify the advisor or consultant from within or outside the region
and help in seeking funds for the service
8 Seed Production
The workshop recognizes that seed production of improved varieties and
hybrids is the responsibility of national programs However we believe
that the network could assist by providing expert advice on procedures and
laws for seed production certification and exchange between countries In
the region
PART I THE ROLE OF ICRISAT
We recognize that ICRISATs presence in the region is justified by the
objective of regional sorghum improvement However we also recognize that
the only viable long term approach for the region will be the eventual
management of all aspects of sorghum research by researchers in and from
this region To that effect we hope that ICRISAT will consciously take
steps to help assure this eventual regional capability The regional
program should be assessed in this respect
Page 56
Considering the necessity to coordinate the activities of the West
Africa sorghum research network and considering the international mandate
and technical expertise of ICRISAT the workshop recommends
1 That ICRISAT serves to coordinate the activities of the network
system
2 That an advisory committee be created which will be responsible to
guide and monitor network activities The advisory committee will be
composed of seven members selected for one year terms by a vote of all
network partners The committee will include four representatives of
national programs two representatives of international andor
regional organiations and the ICRISAT regional coordinator
The committee will select its own chairman
PART III RELATIONSHIP OF SORGHUM NETWORK WITH OTHER REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The workshop recognizes the important work on sorghum already being
undertaken by several regional and international organizations in West
Africa These organizations have well established mandates and agreements
with individual countries which guide their activities The regional
sorghum research network can neither substitute for these existing efforts
nor can it attempt to dictate or otherwise control these activities
Rather the network can play an essential role of catalyst by promoting
improved communication and collaboration between all partners in the
network-national regional and international No single organization has
the mandate andor resources to achieve all of the recommended actions of
the workshop Rather the network should provide a means to help
coordinate the contributions of all national regional and international
Page 57
institutions to more efficiently achieve the goals of this network ie
increased sorghum production in West Africa
Because the workshop recognizes and respects the respective roles of
the regional and international institutions working on sorghum in West
Africa we specifically recommend
1 Close collaboration between ICRISAT the INSAH the SAFGRAD the
Integrated Pest Management project and the IBPGR
2 Better exploitation of the documentation network of the INSAH and
collaboration with the Sahelian system for regional varietal trials
3 Creation or development of sorghum collections by IBPGR in close
association with national regional and international programs with
the goal of reinforcing crop improvement
Page 58
ANNEX II
52 SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECOND REGIONAL
WOR SHOP ON SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA HELD AT BAIAKO MALI 21-24
OCTOBER 1985
1 General
Several important problems of a general nature came out clearly during
discussion sessions training deficiencies for technicians and scientists
were reemphasized weaknesses in the infrastructures of the national
programs which continue to hamper progress in sorghum research were
identified insufficient integration of national regional and
international research programs was underlined as similarly stalling
progress finally the importance of constraints to more efficient
technology transfer was strongly felt
In response to these problems the following general recommendations
were agreed upon
11 Bilateral collaborations between international regional and national
programs on research techniques training and information must be
encouraged on a long term basis
12 Considering the important role played by agricultural research all aspects
of national research structures must be reinforced for better execution of
research programs
13 Greater emphasis on the regionalisation of sorghum research will strengthen
and support national research programs It is highly desirable if
researchers in national programs participate in the identification and
follow more fully those research programs of regional and international
Page 59
organisations which address common regional problems
14 A working group should be constituted on the subject of transfer of
technology for better coordination of methodologies and interpretation of
results
2 Sorghum Crop Improvement Research
To advance the establishment of the regional crop improvement network the
most important biotic and abiotic factors influencing sorghum yields vere
identified for each country in the WA region (Table 8) Research projects
currently in progress in different countries were also noted (Table 9) A
summary (Table 10) was prepared for each country with locations proposed
for possible network research projects The latter inventory will help
accelerate the initiation of collaborative research activities in the
network Unfortunately because representatives from Benin Burkina Faso
Cameroon and Chad were absent information from these countries was
incomplete
Specific recommendations were as follows
21 An expanded exchange of scientific information and plant materials between
participating countries must be undertaken immediately
22 The Regional Coordinator should collect synthesized versions of annual
reports on sorghum research in member countries and distribute them to
participants in all 17 countries in the network
23 The network should renew the coordination of its research programs with
already existing programs in the region such as INSAH IPM SAFGRAD
INTSORMIL ICRISAT etc
Table 8 Biotic and Abioti-
trjLfl quaitt I__________ ]_
factors limiting sorghum improvement in West African countries
K __ x K_i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Str L
Sho ttfy x x x K
Stem borera x x x K K
NLdgamp x x XK x
NAdbus K K x K x x K x x
_ _ts
Leaf diseases x X
K K
_
K X
x
X
K
X
_
K K
X
K
X_
Pl
Stalk rots X x x x
SeOdhtiri atabIlsntnt K x K X X X X X x X K
rou h t [ J K K K K K x K K K K
C
I
0
-C C
Q-
e C
a
U
0
0
gt
U LCC1
3
~ o~o o
-
-c
do
0C
i~ 0 1 1
0
a
Z
af
-
4
a
n
poundfl ~
o
L00
nC
flC
_
0
a
toa
)
Table 9 Sorghum research programs currently in progrtss in West African Countries
Cernpl in evltitLorn x x X X X x X X X x
Croses
- - ----
x x
-- 4 I__
x x x x x
___ ____x
Selection or scareg~tes x x x X X X X x X
Stress factors X x x
Diseases X X x x x
rnsec ts x x x X X x
Striga x x x x x x x
Grain quality x K x X
Preliminary yield triLs x x x x x
Advanced yield trials X x x x x X K X K K K K K
rarner evaluation X X x x K
4-j
_ 00
_-
S-3
a
1 I V
___3
V
o
0
a
U
L
_ __
OC
_
0
M0
Table 10 Research programs and locations proposed for the sorghum improvement network in West Africa
Grain qutlc| F ko-a
Sobuba
seed Iinamp etl
Drought
Grain -old
-nt
S-riA
xi-CLaud
Fa Soumbe Ferk6
Sapu
NPblIL
Ginzana
Baran Kaidi aradi
z nCinzana a Nrd
IMaradi Sbtuba engou
- mtiY
Ni ofa
Lear diseaset- Ferkamp tva11a Sotuba
3 bull L ou -
Bema Mshyr a d t Koo
Charcoal stalk rot Satl -
PanLcle tnetS Far-a-- Ferkd f Sotub
Kolo aradi
u
a C
Midge
Borer
rerki
Ferkh
Sotuba
Shoot fly
-ko-Sa rFara Sapu Kanga KalbmuCinzana KonnLBengou SaMaru
Kara
PreLtmtnary Trial
of adaptati )n of
tines originating
fro breeding
prohram[
Cutnean
Soudan
Sahel
Fara-
Sa Poumbadi
Ferk6s
Sapu
anga Bomb 4
t- Sotuba
Cinzana Kaidi aradi
Ko o F2
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3 Sorghum Agronomic Research
A number of issues were considered It was pointed out that agronomic
research should consider a coordinated approach to develop techniques to
help realize the biological production potential of the crop while managing
the physical resource base to increase sorghum productivity and long-term
stability The following areas were identified that require attention on a
regional basis
31 The improvement of sorghum based cropping systems should take into account
such agronomic factors as the inclusion of commercialcash crops as
complementary components fertility management through the use of crop
residues farm yard manure and through legume rotations The cropping
systems research should also make greater use of interdisciplinary team
approaches
32 Greater emphasis should be given to develop principles and concepts to
optimise the productivity of Improved sorghum varietieshybrids by
considering such agronomic factors as density fertility date of planting
soil and water management and weed control including the agronomic
management of striga
33 Attention must be given to develop and standardise methodologies for
on-farm research with particular reference to sorghum based cropping
systems Objectives of such on-farm research should include provision of
feed-back on selection criteria to breeders
34 Early action should be taken to organise group tours of practicing sorghum
production agronomists to visit selected countries In order to document
recommended agronomic practices to monitor agronomic problems and to
identify common priority areas of agronomic research which could be
approached In a coordinated regional effort
35 Training of national scientists on sorghum agronomic research with
Page 64
particular reference to design analysis and interpretation of data must
be strengthened
4 Advisory Committee
Following recommendations of the first workshop held in November 1984 in
Ouagadougou an election was held 24 October 1985on to select 4
representatives from national programs to serve on the network Advisory
Committee Representatives from Mali Niger Ivory Coast and Nigeria were
unanimously elected Other members of the Committee include
representatives from and and ICRISATINSAH SAFGRAD the Regional
Coordinator
The elected members from national programs will hold office for a
period of 2 years However one member each from Sahelian and non-Sahelian
countries will retire one year earlier to facilitate the election of new
members (2) from respective regions This will provide continuity and
stability in the design and execution of network programs
It was agreed that the Director of the ICRISAT Sahelian Center will be
an ex-officio member of the Advisory Commitee Representatives from
CIRAD INTSORMIL and other interested organisations can participate as
observers in the Advisory Committee meetings
A first two-day meeting of the Advisory Committee will be held in
Ouagadougou during the first fortnight of January 1986 SAFGRAD offers to
fund air tickets and other expenses for the representatives from the
national programs The Regional Coordinator in consultation with SAFGRAD
will fix the dates of the meeting Invitations will be extended to
appropriate authorities in the national programs with a copy marked to the
Page 65
oncerned members in the national programs
The Advisory Committee will develop a network action plan to carry out
the recommendations of the working groups on sorghum crop improvement The
Regional Coordinator will prepare and distribute minutes andor
recommendations of the Advisory Comittee meeting to each national program
5 Future Workshops
In plenary session participants voted in favor (11 for 2 abstentions) of
holding the workshop every alternate year Rnd conducting group visits to
several national programs during the interver ng years preferably during
the cropping season
Page 66
ANNEX III
53 REVIEW OF PAST RESEARCH IN SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT IN WEST AFRICA
An important body of research results has come out of various research
programs in different countries This section summarizes the results of
research in the areas of soilwaterfertility management and crop
improvement and provides an assessment of the adoption of the technologies
developed
Soil Water and Fertility Management
0SoWl tijage Research station experiments conducted at moderately
high fertility have shown that plowing has consistent beneficial effects on
crop growth with sorghum yield increases averaging 25 These effects are
attributed to improved top soil porosity and water status and to bettcr
root growth End of season plowing has also been shown to improve
conservation of water during the dry season by reducing ovaporation through
the rupture of capillaries and through the suppression and incorporation of
vegetation on the soil surface Repeated plowings have also been found to
dccelerate oxidation and mineralization of humus by contributing to
milcrobial activity and biochemical processes Findlly deep plowing
countributes to improved fertilizer use efficiency
At the farmers level however significant yield effects of plowing
have most often not been observed due to several factors Soil fertility
is generalhy much lower on farmers fields and thus significant
interactions between fertility and enhanced soil ioisture (due to plowing)
are not realized The quality of plo~ing operations is also consistently
Page 67
Plow cuts are shallow and often widely
when conducted by farmers
and farmers efforts to reduce the time necessary for plowing
poorer
spaced This is due to power limitations (poor animal health and
in nutritit)
planting In the Sudaninan and order to reduce conflict with timely
is shortest early where the preliminary phase of rainfall zones
and timely planting limit the Sahelin
season labor onstraints between tillage
is rarely areas where plowing is practiced
Finally end of season plowing
the performed due to conflict with harvesting
operations and because of
immediately at the end of the rapid drying and hardening of the top soil
than The net result of all the above
factors is that probably less rains
of the total sorgh marea is plowed before planting and that which Is
5
resulting in insignificant yield effects plowed is generally poorly done
resultshas shown inconsistent li1 iga Research on tied ridges
factors Experiment station and managementenvironmentaldepending on
under conditions ofis greatestyield responseresults indicate that
plateau and mid-slope fields and on soils where
stress (onsoil-moisture is not limiting
and where so feirtilitywater infiltration is limited)
-o 950 kgha for sorghum have been observed by
of upAverage increments
NPK fertilizer CRISAT on research stations where
medium to high doses of
a mean yield incrementIRAT has observedIn contrastohave been applied
Faso underin Burkina of only 5L kgha on five research
station sites
fertilized conditions
is not practiced by Despite its technical potential tied ridging
The major questions surrounding tied ridgias as a techiique to be
farmers
(1) whether labor required for the construction extended to farmers are
occurs during the labor ridges may be excesively costly if it of tied
(2) whether adequate response can be achieved under low
bottleneck period
Page 68
fertility levels more typical of farmers conditions and (3) whether an
important off-station yield gap emerges even under high fertility levels
Limited test rcosults under farmers conditions indicate that substantial
yield reductions do occur at both high and low fertility levels
Additional farm level research is required to identify the factors
contributing to these substantial yield gaps before this technique can be
considered for extension on a wide scale Finally additional research is
particularly needed to develop farmer-adapted animal-drawn ridge-tieing
equipment to reduce the labor constraint Current work by IITASAFGRAD
appears to hold promise in this direction
Mu hing The major effects of applying crop residues or free-cut
straw as a soil cover are to increase infiltration to reduce erosion to
control weeds to improve soil structure and to reduce sol tewperature
However current results are often contradictory on the yield effects of
mulching under experimental conditions These differences may be explained
by variation in soil types topography and seasonal rainfall patterns
There is no clear superiority of yields under mulching whereas in two
years of on-station trials ICRISAT observed yield increase varying between
50 and 200 for both local and improved sorghum varieties with rice straw
mulching in central Burkina Faso
A major constraint to farmers use is the availability of straw since
much of the available material is diverted to other economic ends Straw
is particularly limited in the northern zones due to the lower rainfall
combined with the greater importance of livestock raising Moreover the
increasing demand for straw as a fuel source in many areas as po ation
densities increase and deforestation becomes more severe seriously
challenges this as a generalized approach for the future
Page 69
SiURp c rJpPJn A less demanding method of reducing erosion on gentle
slopes Is the contour placement of narrow bands of permanent vegetation
between cultivated fields The technique generally occupies less than 10
of the potential cultivated area but has been shown in the Ivory Coast and
In Niger to reduce soil erosion up to one tenth and run-off to one third
under experimental conditions Use under farmers conditions has not been
reported although the practice of planting bands of perennial economic
shrubs to reduce erosion while producing artisanal material is common in
many areas
Contour bunds Although past large-scale projects for the
construction of dirt contour bunds across field slopes were not successful
evaluation of more recent projects suggest considerable potential In
addition to the long-term benefits of reduced top soil loss on-farm tests
conducted by ICRISAT in Burkina Faso have recorded highly significant 20 to
80 yield increases Yield increments of this magnitude are probably
essential to motivate farmers to maintain the fragile bunds More stable
rock-baseo small-scale water harvesting bunds systems have also been
developed and extended in the most densely populated and eivironmentally
degraded portions of Burkina Faso Although this method has been shown to
be successful in bringing highly eroded abandoned fields back into
production its potential in increasing yields on currently cultivated
fields has not yet been determined A combination of such small and large
scale bund systems as appropriate for specific locations represents one
of the most promising sets of technologies for areas of relatively high
population density Additional research however is required to determine
how differences in rainfall soil type slope and system designs effect
performancc Evolution of such systems toward enhanced water harvesting
Page 70
and composite watershed management approaches may hold considerable
promise
Soil fertiity The predominant soils have low natural fertility
Although nitrogen and phosphorous are the most limiting nutrients other
deficiencies (potassium and trace elements) can be readily induced with
intensified continuous cropping Despite the importance the soilof
fertility constraints on-farm economic analyses of chemical fertilizers
applied to sorghum generally show profitable economic returns on average to
N and P in combination only at relatively low doses Moreover wide
variability in returns across rainfall levels and micro-environmental
situations impose a high risk of loss on farmers
Contributing to the poor response of sorghum to compound fertilizers
in many countries is their inefficient nutrient composition In Burkina
Faso for example extension recommendations for sorghum are based on the
available fertilizer mix developed specifically for cotton Indeed with
the exception of research in Nigeria and Senegal little work has been done
to determine optimal formulae and doses for sorghum by agroclimatic zone
and soil type
In addition to the marginal short-term economics of available
fertilizers when applied to local varieties there is increasing evidence
that continuous applications of nitrogenous fertilizers in cereal
production can result in a long-term Inreduction in soil fertilicy
trials conducted over 18 years in Burkina Faso for example IRAT observed
that following seven years of chemical fertili7er application sorghum
yields steadily declined due to soil potassium deficiencies acidification
and aluminium toxicity Only lirge applications of animal manure in
Page 71
conjunction with chemical fertilizer was found to counteract the negative
effects by maintaining or improving soil fertility Additonal research
should be focussed on monitoring the long-term effects of chemical
fertilizer use Preliminary evidence suggests that mixed-farm
(livestock-cropping) systems which recycle bio-mass through animal manure
may be an essential complement to sustained chemical fertilizer use
Because of large local deposits of rock phosphate in several countries
considerable emphasis is currently being given to accelerate its production
and distribution Although trials have confirmed residual yield effects of
a basal dose of granulated rock phosphate when compared to imported
soluble phosphates it is a generally less economical source of phosphorous
Additional constraints to increased farm level use are difficulties
encountered in applying and incorporating the finely granulated phosphates
and the multi-year delay in realizing the full yield benefits Recent
results with partially acidulated forms of rock phosphatc show mixed
results in overcoming some of these problems
Sorghum-based Interc ropp ing
Intercropping research work in association with sorghum has not been
extensively covered Limited work done in Nigeria Burkina Faso and Mall
have provided some relevant information To improve intercrop cowpea grain
yields it is essential that N is added to the system Sorghum tolerates
cowpea competition better than millet High intercrop densities are
tolerated better by sorghum if the cowpea is removed early
Page 72
In view of maximum utilization of resources (soil water and nutrient)
and stabilization of yield fluctuation due to climate research on
intercropping needs to be intensified
Sorghum Crop Improvement
Grnasm clletL and evaluation In most countries of the region
with the possible exception of Tchad Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone
extensive collections of sorghum landraces have been made ORSTOM IBPGR
and ICRISAT have been instrumental in assisting national programs in
obtaining these collections However only collections in Nigeria
Senegal and Mali have been systematically evaluated Some countries
maintain Working germplasm collections comprised of the most popular
varieties and also certain landraces improved throtigh mass selection
Landraces continue to be identified for general use in many countries
In Mali over 300 cultivars were evaluated for their cytoplasmic male
sterility maintainer and restorer reactions Subsequently separate
breeding populations were constituted and improved through recurrent
selection Several thousand entries from the world collection have been
screened at ICRISAT Center for low production of strigol a stimulant that
promotes Striag a germination About 300 entries with low strigol have been
identified for agronomic evaluation in West African agroclimatic
conditions
The germplasm evaluations thus far have indicated that much can be
gained through more systematic screening of the local collections for
sources of pest disease and drought resistance Because most collertions
have a great diversity of flowering dates reliable screening for stress
Page 73
resistance traits has been difficult
Introduction Sorghum varieties and breeding lines have been
introduced in great numbers in most countries in the hope that some of them
could be directly transferred for farmer use Over the past 10 years there
has been an increasing supply of such introductions from ICRISAT Center
USA and the ALAD program
In on-station preliminary evaluations a very high proportion of such
introductions have been discarded because of susceptibility to leaf
diseases grain mold headbugs and drought The selected promising
introductions have been included in numerous replicated on-station trials
throughout the region Although some of the varieties have demonstrated
impressive yield potential under good management there have been repeated
examples of poor performance under drought stress manifested by poor
stands poor panicle exertion floral blasting stalk lodging or the
formation of unacceptably soft grain Performance in on-farm tests
particularly those managed by farmers has been consistently disappointing
with an extremely small number performing as well as or marginally better
than local varieties
In Burkina Faso two introductions were released for farmer use
Framida and E 35-1 Framida a brown-grain variety is resistant to Stidg
and has excellent seedling emergence and vigor E 35-1 has white-grain and
performs well only on good soils and on plots near dwellings which are
relatively rich in organic matter Both Framida and E 35-1 respond to
soil-water management at a greater rate than the local variety A third
variety SPV 35 is well adapted to low rainfall Framida is a promising
variety also in Mali Ghana Togo and Benin E 35-1 has consistently shown
Page 74
superior performance under good management and on rich soils in Senegal and
Gambi a
Besides their direct use as varieties several introductions have also
been used as parents in crossing programs Zerazera sorghums noted for
their vigorous plant growth have been used as parents in Senegal Mali
Burkina Niger and Nigeria Parents of the most successful hybrids in the
Indian national program (2219A 2077A CS3541) have been incorporated into
Burkinabe and Malian breeding populations by pedigree crosses The
American variety Redlan has contributed to leaf disease resistance and
drought tolerance in crosses in Mali and Nigeria
amieplusmn Zvimetth hybridisation Directed varietal crosses
were extensively undertaken in the West African region around 1960 The
early crosses both in francophone and anglophone countries were based on
the dwarf American variety CK-60 and local landraces Progeny were
obtained with impressive yield potential under better management and input
but with unacceptable grain quality for food use In the late 1960s IRAT
breeders made a number of wide crosses between landraces from the region
One of those crosses (Hadien Kori-Senegal x Moumoury-Niger) gave the
variety CE-90 which become a good early variety andhas an important parent
In present crossing programs in the region A major deficiency with this
particular variety however is poor emergence and seedling vogour
In Nigeria the crossing program has been based heavily on a dwarf
Kaura which transmits excellent yiold potential to progeiy but also a
strong susceptibility - grain mold Recent crosses theinvolving Farafara
landraces have given very good early generation progeny
Page 75
An IDRC funded breeding program in Senegal exploited random mating
popuations and produced a number of experimental varieties for the southern
zones Unfortunately local varieties were not used in the constitution of
the popultions and the derived varieties although possessing very good
yield potential have poor grain quality due to mold problem
The ICRISAT breeding program in Burkina primarily has concentrated on
crosses between elite introductions and local Guineenses Following the
pedigree method of breeding recovery of desirable recombinznts was very
low Nevertheless a number of promising progenies have been identified
and are now under evaluation More recently a modified backcross method of
breeding has yielded a range of progenies for evaluation in future years
The ICRISAT program in Burkina Faso with specific emphasis of
incorporating Striga resistance into agronomically desirable lines has led
to the identification of a number of promising lines that are under
evaluation in Striga-infested areas in many countries of the region On6
of such lines 82-S-50 (ICSV 1002 HV) has excellent seedling vigor stable
yield and resistance to Stijg
Starting in 1979 in Mali breeding populations and pedigree crosses
were established by ICRISAT involving both local and exotic parents
Populations are recombined by full sib mating based on desired criteria
such as visual drought tolerance panicle shape and grain hardness Early
generation progeny (F3 and F4) are evaluated at several locations to
subject the material against an array of stresses Promising progeny is
systematically crossed back into populations in order to assure constant
population improvement As early as the F5 progeny are evaluated for
yield potential food quality and seedling vigor The program is now
Page 76
generating a number of experimental varieties which combine acceptable
yield levels with desirable grain quality disease and drought resistance
however the stability of yield performance under low management needs to
be verified Nevertheless the Incoporation of local germplasm as parents
the multilocational evaluation and the emphasis -ngrain quality in the
selection process should offer ample diversity of useful materials for a
range of management levels
It is generally recognized by breeders both inside and outside West
Africa that crosses involving local Guineenese parents result in very few
useful recombinants The Guineense plant type has a number of wild
characters which come through strongly in the progeny some of these are
low seed number per panicle and poor thre-hability For these reasons the
Guineense group has been avoided by breeders throughout the world In
order to recover the tough adaptation traits needed by improved varieties
in West Africa however it may be a desirable strategy for breeders to
exploit the guineenso gene pool as difficult as that may be ICRISAT
experience with population breeding and modified backcrossing has provided
a broad useful base for future crop improvement in the reg on
ElflytrLJdsL The potential for yil icrements through heterosis has
been demonstrated convincingly in Nigeria Senegal and Mali However no
suitable hybrid is yet available in the region possessing high and stabie
yield under rainfed conditions and with acceptable qualities IRATISRA
has spent considerable resources developing F1 hybrids for the Senegal
river basin under irrigation However both male and female parents were
introduced materiat As a result these hybrids were plagued by grain mold
and charcoal rot susceptibility under rainfed conditions In spite of the 5
tha yield potential under irrigation Although the Nigerian hybrids have
Page 77
parents with Kaura genes which result in excellent yield potential grain
quality remains unacceptable
The ICRISAT Malian program has evahted F1 hybrids developed from
introduced female parents and both introduced and local males In spite of
excellent yield levels there was severe susceptibility to charcoal rot and
poor grain fill due to post floral drought The ICRISAT programs in both
Mali and Burkina had similar experience with very productive hybrids CSH5
and 6 introduced from India
Most breeders in West Africa agree that there is very good scope for
hybrids for yield gains and stability under drought but the parents must be
bred under the harsh West African environment and the grain quality must be
selected for West African food needs In Mali local B-line progeny are
now in early varietal testing The breedling nursery of Samaru also offers
a rich range of B-line breeding materials New and diverse B-line from
ICRISAT Center are currently being evaluated for their potential use Once
adapted B-lines have been sterilized for use in West Africa it can prepare
the way for the rapid development of promising hybrids
Sources of inset gpl a-nud diseas ej5 amp Through evaluation of
germplasm collections especially introduced nurseries from ICRISAT Center
an impressive depository of genetic sources of pest resistance is now
available
Sources of shootfly resistances identified at ICRISAT Center have been
reconfirmed under shootfly infestation in Nigeria Mali Burkina and
Senegal Glossy leaf character and presence of trichomes on abaxial leaf
surface have been found to influence non-preference for oviposition of
shootfly
Page 78
Resistance to stemborer is available but is highly influenced by the
stage of growth when the plant is attacked Several low susceptible lines
have been identified in Nigeria and at ICRISAT Center
Breeding efforts at ICRISAT Center have resulted in the successful
incorporation of resistances against shootfly stalk borer and midge into
agronomically desirable lines These lines need to be tested In WA
conditions a
The excellent midge resistance of AF-28 PM-11344 have been
reconfirmed in West Africa At ICRISAT Center several cultivars (DJ6514
12579C IS 12573 and TAM2566) have maintained high level of resistance to
midge under no-choice situations The variety PM-11344 has been crossed
into genetic male steriles and a breeding population will soon be available
for midge-resistance sources in Mali for further selection
Work by entomologists in Nigeria and Mali has independently confirmed
that the major headbug species is Eyplusmnytlus eg a and that there is a
headbug complex that includes over 12 important species Headbugs are
particularly damcqing to grain soundness when rains occur after flowering
Local Guineense sorghums rarely suffer from headbug attack even when
flowering is early These sorghums have both lax panicles and long
coreacious glumes Most elite introduced sorghums have compact panicles
short glumes and are susceptible to headbug attack Recently a factorial
experiment in Mali has provided certain indication that the long glume
factor is more important than the lax panicle factor in controlling
Epounduyr ylu attack Although the long coreaceous glume character has been
avoided in modern L eeding programs elsewhere it may be important in West
Africa to provide headbug tolerance
Page 79
The most important leaf diseases in West Africa are sooty stripe leaf
blight grey leaf spot and anthracnose Sources of resistance to all these
diseases have been found in both introduced and local materials
Stalk rot is a particular problem on riaterials with high yield
potential Introduced germplasm and many new progeny breeding programsin
offer hope for stable resistance This trait appears to be associated with
nonsenescent (stay green) character of the sorghum plant
Grain mold caused by a complex of fungi (EuJsarium Curvularia and
Phoma species) severely affects grain quality when humidity is high during
grain fill Many local Guineense varieties have very good grain mold
resistance The few published reports in the past on grain mold resistance
indicate that tannins are responsible for resistance in colored grain
sorghums However recently at ICRISAT Center several cultivars (1S14384
and IS 14390) with high mold resistance but without the tannin-containing
testa layer have been identified
The variety Framida and N13 have consistently demonstrated excellent
resistance to Strina hemnth_ in str1ga sick plots as well as in
naturally infested farmer fields Many others are being added to this
list Breeing efforts to incorporate such resistance into agronomically
desirable lines has produced encouraging results Host plant resistance
mechanisms due to low production of strigol and due to mechanical barriers
have been found
DroQaht -rsitane Seedling vigor and drought resistance greatly
affect plant stands and yield stability Many local cultivars have very
good seedling drought resistance
Page 80
Although totally reliable screening procedures for drought at the
various stages of plant development are not yet available progress is
being made in this direction Experimentation at Cinzana Mali for
example demonstrated that the seedling (drought pit) screening method
developed at ICRISAT Center gives varietal responses that correspond very
well with field drought conditions The screening method has been used in
the ICRISAT breeding programs in Burkina and Mali The breeding pogram in
Senegal has emphasized early seedling vigor as an important trait for yield
stability Promising cultivars like CE 145 and CE 151 have been developed
through such breeding effort
Drought resistance and susceptibility during the vegetative and
panicle Initiation phases are more difficult to evaluate because foaturities
vary within breeding nurseries and because stress conditions vary widely
between years and locations Because reliable screening techniques for
drought stress at these stages of plant growth are not available where
drought screening of mature plants is done it is often based on empirical
methods One emplrical approach to more rationally evaluate drought
tolerance has been the multilocational evaluation of the same material
That way a range albeit random of drought stresses are imposed on the
breeding lines Drought susceptibility is manifested by poor panicle
exertion floral blasting non-productive tillers or soft grains Because
crop mechanisms for drought tolerance and resistance are complex and still
poorly understood much more work in West Afri4a must be done to
systematize the evaluation of breeding materials for drought resistance
Page 81
Grain Qul tIy Sorghum has evolved in West Africa as a food crop well
suited to the available processing and food preparations The local
Guineense grain is typically very hard The grain hardness character is
not only important for food quality but also important for other reasons
such as storability
Dehulling studies in Mali and Burkina have consistently measured bran
loss of Guineense grain in the range of 25-35 Soft grain can have 50
bran loss during grain processing Soft grain often results from drought
stress during grain fill in high yield potential introduced varieties and
hybrids Headbug feeding and egg laying as well as gain mold can also
result in soft grain Since the ability to form hard grain under moisture
stress is uncommon in most introduced sorghums that trait must be
carefully selected in breeding progeny
Extensive study has been done on the most popular West African sorghum
food plusmn1 which is a stiff porridge In Mali mini-ti tests have been
developed which reliably predict the gel stability of 20g grain samples
from breeding selections After many years of testing it is now clear
that hard gmain is well c~rrelated with to gel stability a character
highly appreciated by consumers
Page 82
ANNEX IV
54 TRAINING AT ICRISAT CENTER
ICRISAT was established in July 1972 at Hyderabad India It is
located 28 Km west of Hyderabad on the Hyderabad-Bombay highway The
Research Institute contains 1394 hectares provided by the Indian
Government The Institute has the two major soil types of the semi-arid
tropic countries the vertisols and alfisols
The mandate of ICRISAT is to
1 Serve as a world center for the improvement of grain yield and quality
of sorghum peral millet chickpea pigeonpea and groundnut and to act
as a world repository for the genetic resources of these crops
2 Develop improved ferming systems that will help to increase and
stabilize agricultural production through more effective use of
natural and human resources in the seasonally dry semi-arid tropics
3 Identify constraints to agricultural development in the semi-arid
tropics and evaluate means of alleviating them through technological
and institutional changes
4 Assist in the development and transfer of technology to the farmer
through cooperation with national and regional research programs and
by sponsoring workshops and conferences operating training programs
and assisting extension activities
ICRISAT has established training programs (since 1974) to improve
background and qualifications of agriculturists in developing countries
Sciettists in plant breeding physiology enomology pathology
microbiology socloeconomics land and water management crop production
Page 83
and management and extension methods collaborate in ICRISATs research and
training programs
TYPES OF TRAINING AND OBJECTIVES
ICRISAT has tailored its training programs to meet the diverse needs
of developing countries in the semi-arid tropics by establishing broad
categories of training
IN-SERVICE FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists (with a BSc MSc or PhD)
who have been employed as leaders in a country program Objectives are
- To provide mid-career scientists an opportunity of working with senior
research scientists in on-going research and development programs
- To acquaint these scientists with the recent developments approaches
and techniques in their area of expertise and employment
RESEARCH FELLOWS
This program was established for scientists who have recently
completed their academic training to a MSc or PhD degree Objectives are
- To provide an opportunity of working with senior research scientists
- To acquaint these professionals with the most recent research
developments approaches and techniques
- To provide interested professionals an opportunity to do research on a
specific problem related to ICRISATs overall research program
Page 84
RESEARCH SCHOLARS
This program is designed for MSc or PhD degree candidates from
developing countries in the semi-arid tropics or those interested in
working in the semi-arid tropics Candidates complete course work at
selected universities and conduct research for their MSc dissertation or
PhD thesis at ICRISAT They are supervised by senior scientists who are
approved as their research guides Objectives are
- To give promising students an opportunity to develop competence in
technical and managerial skills and techniqaues in crop breeding
physiology pathology entomology microbiology socioeconomics
farming systems and other sciences related to increased and stabilized
food production in the semi-arid tropics
- To provide formal training opp- tunities leading to an advanced degree
for students planning for careers in scientific agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics and interested in conducting research on a specific
problem within JiRISATs mandae
IN-SERVICE TRAIhEES
To meet the very specialized needs of particular individuals and
cooperating institutions short-term (up to 6 months) training programs are
designed in collaboration with cooperating agencies in the semi-arid
tropics
While the areas studied must fall within ICRISATs research and
support activities approach and depth of treatment are tailored for
-inagersscientists agriculturistr administrators or others engaged in
specialized activities While there are no specific academic degree
Page U
requirements candidates must be engaged In Jobs directly related to
increasing and stabilizing food production in the semi-arid tropics
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The program is designed to provide opportunities to
- Learn breeding techniques for improving and stabilizing yields
- Assess and learn to utilize the potential of the germplasm available
for use in the semi-arid tropics
- Practice and learn breeding techniques and requirements for efficient
and effective identification and utilization of resistances to factors
which reduce production In the semi-arid tropics
- Develop skills in organizing and managing a successful breeding
program
- Work and study with crop improvement scientists
CROP PRODUCTION
The program gives trainees an opportunity to
- Gain practical skills for increasing crop production in the semi-arid
tropics through an integrated approach to the utilization of natural
and human resources
- Assess improved cropping and management procedures and learn how to
adapt them to local conditions in ever changing environments
- Learn to identify and reduce adverse influences that limit crop
production In rainfed semi-arid tropics
- Develop an appreciation of the role and the importance of utilizing
social cultural and economic factors in improving agricultural
production
Develop the ability to use extension techniques or coinunicatina new
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and improved technology for increased and stabilized food production
FARMING SYSTEMS
The program is to provide opportunities to
- Develop research skills in natural resource utilization related to
catchment area development for improved land and water management
- Become proficient in production factors research methods and
techniqaues related to agronomic practices cropping systems soil
fertility soil physics plant protection farm power machinery
socloeconomics and management skills to ensure increased and
stabilized food production for the rainfed semi-arid tropics
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
Short-term special training is offered in entomology pathology
physiology farming systems agricultural economics seed production and
agricultoral engineering as required and negotiated with cooperating
institution Limited opportunities for short-term apprenticeships in
selected disciplines are available where applicants have their full
personal support
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COURSE SCHEDULE
-n-nlqeMLcEampLfta
Remauch FA-a khal~r-
- I to 6 Months 1 to 2 Years 1 to 2 Years (depends on arr~ngements made with Universities and the thesis research proposal)
lnsii IWBn
Crop Improvement -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Sorghum pearl millet groundnut pigeonpea
ch ickpea 15 Sept to 15 March shy 6 Months
Crop Production -Sorghum pearl milletgroundnut pigeonpea - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
Chickpea pigeonpea - 15 Sep to 15 Mar - 6 Months
Farming Systems - 15 May to 15 Nov - 6 Months
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ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
- To qualify for the ICRISAT Training Program candidates must
- Be nominated and sponsored by an agency or institution working in the
semi-arid tropics
- Have requisite academic training experience and performance records
Recommendations of sponsoring agencies ere evaluated against training
opportunities and facilities
- Be willing to study or conduct research or field production trials in
subject areas compatible with ICRISATs mission and the cooperating
and sponsoring agencies programs
- Trainees are expected to have an adequate command of English the
primary medium of instruction An intensive English course for
candidates from non-English speaking countries may be undertaken for
two months in Hyderabad prior to leginning an ICRISAT training
program
NOMINATION AND SPONSORING AGENCY
Candidates are ordinarily nominated by the agency or organization
which employs them or guarantees to employ them These agencies or
organizations may also be the sponsor or may seek sponsorship from a
funding institution Normally the sponsor will provide funds to cover
- Travel of the trainees to and from ICRISAT
- An incidental allowance for the trainees personal expenses
- Room food medical insurance training and other expenses while in
residence in Hyderabad
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ICRISAT has a limited number of partial or complete scholarships
Agencies may apply for these on behalf of their candidates
ACCOMMODATION
Single dormitory rooms to accommodate 140 persons ind 16 two-room
furnished flatlets are located on the research center A cafeteria and two
cantee-is are provided on campus for the purchase of food An ICRISAT
shuttle bus system itoperating from the research center to the city on a
limited schedule Recreation facilities (swimming basketball football
cricket lawn tennis table tennis and other games) reading room and a
reference library are available
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ANNEX V
55 PRINCIPAL STAFF IN THE REGIONAL PROGRAM AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS
551 Program Manager
1 To represent the regional team to West African countries and the
ICRISAT Center
2 To be a member of the regional sorghum network advisory committee
3 To be responsible for the day-to-day administration of the regional
team To organize a staff to assist with this activity
4 To participate in the development of arrangements with the Government
of the country to host the regional team This would include
recognition of the program privileges for the project and project
staff movement of people to and from the project (including
individuals from within and outside of the West African region) etc
5 To organize workshops and take leadership In the organization of an
annual progress report for the regional program
6 To be himself a scientist and as a program matures and time pqrmlts
undertake some research contributing to the functions of the team
7 To b responsible for the purchap- of equipment and spare parts To
be responsible for the final identification of land the Interactions
with the host station and the devilopment of facilities (including
working with contractors) to offset the added burden of the regional
team on the host station
8 To facilitate interactions with universities and other agencies in and
outside the region that might contribute to such activities as
soctoeconomics farming systems food technology bird control etc
He would call on the staff of the regional program and others in the
region to assist in making effective these interactinG activities
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9 To assist in the identification and arrangements for consultants and
for the organization of special seminars relevant to the objectives of
the project He would be assisted in these activities by the staff of
the regional project and other intcLed individuals in the region
10 To have an important responsibility in interacting with the donors
including budgets and eports
11 To interact with ICRISAT Center throwih the Principal Training Officer
at ISC in relation to the various training opportunities offered at
the Center and also to call upon the Principal Training officer ISC
Niger to contribute to short-term training activities for sorghum in
the region
The program manager would be the team leader and have primary
responsibility to make possible the effective and harmonious working of the
team and its interactions in thb region He should be a member of Lne team
technically and encourage a sitLtion where each scientist is
self-expressing and creative It is a position requiring demonstration
experience a a scientist and in the management of scientific activities
552 Breeders
1 To introduce and evaluate on a continuing basis breeding stocks and
germplasm accessions from all over the world Useful introductions
would be provided to national programs for their use
2 To develop high-yielding aiid able varieties and hybrids for the
areas in the region where these crops are found to be competitive
This would involve multilocation evaluation to identify those entries
with the most stabie performance
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3 To develop regional trials and nurseries for evaluation by national
programs in the region
4 To jointly evaluate with scientists in country programs their
nursery and yield trial material as well as that provided by the
regional program To develop together plans for the future processing
of these materials including the identification of parents for
crossing for the selection of new lines and in relation to the
development of hybrids
5 To conduct as a service regional crossing blocks and off-season
nurseries to advance materials Jointly selected in national programs
and In the regional program
6 To work cloely with the entomologist and pathologist to ensure that
breeding stocks are properly evaluated for resistance traits To
cooperate with the ICRISAT Center and other regional programs on
striga retstance and also work in cooperation with local food
technological research agencies for evaluation of nore advanced
breeding stock
7 To assist seed production agencies particularly as they begin to
produce seeds of net varieties and hybrids To contribute by
assisting with the maintenance of pure type breeders seed Also to
contribute as required from time to time to issues related to seed
certification and the seed law particularly to encourage countries
to have uniform standards across the region
8 To maintain evaluate and use germplasm accessions Breeders should
also collect and contribute useful landrace material that they find
while working in the region
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9 To work with local universities for tho establishment and conduct of
short-duration training programs Also to serve as a guide for local
students at universities within and outside of the region
10 To help with the identification of locations in the iagion imporant
for the most effective evaluation of varietal material in the crop
improvement program
11 To consult on a regular basis wit national programs to help them
establish the most effective crop improvement program This would
include program organization and facilities required for a national
program
12 To work closely with ICRISAT Center and ICRISATs other regional
sorghum programs in the evaluation of nurseries and trials and
participating in the evaluation of new techniques and procedures
Also to work effectively with other agencies contributing to research
in the region
13 To cooperate with the production agronomist in terms of materials
evaluated in both sole and intercrop situations and in the array of
environments important to sorghum and millets in the region
14 To cooperate wth experiment station management and in efforts to
improve conditions of field research at important sorghum and millet
stations in the region
15 To attempt to identify and encourage local sources of supply of
expendable products such as field tags pollinating bags and seed
envelopes Also to assist with supply of items such as field books
equipment for hand emasculation etc
16 To provide an effective regional coordination in terms of pedigree
organization selection criteria and note taking testing procedures
release requirements etc as relevant and when contributing
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17 To provide effective discipline leadership for the region at the
workshops
The sorghum breeders weild be members of ICRISAT regional
multidisciplinar team with a primary objective to develop superior
varieties and hybric for yield ard yield stability and to contribute to
the development oc effective stable national program capability
553 Production Agronomist
1 To determine the manaement best suited to new varieties and hybrids
over the rce of rainfall and soil conditions in the region This
can include sowing dates seed rates plant spacing in the field
fertilizer rates and application methods etc It can involve the use
of irrigation
2 To determine crop-limiting soil factors such as major and minor
element deficiencies acidity and aluminium toxicity problems etc
and steps that might be taken to rectify the problem(s)
3 To work with the entomol1gst and pathologist to create the most
effective screening procedures (for example fertility and water
control as related to ths expression of charcoal rot) and to assist
with the development of cultural practices in relation to control of
disease insect and weed pests
4 To assist national programs in developing the stature required to
undertake appropriate agronomic work on sorghum in their countries
5 To work with universities in the region to conduct short-course
training programs for sorghum workers in the region Also to serve as
a guide for thcsis research of local students at universities within
and outside the region
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6 To cooperate in the improvement of experiment station field research
capability of locations important for sorghum
7 To work closely with physiology and farning systns resoaich at
ICRISAT Center and adapt to local environmental conditions new
techniques and procedures develcped there and elsewhere
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the workshop
The production agronomist would be a member of the ICRISAT team with
responsibility to develop and manage high yielding stable varieties and
hybrids in the region He would also be responsible for developing
national capability in the discipline
554 PhysiologistAgronomist
1 To measure prevalent climatic and edaphic factors that affect
germination emergence and subsequent growth and development of the
sorghum plant
2 To measure the effect of drought at different growth stages and to
differentiate sorghum genotypes that resist (rought
3 To develop andor adapt screening techniques developed at ICRISAr
Center for seedling establishment and drought at different plant
growth stages
4 To conduct relevant research on drought management and on striga
control
5 To work in close cooperation with national programs to develop their
own effective capacity to deal with drought and striga problems
6 To assist universities in the region to conduct training progrAms and
-serve as advisor for thesis research of local students within id
outside the region
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7 To conduct as a service various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of cooperating countries entries from
the regional programs and entries introduced from outside th3 region
which are possible sources of resistance traits
8 To provide effective leadership for the discipline at the regional
workshops
The PhysiologistAgronomist would be part of the regional team He
would participate as member of a multidisciplinary team working toward a
common goal of providing higher yielding and more stable varieties and
hybrids He would also be responsible for work directly related to his
specialization to make his research contribution more effective and to
strengthen his discipline in the region
555 Pathologist and Entomologist
1 To determine tha importance of the various insect and disease pests on
sorghum and millets and to identify locations where breeding stocks
and germplasm can be evaluated for resistance
2 To learn of pest-plant-environment interactions to be able to most
effectively evaluate breeding stocks and germplasm for resistance
Such studies would also be important to the development of pest
control by cultural practices and possibly chemicals These studies
would include such things as population dynamics or disease severity
at different times of the year (leading to the most effective planting
date for screening) they would contribute to a study of mechanisms
of resistance look at alternate hosts and predators and parasites
To initiate studies on striga especially on its control by host plant
resistance They could adapt useful techniques from ICRISAT Center
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and elsewhere to local environmental conditions Studies as
mentioned above would be relevant
3 To keep a constant vigilance for shifts in disease and insect pest
problems particularly susceptibilities of promising new breeding
stock This would be part of an effort to avoid release of any
varieties or hybrids that would increase the incidence of pest
problems in the farming community
4 To work with national programs to develop their own effective
capability to deal with insect and disease problems The current
capability is very poor and it can be expected that this would be a
continuous effort over time
5 To assist universities in the region to conduct training programs and
serve as advisors for thesis research of ocal students at
universities within and outside the region
6 Tu work with cognizant personnel in Nest Airica on such is-ues as
plant quarantine which affect the free exchange of sorghum germplasm
in the region
7 To assist national programs establish a network of coordinated
regional disease nurseries for the identification of stable disease
resistance on a continuing basis
8 T conduct as a services various field screening nurseries made up of
entries from national programs of West African countries entries from
the regional programso and entries introduced from outside of the
region which are suspected to be valuable as a source of resistance
for important traits (this would include nurseries from ICRISAT
Cents- INTSORIIL and possibly others)
9 To provide effective leadership for the disciplines at the workshop
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The pathologist and entomoiogist would be part of the regional team
They would participate as members of a multidisciplinary team i--king
toward a common goal of providing high-yielding and stable varieties and
hybrids They would also be responsible for work directly related to their
specializations to make their research contribution most effective and to
strengthen their disciplines in the region
556 Administrative Officer
The administrative officer would have responsibility for
a maintenance of accounts
b preparation of budgets
c disbursement of funds
d purchasing
e personnel activities
f vehicle allocation and maintenance and
g supervision of administrative staft
557 Experiment Station Development Manager
1 To initiate supervise and coordinate the construction of all
facilities-land water buildings equipment utilities-required by the
regional program
2 To organise and coordinate all farm operations for the efficient conduct of
experiments to achieve the objectives of the research program
3 To design plan and coordinate irrigation for experimental work
4 To ensure efficient management of labour in farm operations and to
coordinate all farm operation activities
5 To organise and coordinate activities of seed processing and drying so as
to ensure production of a high quality seed required for fulfilment of the
objectives of the regional program
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6 To carry out plant protection activities at the experimental station in
accordance with the guidelines of ICRISAT
7 To provide basic facilities and assistance to scientists in carrying out
experimental work in glasshouses
8 To plan organise and direct land development operations for the purpose of
development of an efficient research station at regional sorghum
station(s)
9 To work with the Program Manager in the distribution and management of land
and research facilities and to implement the programs and the policies as
laid down by ICRISAT
10 To identify and assist in procurement all equipment and supplies for land
development and farm operations as required by the regional program
11 To organize and establish an effective maintenance program for all physical
facilities including equipment
12 To advise and assist national programs when requiredv in experiment
station development and management and assizt with the training of their
staff
