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JOB CHARACTERISTICS, ENGAGEMENT, BURNOUT AND
ORGANISATIONAL COMMTTMENT OF MANAGEMENT
STAFF AT A PLATINUM MINE IN THE NORTH-WEST
PROVINCE
Jeanette H.M. Joubert. B. Corn. Hons.
Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment oi'the requirements for the. degrec Magis~er
Commercii in Industrial Psychology at the Konh-West University. Potchefstroom Campus.
Study leader: Prof. S. Rothmann
Potchefstroon~
2005
COMMENTS
The readcr is reminded of the following:
In this mini-dissertation the prescriptions. as set our by the Manual (5"' ed.) of the
American Psychological Association (.4PA) were followed regarding the references and
the editorial style. This practice is in line with the policy of the Programme in lndustrial
Psychology and WorkWell: The Research T-lnit for People. Policy and Performance.
North-West University. Potchefsiroom, South Africa.
The mini-dissertation is submitted in the form of a research article. The name of the study
leader appears on the article as it was sent for consideration for pub!ication.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and ,fo~wilost, I expres., tny humble grutitude to n v Crenior ,fi)r gruntirrg me the
opportuni@. ~alen!.s andperseverarm lo conlplete his rrudy.
In writing this mini-dissertation I was blessed with the direct and indirect assistance of many
people and organisations. I would like to thank each of the following kej individuals and
organisations for their respective contributions to the completion of this project:
MI; patient husband Marius and precious daughter Jean-Mari for their sacrifice; support.
and encouragement.
My parents Hannes and Nita and brothers Chris and Nico for thsir understanding and for
tolerating my absence in their lives during this research project.
0 My mentor Hannes van Renshurg for encouraging me to believe in my potential.
My friends Santie, Joanne and lolanda for their selfless emotional support.
0 Prof. S. Rothmann for his patient supervision, guidance, statistical analysis of the
empirical data, as well as the teclulical editing ofthis mini-dissertation.
hls. E. Roodt at the Ferdinand Postma Library for her assistance and guidance with the
literature starch. - Ms. C. van der Walt for the language editing
All the research participan7.s for their time and efl'url in completing the multiple
questionnaires.
0 My employer and the National Research Foundation for the financial assistance.
TABLE OF COYTENTS
List of Tables
Abstract
Opsomming
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTIOR
1 . I Problem statement
1.2 Research objectives
1.2.1 General objective
1.2.2 Spccific objectives
1.3 Research method
1.3.1 Research design
1.3.2 Participants
1 .33 Measuring instxments
1.3.4 Statistical analysis
1.4 Chapter division
1.5 Chapter summary
References
Page
iv
CFL4PTER 2: ARTICLE 16
CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDflIONS
3.1 Conclusion 54
3.1. l C:oncIusions in terms of specific theoretical objectives 54
3.1.2 Conclusions in tern~s of speciiic empirical objectives 56
3.2 Limitations of this research 58
.3 3 Recommendations 59
3 3 .1 Recon~n~endations for the organisation 60
i .3.2 Recommcndaticrns for future research 6 !
References 6:
LIST OF TABLES
Description Page
Table 1
Characteristics of the Participants (A;= 202)
Table 2
Goodness-of-Fit Statistics for the Hypothcsised MBI-GS Model
Table 3
Goodness-of-Fit Statistics for the Hypothesiscd UWES Model
Table 4
Factor Loadings for Principal Factor Extraction and Varirnax Rotation on
JDRS items
Table 5
Descriptive Statistics, Alpha Coefficients and Product-Momeni
Correlation Coefficients of the Scales
Table 6
Multiple Regression Analyses with Exhaustion. Cynicism. Vigour and
Dedication as Dependent Variables
Table 7
Multiple Regression Analyses with I11 I Icalth as Dependent Variable
Table 8
Multiple Regression Analyses with Orgenisational Commitment
as Dependcnt Variable
ABSTRACT
Title: Job charactcrist~ca, engagement, burnout and organisational commitrner~t of
management staff at a platinum mine in the North-West Province.
Kev terms: lob demands. job resources. engagement, bumout. organisational commitment.
management, mine.
In the new world economy the hey differentiator of competitive advantage is an
organisation's human resources. Increasingly_ cmployees hale to cope with multiple demands
arising from various rolcs. often with limited resources and no guarantee of job security. In
monitoring and improving employee effectiveness in coping with niuliiple new demands.
stimulating their growth and enhancing their well-being as well as organisational
performance, burnout and engagement are specific research areas.
'The objectives of this study were to investigate the relationships between humout.
engagement, job demands. job resources and organisational commitment of management s:aff
at a platinum mine in the North-West Province, and to determine which variables best predict
burnout, engagement and organisational commitmcut.
.4 cross-sectional survey design was used. The srudy population consisted of manasement
staff at a platinum mine in the North U'cst Province ( N = 202). The Job Demands-Resources
Scale, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale: Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Suncy. a
Health Questionnaire, and an Organisational Commitment scale were administered.
Descriptive statistics, product-moment correlation coefficients and multiple regression
analyscs were used to analyse the data.
The results indicated that burnout correlated significantly with job demands, job resources.
cngagetnent, health and organisational commitment. Engagement. correlated significantly w i ~ h
job resources. health, and organisational comrnitmcnt. Exhaustion was best predicted by
workload. job insecurity and lack of resources whilst cynicism was predicted by poor
organisational support and advancement opportunities. Fngagement was bcst predicted by
organisational support. and organisational commitnlrnt \\'as predicted by both burnout and
engagement. 111 hcalth was predicted by exhaustion.
Recommendations wcrc made for future research.
OPSOMMING
Onderwerp: Werkseienskappe, begeestering. uitbranding en organisasieverbondenheid van
bestuurders by 'n platina-myn in die Noordwes Provinsie.
Sleutelwoorde: - Werkseise. werkhulpbronne, hegeestering. uitbranding. organlsaslever-
bondenheid, bestuurders. myn.
In die nuwe w&eldekonomie is 'n organisasic se enigste kompeterende voordeel sy menslike
hulpbronnne. Werknzmers moet toenemend voidoen aan veelvoudige werkseise wat
voortspruit uit meervoudige rolle - dikwels met beperkte hulpbronne en gccn waarborg van
werksekuriteit nie. Uitbranding en werksbegeestering is 'n spesifieke navorsingsarea rakende
die monitering en verbctcring van werknerner-doeltreffendheid, die stimulering v w
wcrknemel--goei: die verbetering van werknemer-welsyn asook die verbeterin~ van
organisasie-prestasie.
Die doelstellings van hierdie studie was om die verband tusscn uitbranding, begeestering.
werkseise, werkhulpbronne en organisasievcrbondenheid van bestuurdex by 'n platina-myn
in die Noordwes Provinsie te bepaal. en vas re stel watter veranderlikes uithranding.
begeestering en organisasieverbondenheid die beste voor~pel.
'n Dwarssnee opnarne-ontwcrp is gebruik. Die studiepopulasie hct bestam uir bestuurders b)
'n platina-myn in die. Noordwes I'rovinsie (IV = 202). Die Werkseise-hulpbronneskaal. Utrecht
Werksbegccsteri~lgskaal, Masiach-uitbrandingsvraelys - Algemene Opname. 'n
Gesondheidsvraelys en 'n Organisasieverbondenheid-skaal is afzenccm. Bcskirywende
statistiek: produk-moment-korreiasieko8fisientc en meervoudige regressir-analises is
gebnlik om die data tc ontleed.
Die resultate her aangetoon dat uitbranding verband hou rnct werkszisc, werkhulpbronne,
begeestering; gesondheid en organisatoriesc verbondenheid. Begeestering het verband gehou
met werkhulpbro~u~c, gesondheid en organisatoriese verbondenheid. Uitputting is die beste
deur werksiading. werksonsekerheid en 'n tekort aan hulpbronne voorspel. tcrwyl sinisme
deur gebrekkige organisatoriese ondersteuning en gebrekkige vorderingsgeleenthede
voorspel is. Begecstering is voorspel deur organisasie-ondersteuning. en
vii
organisasieverbondenheid deur beide uitbranding en bcgeestering. Swak gesondheid is deur
uirputting voorspel.
Aanbevelings vir toekomstige navorsing is aan die hand gedoen.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This mini-dissertation focuses on the relationships between job demands. job resources,
engagement. burllout and organisational commitment of management staff at a platinum mine
in the North-West Province.
In this chapter the rcseasch is motivated in terms of the problcm statement and the resezrch
objectives (including a general objecti\e and specific objectives). The research method is
explained and the division of chapters is given.
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Globalisation and international competition stimulate continuous economic, political.
technological and social changes with a profound impact on the world of work. peuplc and
their careers. As global pressurc increases. organisations worldwide are changing structures.
labour composition. reward systems. service contracts, technolog and information to
increase output with the same or rcduccd levels of resources (Schreuder & Theron. 2001 1.
These changes in the slobal organisational context are reflected in changcd psychological
contracts betwcen employers and employees. Employees arc expected to give more in terms
of time, effort. skills. and flexibility. whilst they receive less in terms of career opportunities.
lifetime employment. and job security (Maslach. Schaufeli. & Leiter, 2001).
South Africa is no exception. The country is currently ranked 49'h of 60 countries in thc
World Competitiveness Yearhook on criteria that include economic performance.
guvenment efficiency. business efficiency. and infrastructure. Specific dimensions of
business efficiency include productivity, the labour market, finance. management practices,
and attitudes and values (htt~:!hwwOl .~nlddch/\vc~i). Among other things. this ranking
reflects, the need to improve South .Africa's productivity level.
The economic and strategic importance of South Africa's mining industry is beyond dispute.
T'ne countr) is the world's largest producer of platinuni group metals among other minerals.
and has 90% of the world's platinum group metal reserves (Gastrow. 2001 ). The industry
contributes significantly to economic activity. the development of sustainable job
opportunities, and foreign exchange earnings. I n the wave of globalisation, major companies
are increasinglq moving their prima!; listings to New York and London
(htl~::/i.southafrica.in!b/doina husiness/economvkey sectorslminin-m).
Thr company that fo.ms the interesr of shidy in this res-arch is the third larycst producer of
platinum group metals in the world. It is situated in the North-West Province and is listed on
the London stock exchange. South Africa's socio-economic transformation process presents a
specific legal challenge to the organiqation in the form ofthe Employment Equity Act. no. 55
of 1908 (South Africa, 1998) which aims to achieve full equity in the workplace though
promotion of equal opportunities and fair treatment, elimination of discrimination. and
implementation of affirmative action measures. Specific objectives include thc promotion
andlor appointment of Historically Disadvantayed South Afi'icans (HDSAs) into managerial
positions. The organisation's spccific target in this regard is 40% black persons in managerial
positions by the end of 2009 (http:/!www.dme.go~.za/minerais/miningc!iarter.hrm).
However. in an industry that competes for the same pool of human resources, retention of
black managers is problematic. Furthermore, white males are expected to coach and mentor
HDSAs in spite of their own employment and learning opportunities being threatened.
Improved productivity, organisational performance, organisational commitment and
engagement are now mort: critical than ever. due to the challenges bcing posed hy both the
Emplo.ynent Equity Act and internationel competition.
In the new world economy. the key difrerentiator of competitive advantage is thc
organisation's human resources (Mincrvini, Meyer. & Rourke, 2003; Veldsman. 2003).
Productivity improvement is only possible through the optimal functioning of employees.
Howeyer, employees have to cope with demands arising from various roles. often with
limited resources and no guarantee of job security. Employees have to be more multi-skilled.
technologically litcrate. and flexible as they are required to do different things for different
people in order to meet diversified needs (Mincwini el a].; 2003). In monitoring and
improving employee effectiveness in coping with multiple new demands. s~ imula t in~ their
crowth and enhancing their well bcing as well as organisational performance. burnout and - engagement are specilic research areaz (Maslach et al.. 2001)
This study is approached from a systems perspective. The organisation is dependent on its
environment for providing inputs and receiving its final outputs and on its employees for
achieviug the outputs that facilitate organisational performance. Similarly. the employe? as
subsystem within the organisation, depends on rhe organisation for inputs, c . ~ . resources. and
role clarity that enable the delivery of work outputs, and for accepting hidher work outputs as
a meaningful contribution to organisational performance. The interdependence of the two
systems implies that the performance of the one will impact on that of the other (Ivanccvich
& Matteson. 1999).
This study focuses on the influence of organisational stressors on the wellness of managers
(as reflected by their levels of burnout and engagement). physical and psychological health.
and their commitment to their employinz organisarion.
Schaufeli and Enzmam (1 998) categorise organisational stressors as job demands and lack of
job resources. According to Rothmann (2002), thesz demands and lack of resources
contribute to burnout. Job demands refer to the '-things that have to be done" or work
activities to be performed and include the physical, social or organisalional aspects of the job
that require sustained physical and mental effort (Demeroud. Bakker. Nachreiner. B
Schaufeli. 2001). .lob demands include situational factors such as role ambiguity. role
conflict. stressful events, heavy workload and work pressure. pressure to make critical and
immediate decisions, being assigned more responsibility, and having to tncrt deadlines
(Rothmmn, 2002; Schaufcli d Enzmann. 1998). Job resources include all aspxts (physical.
psychological. social andlo; organisational) that reduce job demands, facilitate achievement
of work goals, andlor stimulate individual growth (Demerooti et al., 3001; Kothmann. 2002).
Burnout originally was conceptualised in the context of the helping professions (Rothmann.
2002). Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) have found that employees in almost any job can
develop burnout. Rumout is defined as: '-a persistent. neyative. work-related state of' mind in
'normal' individuals that is primarily characterised by exhaustion, which is accompanied b!
distress, a sense of reduccd effectiveness, decreased motivation, and the developmeni of
dysfunctional attitudes and beha~iours at work" (Schaufeli & Enzmann. 1998. p.36). Maslach
et al. (2001) define it as a prolonged response to chronic emotional and intsrpersonal job
stressors. The dimensions of buruour are labelled as exhaust~on, cynicism m d low
professional efficacy (Maslach. Jackson. M Leiter. 1996).
Contrary to the case of burnout: the concept of work engagement does not have a long
research history and emerged from a positive psychology perspective that focuses on
psychological health and well-being of the individual. rather than on psychological
dysfunction and ill health as is the case with burnout (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
According to Schaufeli and Bakker (1004). research has shown that even when exposed to
high job demands and working long hours. some individuals do not show symptoms of
burnout. Instead. they seem to find pleasure in dealing with these stressors. Such individuals
could be described as engaged in their work (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi. 2000).
According to Nelson and Simmons (2003). meaningful work leads to eustress. which can
promote engagement even in demanding conditions.
Engagement was initially regal-ded to he the direct opposite of burnout (Rothrnann. 1002).
However, Schaufeli. Salanova, Gonzalez-Romh. and Bakker (2001) consider the two
constructs to be opposites that should be measured independently with different instruments.
They have defined engagement as a positive, fulfilling. work-related state of mind
characterised b vigour, dedication. and absorption. Schutte. Toppinen. Kalimo. and
Schaufeli (2000) have defined engagement as an energetic state of employee dedication to
work performance and confidence of their effectiveness. Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) believe
that two dimensions of engagement are logically related to burnout, namel!; vigour (to
exhaustion) and dedication (to cynicism).
Disagreement exits about how engagement should he measured. Maslach et al. (1996)
measure engagement by reversing MBI scores. Schaufeli, Salanova. ct al. (2002) propose to
measure positive and negative work aspects independently. Exhaustion (depleted energy) and
cynicism or mental distancing (poor identification). arc the main features of burnout that are
assessed by the MB1 (Schaufeli, 2003); while the positive aspects of vigour (high energy) and
dedication (strong identification) can be measured b) the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale
(Schaufeli. Salanova. et al., 2007). The first psychometric results obtained with the Utrecht
Work Engagement Scale which assesses three characteristics (including vigour. dcdication
and absorption) of' engagement (Schaufeli. Martinez. P~nto. Salanova. & Rakker. 2002:
Schaufeli, Salanova: et al., 2002) are encouraging
Siu (2002) defines organisational commitment as the relative strength of an individual's
identification with and involvement in an organisation Sirnilarl~. Maslach et a1 (2001)
define it as an employee's allegiance to the employing organisation. Newstrom and Davis
(1997) liken organisational commitment to employee loyalty and add to thcir definition. the
aspect of employee dcsirc to remain employed by the organisation and to continue active
participation in it. From these definitions. organisational commitment seems to encompass an
employee's belief in the mission and goals of the organisation, willingness to exert effort in
their accomplishment, and desire to continue working for the organisation.
A literature search has revealed an absence of previous research in the specific areas of
burnout and engagement within the platinum mining industr). in South Africa. Also. prior
research in the min~ng context has no1 fbcused exclusively on managerial staff. The value of
focusing on the platinum mining industry lies in its contribution to creating a broader picture
of the bumout and engagement phenomena in South Africa and enabling comparison across
different industries. Rothmann (2002) has found that burnout research in South Aliica lacks
empirical research and systematic investigation. and that it has serious scientific limitations
such as small sample sizes and poor research designs. This research can thus add to the pool
of empirical studies done in South Africa.
Ivancevich and Matteson (1999) believe that managers are responsible for the effectiveness
of individuals. groups and organisations. Managers are usually the initiators or coordinators
oforganisational change. DuBrin (1990) reports that managers who suffer from burnout harm
organisational effect~veness because they sprcad it to thcir subord~nates Verhaze and lorciaan
(2001) have found that employee burnout can be attributed to inadequate leadership.
inefiicient and dictatorial management. nepotism, lack of transparent), and poor
interpersonal relationships. From these findings it is evident that managers impact on thc
funct~oning and psychological health of subordinates. teams a n d thus the effectiveness and
productivity of the organisation. The significance of burnout for both the individual and the
organisation is found in its link to outcomes. which are related to job perfomiance. Burnout
has been associated with various forms oi'job withdrawal such as absenteeism, intcntion to
leave the job, and actual turnover (Maslach et al.. 2001). For those who stay on the job.
burnout leads to reduced productivity and effectiveness at work. Consequently, it is
associated with decreased job satisfaction and reduced commitment to the job or the
organisation (Maslach et al.. 2001 j.
From the problem statement. the following research questions emerge:
How are the constructs job demands, job resources. burnout. engagement and
organisational commitment conceptualised in the literature?
What are the relationships between job demands, job resources, burnout. engagement and
organisational commitment?
Which of the variables predict burnout. engagement and organisational commitment
respectively'?
What recommendations could be made to prevent andlor manage burnout and promote
work engagement and organisational commitment of management staff at a platinum
mine?
1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The research objectives are divided into a general objective and specific objectives
1.2.1 General objective
The general objective of this study is to investigate the relationships between job dcmands.
job resources, burnout, engagement and organisational commitment of management staff at a
platinum mine in the North-West Province.
1.2.2 Specific objectives
The specific objectives of the research include:
To conceptualise the constructs job demands, job resources. burnout. engagement and
organisational commitment from the literature.
To assess the relationships between job demands: job resources, burnout. engagement and
organisational commitment.
To determine which variables best predict burnout. engagement and organisational
commitment.
To make recommendations to prevcnt andlor manage burnout and promote work
engagement and organisational commitment of management staff at a platinum mine.
1.3 RESEARCH METHOD
The research method consists of a literature review and empir~cal study that encompasses the
research design. the participants the measuring instruments. and the statistical analysis to be
followed.
1.3.1 Research design
A survey design is used to attain the research objectives. The specific design is the cross-
sectional design that draws a sample from a population at one point in time (Neumari, 2000:
Shaughnessy & Zechmeister. 1997) to describe the population at that time. This design is
useful to assess interrelationships between the variables within the population and is ideally
suited to the descriptive and predictive purpose of corrclatiunal research (Shaughnessy &
Zechmeister. 1997).
1.3.2 Participants
A random sample of management staff is d r a m from the study population (X= 202)
1.3.3 Measuring instruments
Six questionnaires are used in the empirical study, namely the lob Demands-Resources Scale
(JDRS) (Demerouti et al.. 2001), the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MRI-GS)
(Maslach el al.. 1996). the Utrecht Work Engafernent Scale (UWES) (Schaufeli, Salanova ct
al., 2002). the Health and Organisational Commitment subscales of the ASSET (An
Organizational Stress Screening Evaluation Tool) (Cartwight & Cooper. 2001). and a
biographical questionnaire.
The Job Dernarzds-Reso~trces Sculc (JDRS) (Demcrouti et al., 2001) has been contextualised
for the organisation through focus group interviews. resulting in the addition of items. The
contextualised questionnaire consists of 67 items and measurcs joh demands and job
resources for employees. Questions are rated on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (always) to 4
(never). The dimensions of the JDRS include pace, amount and variety of work, mental and
emotional load, opportunities to learn. work independence, relationships with colkagues and
immediate supervisor, ambiguities of work. infomlation, communications, participation.
contact possibilities, uncertainty about the future. remuneration, and career possibilities.
The Maslach Burnout Invenrory-GeneraI S u n q (MBI-GS) (Maslach et al.. 1996) is used to
measure burnout. The publication of the Maslach Burnout Inventory -General Survey (MBI-
GS) (Schaufeli. Leiter, Maslach. & Jackson, 1996) makes it possible to study humout outside
the service sector and to draw comparisons between different occupational groups. According
to Maslach et al. (2001) the MBI-GS, as a third general version of the Maslach Burnout
Inventory, evaluates burnout among professionals with and without the direct client contact
that characterises human service professionals. The MBI-GS consists of 16 items that
produce scores on: Exhaustion (with five items e.g. "I feel used up at the end of the
workday'.): Cynicism (with five items e.g. "I have become less enthusiastic about my work")
and Professional Efficacy (six items e.g. "In my opinion, I am good at my job") respectively.
Together. the subscales provide a three-dimensional perspective of burnout related to the
broader job and not just the personal relationships that are part of' the job (Maslach et al.,
2001). Internal consistencies (Cronbach alpha coefficients) vary from O,S7 to 0:89 for
Exhaustion. 0.73 to 0.84 for Cynicism and 0,76 to 0.84 for Professional Efficacy (Schaufeli.
Van Diederendonck. 6r Van Gorp. 1996). Test-retest reliabilities after one year werc 0.65
(Exhaustion). 0,60 (Cynicism) and 0.67 (Professional Efficacy). Items are scored on a 7-point
frequency rating scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (evei;vdu,v). High scores on Exhaustion and
Cynicism and low scores on Professional Efficacy are indicative of burnout.
The U~rccltr Work Engagcmcnl Scale (UWES) (Schaufeli et al.. 2002) is applied to measure
participants' levels of engagement. The UWES measures three dimensions: namely vigour.
dedication and absorption. all scored on a 7-point scale with the same range as the MBI-GS.
It includes statements such as "I am bursting with energy in my work"; "I find my work full
of meaning and purpose" and "I get carried away by my work". The alpha coefficients for the
three subscales vary between 0,78 and 0.89. Rothmann and Storm (2003) obtained alpha
coefficients of 0.78 for Vigour, 0.89 for Dedication. and 0.78 ror Absorption in a sample of
2 396 SAPS members.
She Heulth Suhscale of the ASSET (An Organisational Stress Screening Tool) has been
developed by Cartwright and Cooper (2002) and is used to assess the respondents' level of
health. It consists of 19 items arranged on two subscales, namely Physical health and
Psychological well-being. All items on the Physical health subscale relate to physical
symptoms of stress. This subscale provides insight into physical health rather than a clinical
diagnosis. Examples of physical symptoms mentioned in the questionnaire include a change
in eating habits, indigestion or heartburn, insomnia, and panic or anxiety attacks. The items
on the Psychological well-being subscale are symptoms of stress-induced mental ill health.
Examples of psychological symptoms mentioned in the questionnaire include tendencies to
smoke or drink more than usual. loss of sense of humour. constant irritability or tiredness.
and mood swings. Johnson and Cooper (7003) have found that this questionnaire has good
convergent validity with an existing measure of psychiatric disorders. namely the General
Health Questionnaire.
'The Orgunisation Commi/nzent Subscalc o f the ASSET (Cartwright & Cooper. 2002) is used
to measure organisational commitment. This subscale consists of nine items divided into two
scales. namely commitment of the organisation to the employee. and commitment of the
employee to the organisation. This questionnaire reflects the non-economic reciprocal
obligations that exist between employer and employee (Cartwright & Cooper, 2002). The
items are scored on a scale varying from 1 (stronglv di.~ugree) to 6 (strongly trgree).
Commitment of the organisation to the employee is a five-item factor that measures the
extent to which individuals feel that their organisation is committed to them and that it is
worth "going the extra mile" for their organisation. It includes items such as: '.I feel valued
and trusted by my organisation". The Cronbach alpha value is 0,84. Commitment of the
employee to the organisation is a four-item factor that measures employee commitment
towards the organisation as demonstrated by their willingness to do their jobs as best they
can. loyalty, and dedication to the organisation. It includes items such as: "I feel that it is
worthwhile to work hard for this organisation". The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient is
0,77.
A questionnaire is developed to gather information concerning the demographic
characteristics of the participants. The questionnaire will afford participants the option of
anonymous participation. Information gathered will include age. gender. race. marital status.
home language. highest education level; job level. years service in the curren! job. years
service in the organisation, department within which participant is employed, and operational
unit the participant is working in.
1.3.4 Statistical analysis
The statistical analysis is carried out with the SPSS Programme (SPSS Inc., 2003) and the
Amos Programme (Arbuckle. 2003). Cronbach alpha coefficients and factor analysis are used
to assess the reliability and validity of the measuring instruments (Clark & Watson. 1995).
Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, standard deviations. skewness and kurtosis) are used to
analyse the data. Pearson correlation coefficients are computed to determine the relationships
between variables. In the case where the distribution of scores is skew, Spearman correlation
coefficients are computed. A cut-off point of p < 0,05 is set for the statistical significance of
the results. Effect sizes (Cohen, 1988) are used to decide on the practical significance of the
findings. A cut-off point of 0.30 (medium effect, Cohen, 1988) is set for the practical
significance of correlation coefficients.
Among the fit indices produced by the AMOS Programme is the Chi-square statistic (x2).
which is the test of absolute fit of the model. However, the X' value is sensitive to sample
size. Therefore. additional goodness-of-fit indices, such as the Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI):
the Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI). the Normed Fit Index (NFI), the Comparative
Fit Index (CFI): the Tucker-Lewis Index (TL.1) and the Root Means Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA) are used in this study.
Standard multiple regression analysis is used to determine which combination ofjob demands
and job resources best predict burnout and work engagement. Furthermore, standard multiple
regression analyses are also used to assess whether burnout and work engagement predict ill
health and organisational commitment (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
1.4 CHAPTER DIVISION
The chapters in the mini-dissertation are presented as follows:
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Chapter 2: Research article
Chapter 3: Conclusion. limitations and recommendations
1.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter 1 provides a motivation for this research in the form of the problem statement. In
addition to the problem statement. the objectives of the study and the research method are
outlined. and the division of chapters is provided.
Chapter 2 encompasses the complete study. The results ofthe statistical analysis are reported.
indicating the practical significance thereof. The findings of the study are discussed briefly.
Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive analysis and discussion of the literature and the research
results. Conclusions are drawn with reference to the specific research objectives.
recommendations are made for the organisation, and limitations of the study are discussed.
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CHAPTER 2
RESEARCH ARTICLE
JOB CHARACTERISTICS, ENGAGEMENT, BURNOUT AND ORGANISATIONAL
COMMITMENT OF MANAGEMENT STAFF AT A PLATINUM MINE IN THE
NORTH-WEST PROVINCE
J.H.M. JOUBERT
S . ROTHMANN
Workwell: Research Unit for People. Policy und Pe~formunce, North-West b'niversih'
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to investigate the relationships between burnout.
engagement, job demands, job resources, and organisational commitment of management
staff at a platinum mine in the North West Province. A cross-sectional survey d e s i ~ was
used. The study population (N = 202) consisted of management staff memhers. The
Maslach Burnout lnventoly - General Survey. Lltrecht Work Engagement Scale. Job
Demands-Resources Scale. and the Health and Organisational Commitment subscales of
the ASSET were administered. The results rewaled that exhaustion was predicted by
workload. job insecurit-\. and lack of resources while cynicism was predicted by lack of
organisational support and advancement opportunities. Engagement was best predicted
by organisational support. and organisational commitment was predicted by both burnout
and engagement. 111 health was predicted by exhaustion.
OPSOMMING
Die doel van hierdie studie was om die verband tussen uitbranding. begeestering.
werkseise, werkhulpbronne. en organisasieverbondenheid van hestuurders by 'n platina-
myn in die Noordwes Provinsie te ondersoeh. '11 Dwarssnee-opnameontwerp is gebruik.
Die studiepopulasie (N = 202) he1 hestaan uit bestuurspersoneel. Die Maslach-
uitbrandingsvraelys - Algemene Opname. Utrecht Werksbegeesteringskaal, Werkseise-
hulpbronneskaal en beide die Gesondheid- en Organisasieverbondenheidsubskale van dic
ASSET is afgeneem. Uitputting is voorspel deur werkslading. werksonsekerheid en
onvoldoende hulpbroune tenvyl sinisme deur gebrekkige organisasie-ondersteuninf en
gehrekkige vorderingsgeleenthede voorspel is. Befeestering is voorspel deur organisasie-
ondersteuning. en organisasieverbondenheid deur beidc uitbranding en hegeestering.
Swak fesondheid is deur uitputting voorspel
Globalisation and continued intemational pressure on organisations to perform better with
fewer resources are reflected in the changing psychological contracts between employers and
employees. Employees arc expected to give more in terms of time. effort, skills and
flexibility whilst job security. career opportunities and lifetime employment are diminishing
(Maslach, Schaufeli; &: Leiter, 2001 j. South Africa and its mining industn are not excluded
from these pressures and impacts. The need to improve the country's productivity is reflected
in its poor ranking (49th of 60 countries) in the World Conlpetitiveness Yearbook
(htt~:Il~.wwOl.imd.~hi~~~.). The South African mining industq has 90% of the world's
platinum group metals among other minerals. Its contribution to the country's economic
activity and productivity is beyond dispute (Gastrow, 2001).
The key differentiator of competitive advantage in the new world economy is the
organisation's employees (Minemini_ Meyer, &: Rourke, 2003; Veldsman. 2002). However.
employees have to cope with increasing demands from various and diverse roles and
organisational stakeholders, often with limited resources (Minemini et al., 2003). In
monitoring and improving employee effectiveness in coping with multiple new demands.
stimulating their growth and enhancing their well-being as well as organisational
performance, burnout and engagement are specific research areas (Maslach et al., 2001 ).
I\:ancevich and Matteson (1999) believe that managers are responsible for the effectiveness
of individuals, groups and organisations. DuBrin (1990) reports that managers who suffer
from burnout harm organisational effectiveness because they sprcad it to their subordinates.
Employees who experience burnout can impact negatively on their colleagues by causing
personal conflict and disrupting job tasks. Burnout can thus be "contagious" and perpetuate
itself through the informal interactions on the job. Verhage and Jordaan (2001) have found
that employee burnout can be attribured to inadequate leadership, inefiicient and dictatorial
management. nepotism. lack of transparency and poor interpersonal relations. Rothniann
(2002) reports that burnout contributes to low morale, job dissatisfaction. staff turnover and
absenteeism and can lead to deterioration in the quality of service rendered by staff. From
these findings it can be deduced that managers can impact directly or indirectly on employee
effectiveness and organisational outcomes such as turnover.
According to Jackson. Rothmann. and Van de Vijver (in press). empirical studies lia\,e
confirmed that burnout is related to health problems and turnover intentions. and that i t
(rement mediates the relationship between job demands and health problems. Also. enga,
mediates the relationship between job resources and turnover intentions.
The objectives of this study were firstly to determine the relationships between job demands.
job resources. burnout, engagement, and organisational commitment at a platinum mine in
the North-West Province where no research of this kind has been conducted before, and
secondly, to determine whether organisational commirment can be predicted by burnout and
work engagement.
Burnout and engagement
Although burnout has originally been conceptualised in the contest of the helping professions
(Rothmann, 2002), it has recently expanded to all types of professions and occupational
groups (Schaufeli & Enzmann. 1998). Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998, p. 36) define burnout as
"a persistent, negative. work-related state of mind in normal individuals that is primarily
characterised by exhaustion. which is accompanied by distress, a sense of reduced
effectiveness, decreased motivation. and the development of dysfunctional attirudcs and
behaviours at w o r k . Burnout is a pathogenically defined construct that is characterised by
emotional exhaustion. cynicism and reduced professional efficacy (Maslach et nl.. 2001).
More recently. in using adapted versions of the MBI. burnout has been conceptualised in
temis of exhaustion, mental distance (cynicism and depersonalisatlon). and reduced
professional efficacy (Barkhuizen. 2005: Jackson & Rothmann. 2005).
Seen from a theoretical perspective, exhaustion and mental distancing (cynicism or
depersonalisation) constitute the core of burnout (Schaufeli, 2003). Exhaustion represents the
individual stress component of bumout (Maslach et al.. 2001) and refers to feelings of being
overextended and depleted of emotional and physical resources. i.e. incapable of work
performance because all energy has been drained. Ln the development of burnout, exhaustion
emerges first in response to an overly demanding work environment (Leiter. 1993). Cynicism
entails a general indifferent, callous or cynical attitude towards the work. To cope with
excessive job demands and feelings of exhaustion, the individual psychologically withdraws
from the work (mental distancing) (Maslach et al., 2001). Mental distancing can thus be
described as an employee's unwillingness to perform because of an increased intolerance to
make any effort (Schaufeli. 2003). When this coping strategy becomes habitual - as is the
case with cynicism and depersonalisation - it becomes dysfunctional and disrupts work
performance. in turn, this leads to an increase in job demands and exhaustion that completes
the vicious circle.
Professional efficacy refers to an individual's negative self-evaluation of competence.
achievement and productiveness, as will as feelings of insufficiency (Schaufeli & Buunk.
1996). Reduced professional efficacy results primarily from cynicism (sequential link), is the
weakest bumout dimension in terms of significant relationships with other variables. and is
often referred to as the "least specific" or "unnecessary" dimension of burnout (Lee &:
Ashforth, 1996; Schaufeli. 2003). Professional inefficacy appears to develop parallel to
exhaustion and cynicism, and originates from a lack of resources whilst exhaustion and
cynicism emerge from work overload and social conflict (Maslach et al., 2001). Several
authors argue that professional efficacy reflects a personality characteristic rather than a
genuine burnout dimension (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993: Shirom, 1989).
Seiler and Pearson (1983-5) noted that the consequences of dysfunctional stress (burnout)
include two forms of withdrawal: The employee may resign (physical withdrawal) or the
employee may remain in employment but continue to do the bare minimum (psychological
withdrawal). Maslach. Jackson. and Leiter (1996) hypothesised that burnout, as a result ofjob
demands and lack of job resources; can lead to negative outcomes such as physical illness.
staff rumover and absenteeism. Research has linlted burnout to a variet? of mental and
physical health problems (Lee &r Ashforth, 1990: Maslach. 1982). increased absenteeism
(Leiter &: Harvie. 1998). and decreased quality and quantity of work performance (Biix.
Cruise, Mitchell. & Blix: 1994; Maslach & Jackson, 1984). Eventually. individuals may leave
the job or profession as a culmination of burnout (Jackson & Simpson, 2001; Watts, Cox.
Wright, Garrison. Herkimer. &r Howze, 1991).
Empirical studies revealed that some individuals, in comparison with others, do not develop
burnout regardless of high job demands and excessive working hours. To the contrary. they
seem to find pleasure in working hard and dealing with job demands (Nelson & Simmons:
2003; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2001). This discovery saw the emergence of theoretical and
empirical studies on the concept of engagement. Initially. engagement was regarded to be the
direct opposite of burnout (Rothmann. 2002). However. Schaufeli. Salanova. Gonzalez-
Roma. and Bakker (2002) have operationalised enpgement as a construct in its own right.
Research on engagement has adopted a positive psychology perspective that focuses on
psychological health and well-being rather than psychological ill health. as is the case with
burnout (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
Schaufeli and Bakker (2002) define engagement as a persistent. positive. fulfilling work-
related state of mind, characterised by vigour, dedication and absorption. It is not focused on
a specific object, event, individual or behaviour (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003). Vigour refers to
high levels of energy and resilience. willingness to invest effort in one's work. and
perseverance in the face of difficulties. Dedication refers to strong involvement in one's work
accompanied by feelings of enthusiasm and signiiicance. and a sense of pride and inspiration
(Maslach et al.. 2001). Absorption refers to a satisfactory state of complete emersion in one's
work that is characterised by focused attention; time distortion, loss of self-consciousness.
effortless concentration, absolute control_ and intrinsic en.joyment (Csikszentmihalyi. 19901.
According to Schaufeli and Bakker (2004): burnout and engasement are indicators of
employees' wellness. A theorerical analysis done by these authors identify two underlying
dimensions of work wellness. namely: ( I ) activation. ranging from exhaustion to vigour. and
(2) identification, ranging from cynicism to dedication. Theoretically speaking. burnout is
thus characterised by a combination of exhaustion (low activation) and mental distance (poor
identification). whereas engagement is chracterised by vigour (high activation) and
dcdication (strong identification). Accordingl).. viyour and dedication arc considcred to be
direct opposites of exhaustion and mental distance respectively.
With the increased inrerest in positive psychology, burnout and work engagement should be
integrated as one model (Rothmann, 2002). According to Maslach et al. (2001). the study of
work-related experiences should include the entire continuum of work-related experiences.
ranging from negative (burnout) to positive (work engagement). However, burnout and
engagement are best measured with different instruments (Schaufeli. Salanma. et al.. 2002).
The Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) measures burnout across
occupational settings mhilst the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) measures
engagement more effectively (Schaufeli. Salanova. et al.. 3002).
Job demands and resources
Several theories and models have been developed to explain the effects of job demands (e.g.
work overload) and lack of resources (e.g. job control) on burnout. These include the
Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (I-Iobfoll 8: Freedy, 1993; Lee 8: Ashforth. 1996).
the Job Demands-Resources (ID-R) model (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, 8: Schaufeli.
2001) and the Comprehensive Burnout and Engagement (COBE) model. an extension of the
JD-R model with engagement. health impairment and organisational withdrawal as additional
components (Schaufeli & Baker. 3004). The theory underlying these models. proposes that
burnout develops in response to excessive job demands and diminished job resources.
The COBE model assumes two job-related psychological processes, namely an energetic and
a motivational process (Jackson, et al.. in press). The energetic process links job demands
with health problems via burnout. The motivational process links job resources with
organisational outcomes via work engagement. Jackson. et al. (in press) report that the model
has been confined in the Netherlands by Schaufeli and Baliker (2004) in an empirical study.
with job demands being associated with exhaustion, and job resources with work engagement
respectively. Burnout is mainly predicted by job demands and lack of resources. it is related
to health problems and turnover intentions. and mediates the relationship between job
demands and health problems. Engagement is exclusively predicted by availability of job
resources: relates onl}. to turnover intentions. and mediates the relationship between job
resources and turnover intentions.
COR theory (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993) suggests that burnout is likely to develop when valued
resources are lost or threatened, or are inadequate to meet the demands. Major demands
include role ambiguity, work pressure and workload. Major resources include control.
participation in decision-making and job autonomy (Lee & Ashforth. 1996). '4ccording to
Leiter (1993), demands and resources are related. A work environment which is overly
demanding usually also offers insufficient resources.
The Job Demand-Control (DC) model developed by Karasek (1979) specifies two
independent inputs which influence strain or stress: job demands and control of the work
situation. Strain or stress refers to psychological stress such as time pressure and having too
much work to do (Cooper & Payne. 1978). Job demands involve the organisation of \vork in
terms of employees' authority to make decisions about their own work activities and skill
usage (decision authority or job decision latitude). According to the model job strain and
related health problems occur in siruations where high demands coincide with low conrrol.
The second hypothesis of the DC model is that high demand together with high decision
latitude lead to positive learning of new behaviours, skills or procedures, and possibly
improved health through long-term positive changes in coping abilities. The importance of
job control as a health protecting factor has repeatedly been demonstrated (Landsbergis,
Schnall. Warren; Pickering, & Schwartz. 1994).
The effect of control remains even after adjusting for the confounding effects of
demographics. biological risk factors. health habits and psychosocial factors such as
personalit). traits. negative life events, social support, job insecurity. and downsizing
(Kivimaki. Vahtera; Thomson. Griffiths, Cox, & Pentti, 1997). According to Iacovides.
Fountoulakis. Kaprinis, and Kaprinis (2003), inadequate control over one's work, frustrated
hopes and the feeling of loosing meaning in life seems to be important causes of burnout. A
large number of studies have showed that job control. and sometimes job demands, are
critical components in a healthy work environment as indicated by various health outcomes
(Elovainio. Forma, Kivimaki, Sinervo. Sutinen. & Laine, 2005).
Taris. Schreurs, and Schaufeli (1999) reported that a strong correlation exists between
burnout and job stress (situational or organisational factors). Schaufeli & Enrn~ann (1998)
categorise organisational stressors as job demands and lack of job resources. Job demands
refer to the things that have to be done or activities to be performed and include the physical.
social or organisational aspects of the job that require sustained physical and mental effort
(Demerouti et al.. 2001). Job demands include situational factors such as role ambiguity. role
conflict, stressful events. heavy workload and work pressure. pressure to make critical and
immediate decisions; being assigned more responsibility and having to meet deadlines
(Rothmann, 2002; Schaufeli & Enzmann. 1998).
Many burnout researchers have studied quantitative job demands (e.g. too much work for the
available time). The findings generally indicate that burnout is a response to overload. Heavy
workload and time pressure are strongly and consistently related to burnout, particularly the
exhaustion dimension (Maslach et al.. 2001'). Studies of qualitative job demands have focused
primarily on role conflict and role ambiguity. both of which consistently show a moderatc to
high correlation with burnout. Role conflict occurs when conflicting demands at the lob have
to be met. whereas role ambiguit) occurs when there is a lack of adequate information to do
the job well (Maslach et al.. 2001).
Job resources refer to all aspects (physical. psychological, social andlor organisational) that
reduce job demands. facilitate achievement of work goals. and/or stimulate individual growth
(Demerouti ei a1.. '7001 : Rothmann. 2002). Job resources include social support (supervisory
and collegial). job enhancement opportunities in the form of increased control and autonomy,
participation in decision-making. reinforcement contingencies (Burke & Richardsen, 1993') as
well as recognition, opportunities for advancement and rewards (Rothmann. 2003).
Burnout researchers have also investigated the absence of job resources. Consistent and
strong evidence exists of a correlation between lack of social support and burnout, with lack
of supervisory support being more important than support from co-workers (Mahcr, 1983:
Maslach et al.. 2001: Peerers Bi Le Blanc, 2001). Correlations havc also been confirmed
between lack of feedback and all three dimensions of burnout, and between lack of autonomy
and burnout. Verhage and Jordaan (2001) have found that hurnout is caused by poor
incentives. lack of recognition and inadequate professional supporl: among other things.
People who enjoy little participation in decision-making seem to expcriencc higher levels of
burnout (Maslach et a1.: 2001). Schaufeli and Bakker (2002) report that job demands,
including physical demands, time pressure and shift work, are associated with exhaustion,
whereas insufficient job resources. e.2. feedback. control. participative decision-making and
supervisory support, are associated with disengagement.
Based on the above discussion, the following hypotheses are fonnulated:
Hjpotltesis I : Burnout is predicted by job demands (i.e. work overload) and a lack of job
resources.
ff~vporizesis 2: Work engagement (vigocr and dedication) is predicted by job resources
I11 health
Research evidence consistently links occupational stress with physical and psychological ill
health. According to Maslach et al. (2001), perceived stressors lead to emotional reactions
that, in turn, lead to ill health. Physical ill health manifests in symptoms such as migraine;
heart disease. ulcers, allergies. and back problems. Psychological ill health manifests in
stress-induced symptoms such as depression. mood swings. irritability, etcetera. aud
behaviours such as a tendency to smoke or drink more than usual, loss of sense of humour.
etcetera. Both physical and psychological ill health have been associated with stress and
burnout (Ho? 1997; Ryff & Singer, 1998; Sethi & Schuler, 1990).
Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is formulated:
Hypothesis 3: Exhaustion and cynicism predict phjsical and psychological ill health.
Organisational commitment
Siu (2002) defines organisational commitment as the relative strength of an individual's
identification with and involvement in an organisation. Similarly. Maslach et al. (2001 1
define it as an employee's allegiance to the organisation that provides employment.
Organisational commitment refers to employee loyalty, employee desire to remain employed
by the organisation and to continue actively participating in it jNewstrom & Davis. 1997).
From these definitions, organisational commitment can be described as an employee's
psychological attachment to the organisation.
Cartwight and Cooper (2002) identified two aspects of organisational commitment. namely
commitment of the organisation towards the employee (i.e. the degree to which employees
feel trusted, valued and respected by the organisation) and comrnitmcnt of the employee
towards the organisation (i.e. the extent to which employees are loyal and dedicated to the
organisation).
Organisational commitment can be relatively strong because it is too costly for an individual
to leave the organisation or because the indixiduai shares goals with the organisation and
wishes to maintain his or her membership (Blau 8i Boal, 1987). It interacts with sources of
stress at work to determine the outcomes thereof. Organisational commitment relates
positively with desirable work outcomes_ including employee job satisfaction, motivation and
performance. and negatively with absenteeism and turnover (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990).
Organisational commitment seems to diminish in the presence of burnout (Leiter & Maslach.
1988). Organisational commitment and work engagement are related concepts but not
identical. Organisational commitment focuses on the organisation whereas engagement
concerns the work itself (Maslach et al., 2001).
Work engagement may be regarded as an antecedent to organisational commitment in that
individuals who experience high levels of work engagement identify with their organisations
(Jackson et al.. in press). Taris. et al., (1999) have interviewed engaged workers and
concluded that their values are aligned with those of their organisations. Aktouf (1992) has
confirmed that disengagement leads to lack of organisational commitment.
Based on the above discussion. the following hypothesis is formulated:
Hypolhesis 4: Vigour and dedication predict organisational commitment
METHOD
Research design
A cross-sectional survey design. by means of which a sample is drawn from a population at a
particular point in time (Shauglmessp & Zechmeister, 1997). was used to achieve the research
objectives.
Participants
Of the study population (A'= 3 10) a sample of 202 management level employees across the
different operational units of a platinum mine in the North-West Province was taken. The
characteristics of the participants are shown in Table 1
Table 1
Characteristics of the Participanls (A' = 202)
Vsr i ab l c Cate~n l ) Percentagt
Agc (years) 25-30 7.90
Gendcr
Race
Other
M m q valuci
Gradc I? or below
Icchntcal Cu l l r e r Cenificate
Management 1.evelllob tiradtng D-lcvel 67.40
E ~ l c v c l ? M U
F l e w (indude execuuve team, 6.50
The sample consisted mainly of Afrikaans-speaking (61.90%) and of English-speaking
participants (25.70%). They were mostly within the age $goup 41 to 50 (45%), mostly white
(84,70%) and mostly men (88,60%). Most are employed at the first level of management.
namely D-Level Paterson Grading (67,40%) and most have attained a teclmikon diploma
(26.20%).
Measuring instruments
The follow instruments were used in this study:
The Maslac11 Burnour Inventory-General S u n q (MBI-GS) (Maslach et al., 1996) was used
to measure burnout. The MBI-GS consists of 16 items that produce scores on: Exhaustion
(five items, e.g. "I feel used up at the end of the workday"), Cynicism (five items, e.g. "I have
become less enthusiastic about my work") and Professional Efficacy (six items, e.g.. "In my
opinion, 1 am good at my job'') respectively. Together. the subscales provide a three-
dimensional perspective of burnout that relates to the broader job and not only to the personal
relationships that are part of the job (Maslach ei al.. 2001). Schaufeli, Van Diederendonck.
and Van Gorp (1996) reported Cronbach coefficient alphas varying from 0.87 to 0.89 for
Exhaustion. 0,73 to 0.84 for Cynicism and 0.76 to 0.83 for Professional Efficacy. Test-retest
reliabilities after one year were 0,65 (Exhaustion), 0_60 (Cynicisml and 0,67 (Professional
Efficacy). The items are scored on a 7-point frequency rating scale ranging from O (never) to
6 (alwaw/rverydq). In South African studies, Cronbach alpha coefiicients ranged from 0:86
to 0,88 for Exhaustion, and 0,79 to 0,80 for Cynicism (Coetzer & Rothmann. 2004: Storm &
Rothmann, 2003a).
The CJtrech/ Work Engugenzenf Sculc (UWES) (Schaufeli, Salanova, et a]., 2002) was applied
to measure participants' levels of engagement. The UWES consists of 17 items that produce
scores on: Vigour (5 items, e.g. "I am bursting with energy in my work"), Dedication (5
items, e.g. "I find my work full of meaning and purpose") and Absorption (7 items, e.g. ;'I get
carried away by my work"). Items are scored on a 7-point scale ranging from 0 (never.) to 6
(ulwuydeveryday). The alpha coefficients for the three subscales varied between 0,68 and
0.91 (Schaufeli. Salanova; et al.. 2U02). Alpha coefficients varied between 0.78 and 0.89 for
the three subscales by eliminating a few items without substantially decreasing the scale's
internal consistency. Storm and Rothrnann (2003b) obtained alpha coefficients of 0.78 for
Vigour. 0,89 for Dedication and 0.78 for Absorption in a sample of 2396 SAPS members.
The Job Demands-Resources Scale (JDRS) was developed for the organisation through focus
group interviews. The contextualised questionnaire consists of 67 items and measures job
demands and job resources for employees. Questions are rated on a 4-point scale ranging
from 1 (alwcrys) to 4 (never). The dimensions of the JDRS include pace, amount and ixiety
of work. physical, mental and emotional workload. opportunities to learn, work
independence, relationships with colleagues and immediate supervisor. ambiguities of work,
information, communications, participation, contact possibilities; uncertainty about the
future. remuneration and career possibilities.
The Health .vuhscale of the ASSET (an Organisational Stress Screening Tool), which was
developed by Cartwright and Cooper (2002). was used to assess the respondents' level of
health. It consists of 19 items arranged 011 two subscales: Physical health and Psychological
well-being. All items on the Physical health subscale relate to physical symptoms of' stress.
This subscale provides insight into physical health rathei- than a clinical diagnosis. Examples
of physical symptoms mentioned in the questionnaire include a change in eating habits.
indigestion or heartburn. insomnia. panic or anxiety attacks, etcetera. The items on the
Psychological well-being subscale include symptoms of stress-induced mental ill health.
Examples of psychological symptoms menriotled in the questionnaire include tendencies to
smoke or drink more than usual. loss of sense of humour. constant irritability or tiredness.
mood swings, etcetera. This subscale gives an insight into psychological health. also not an
in-depth clinical diagnosis. Johnson and Cooper (2003) found Gunman split-half reliability
coefficients of O,74 for Physical Health and 0:91 for Psychological Health respectively. and
that this questio~lnaire has good convergent validity with an existing measure of psychiatric
disorders. the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12; Goldberg & Williams, 1988).
The Organisarion Cornmihnenr Subscalr of the ASSET (Cartwright & Cooper, 2002) was
used to measure organisational commitment. This subscale consists of 9 items divided intc
two scales, namely Commitn~ent of the organisation to the employee, and Commitment of the
employee to the organisation. This questionnaire reflects thc non-economic reciprocal
obligations that exist between employer and employee (Cartwright & Cooper, 2002). The
items are scored on a scale varying from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongi)~ uxree). Johnson
and Cooper (2003) found a Guttman split-half reliability coefficient of 0,74 for the scale.
Commitment of the organisation to the employee is a five-item factor that measures the
extent to which individuals feel that their organisation is committed to them and that it is
worth "going the extra mile'' for their organisation. It includes items such as: "I feel valued
and trusted by my organisation". The Cronbach alpha value is 0$4. Commitment of the
employee to the organisation is a four-item factor that measures employee commitment
towards the organisation as demonstrated by their willingness to do their jobs as best the)
can, loyalty and dedication to the organisation. It includes items such as: "1 feel that it is
worthwhile to work hard for this organisation". The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient is
0,77.
Statistical analysis
The statistical analysis was carried out with the SPSS Programme (SPSS Inc., 2003) and the
Amos Programme (Plrbuckle, 2003). Cronbach alpha coefficients and factor analysis were
used to assess the reliability and validity of the measuring instruments (Clark &I Watson.
1995). Descriptive statistics (e.g. means and standard deviations) were used to analyse the
data. Pearson correlation coefficients were computed to determine the relationships betwecn
variables. A cut-off point of p 5 0,05 was set for the statistical significance of the results.
Effect sizes (Cohen, 1988) were used to decide on the practical significance of the findings.
A cut-off point of 0.30 (medium effect. Cohen; 1988) was set for the practical significance of
correlation coefficients.
Exploratory factor analyses were carried out to investigate the construct validity of the Health
and Commitment Scales, as well as the JDRS following a two-step procedure. First. a simple
principal components analysis was conducted on the constructs that form part of the
measurement model, including burnout and work engagement, and ill health. The eigen
values and scree plots were studied to determine the number of factors. Second, a principal
components analysis with a direct oblimin rotation was conducted if factors were related, and
a principal component analysis with a varimax rotation was used if the obtained factors were
not related (Tabachnick & Fidcll. 2001).
Structural equation modelling was used to assess the factorial validity of the measurins
instruments of burnout, work engagement. and organisational commitment. .4mon: the tit
indices produced by the AMOS Programme is the Chi-square statistic ( x ~ ) , which is the test
oS absolute fit of thc model. However, the X 2 value is sensitive to sample size. Therefore
additional goodness-of-fit indices. such as the Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), the Ad,iusted
Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI), the Nomed Fit Index (NFI,!, the Comparative Fit Index
(CFI). the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLIj and the Root Means Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA) were used in this study.
Standard multiple regression analysis was used to determine which combination of job
demands and job resources best predict burnout and work engagetnent. Furthermore. stmdard
multiple regression analyses were also used to assess whether work wellness (bumout and
work engagement) predict ill health and organisational commitment (Tabachnick & Fidell.
2001 j.
RESULTS
Structural equation modelling (SEM) methods as implemented by AMOS (Arbuckle. 1999)
were used to test the factorial models of the MBI-GS. and the UWES. Data analysis was
conducted in two consecutive steps. Firstly, quick overviews of the model fits were done by
inspecting the overall X' values. together with the degrees of freedom and probabiliry values.
Several goodness-of-fit statistics (GFI. AGFI, NFI, TLI. CFI and Rh4SEA) were used to
globally assess the model tits. Secondly, given findings of poorly fitting initially
hypothesised models. the focus shifted from model testing to model development
(exploratory factor analysis). Exploratory analyses were done for the JDRS as well as the
Health and Organisational Subscales of the ASSET. To fit revised, rr-specified models to the
data. possible misspecifications, as suggested by the so-called modification indices, werc
looked for.
Hypothesised model: MBI-GS
The full hqpothesised three-factor model consisting of all 16 items \vas tested. Table 2
presents fi t statistics for the test of the original and other modds.
'Table 2
The Goodness-ofjit Sratis/ies$r the Hypothesised MBI-GS Modei
-
Mndcl X' y'ldf GFI AGFI WI IF1 1‘1-1 CFI RMSEA
Model I 652.48 6.27 0.61 0.4Y 0.56 0.60 0.54 0.60 0.16
Model 5 17?,7.1 1.01 0.91 0.87 0.88 0.94 0.92 0.94 0.07
Model h 165.25 1.94 (1.9 l 0 87 0 89 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.117
Table 2 indicates that the statistically significant X' value of 652.48 (df = 104: p 0,00)
revealed a relatively poor overall fit of the hypothesised I-factor MBI model. Th: same
applies to the hypothesised 2-factor MBJ model (x' = 320.63). Seen from a practical
perspective, both Models 1 and 2 were also not good. The NFI, TLI and CFI values lower
than 0.95. and RMSEA values higher than 0,05 are indicative of failure to confirm to
hypothesised models. It is thus apparent that some modification in specification is needed in
order to determine a model that fits the sample data better.
To pinpoint possible areas of misfit. modification indices (MI) were examined. 1,ooking at
the regression weights. one parameter which represents the cross-loading of ltem 13 indicated
a considerably lower regression weight compared to other MBI items.
Based on the regression weights and standardised residual covariances, the hypothesised 3-
factor model labelled here as Model 3 was re-estimated with ltem 13 removed. With Model 3
(Item 13 removed). the data fit improved c X 2 improved from 194,72 to 182.26). In Model 5
the errors of item pair 1 and 2 (MI = 8.54) were allowed to correlate. In the final model,
which is labelled Model 6: the errors of Items I I and 17 (MI = 7.30) were further allowed to
correlate, which resulted in a better Chi-square value of 165.25. The subsequent analysis is
therefore based on the 15-item revision (Model 6). including both error correlations. After
testing Model 6, the s2 value of 165.25 (df= 85; p < 0.0001) and other indices (CFI > 0.90;
x2 /d f '= 1,93) improved. compared to those in the other models. Although the 1' value of
165.25 is still high, it is considerably lower than those in the other models. The other fi t
statistics indicate a good fit for the re-specified model.
Similar procedures were followed to determine the fit statistics for the LrWES.
Table 3
The Goodnes.s-q/{fit Statisticsfor the Hypothesised UF'ES Model
Model %? y.'ldf GFI AGFI NFI IF1 TLI CFI RMSEA
Model I 70.05 2.00 0.93 0.90 O.Y.3 0.97 0.96 0.97 0.07
Model 2 53.24 1.57 0.95 0.92 0.95 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.05
Both one-factor and two-factor models were tested. Table 3 shows that a two-factor model
labelled here as Model 2: better tits the data set with a lower statistically significant r' value
of 53.24 (df.= 34; p = 0.02). and NFI. TLI and CFI values all higher than 0,95. and RMSEA
value of 0.05 lower than the RMSEA value of 0.07 for Model 1. In order to determine a
model that better represents the sample data, modification indices (MI) were examined to
identify possible areas of misfit. Item 15 was retained in spite of a relativel~, low standardised
regression weight of 0,38.
Post hoe analysis
As with other South African studies, the items on the .Absorption factor were problematic
(due to either low internal consistencies or poor loadings) and were therefore excluded from
Model 2 (Rothmann, 3005). This improved the X' value to 53.24 (df = 34: p = 0.02). The
subsequent analysis is therefore based on a ?-factor model of the UWES, with Items 1: 4, 8.
12 and 15 loading on Vigour: and Items 2, 5 , 7, 10 and 13 loading on Dedication.
A simple principal component analysis which was conducted on the nine items of the
Organisational Commitment Subscale of the ASSET showed two factors, which explained
71,13% of the total variance. The scree plot also confirmed two extracted factors. Nest. a
principal component analysis with a direct oblimin rotation was conducted on the items. T u n
factors. namely Afictive Conzmitnzcnt and BehmCozrral Co~nmitnzent were extracted. The two
factors were relatively strongl) related ( I . = 0.53).
A sin~ple component analysis which was conducted on the 19 items of tine Health Subscale
showed that four factors, which explained 60.32% of the total variance could be extracted.
However, the scree plot suggested two factors. Next. a principal component analysis with a
direct oblimin rotation was conducted on the items. Two related factors (r = 0.61), namely
Physical Ill health and Psychological Ihzwell-being were extracted.
A simple component analysis that was conducted on the 67 items of the JDRS resulted in five
factors, which explained 42,16% of the variance. Next. a principal component analysis with a
varimax rotation was conducted otl the items. The results of the factor analysis on the JDRS
are shown in Table 4. The loading of variables on factors is shown. Labels for each factor are
suggested in the footnote.
Table 4
Factor Loadings for Principal Facior Extraction and T'ar*in~a.x Rolarion on .JDRS Items
Item
I feel that m y manager appreciates my *'ark
I can dlicusi w o r l prohlcmi with my manazer
My manager infomi mc ahout how wcll I am domg my w r k
I get on well ivlth my managcr
The dcpartmenl i decliron-makmg process li clear u, me
I can count on my managcr when I camc across dWculue i in m! ~ w r l
I know exactly what my manheeithtnks of my performanw
I am kept adequately up-todatc about hmponanr lsiuc$ !n thc dcpanmcnl
I can parrickpace in decislosr about the nature d m ! work
1 recewe mfomaoon on rhc result, oSmy work
I rerewe mkrmatlon on the purpose of my work
I kaou, exactly what I am responsble h i
I have a dlrert lnlluencc an the dcpanment'i d e c w m
I recewe up-ro-dare ~ n l b r m a r m ahout the changes and t ransk~mnuun in the campany
It IS u l c a to me who I should address withm thc department ahout spcc8Rc problems
I know exactl\ what i s expectcd 01 me in mv wor l
I am allowed to lnnuencr (he p l n n m g of m! work actlwries
I can pamapale in (he dec~sinn about when =!oh musr hc compictcd
M y p h oliers mc the opponunrw of mdrpendent thought and acrwn
I i h a ~ Recdom m carving out my wort actwmci
I clcarlv understand m? rnlc in rhc change pioscrr ot the compan!
I feel [hat I can achieve samethlne in m i wark
I have contac! r r m c o l l c a ~ u r r ah pan i l t my woil.
I have to give a n e n r m ro man! thlngs at the same tlm?
I work under time pressure
I h a w too much work to dcm
I have ra remcmher many ( h q i in my work
I rccewe an avuiload of ~ n f o m a u o n in m! wol i
Direrent people E X F C , dlfercnt 1 h m p o i m c in my work
In my lob I an, confrnnled wnh thmgs that allkc, mc personalty
My wark irqutres continuous anentmn from me
In mv worl I have to deal whth power r r m ~ g l r s betwccn people fnm d~iierenl groups
M! work puts mc m emotionally uprcnlng sltuauonr
I hnvc cumam wtir drfficuh pmple in my work
I h s re vanely 8n m r work
My work urci my skills and capaclrter io then Sull porcnt~al
M! rcsponr~h~lmcr have mcrcared beynnd m! orca of rechmcai expemsc
I have to solve m! suhordlnale< personal problcrnr
I am able to effeciwei! usu t c c h n o l o ~ >n my u,orkplace
I have pcoplr at the nghr !me to g a :he work done
34
Table 4
Factor Loudings ,/or Principcrl Factor Exrractzon and khrirnm Rolurion on JDRS Irems
lcontinued)
I tem
M, rubordmaer arcskdled ru eel t h e work done
If nccersaq I can ask my colleapucs lor help
I hare the necessay equipment to get my work done
I can count on mv colleagues for help when I comc arrorsdl l l i iu l tm in m! work
My work oh]cct~vcs can be ach~eved w t h m lhc approved budget
I ger an wll wllh mv colleagues
I have contact with colleaguci dunng wo?klng hours
I am ablc to keep up w d l the pace a which new l e c h n n l o ~ I* intraduccd in m) work
My p h oliers me the possibdxy ul progress hnancrall!
The company pay5 good salarler
I can llvs conironably on my pa?
I thlnl. 1 am paid enuuOJi for thc work I do
My budget can he changed to arcommodarc unloieslcn clrcumstancei
I have oppamnmes lo be pramarcd
M y joh ofTcrr me oppnnunmes lor wrsonal fruwtll and devclcrpment
M\ company gives me oppomnmrr l o anend trainmg courses
I can mfluence the bdge t a!localion for m\ u,ork
I necd to bc more sccure that 1 wi l l still hi on the same job l r rel in 6 months' t m e
I need to k more sccure thvr i wdl keep my cunrnr lob in the nrrt y 1 . r
I necd to be morc bccure ti131 1 wtll mll hi worklng hr the C O ~ P W ' in 6 months' tlme
1 need lo hc more sccurc ahou what my iuturr role orjoh in the curnpmy wi l
[Factor labels TI Orgon!sauonal Suppon, F, Workluad F; Resources, ii Advanccmen~Opponun:cles. i. Job Secunti
The five factors that were extracted accounted for 42.16% of the total variance in the data.
With a cut-off of 0.35 for inclusion of a variahle in interpretation of a factor. 7 of the 67 items
did not load on the five factors. Items 42. 4;. 44 and 61 did not load strongly (< 0.35) on any
of'the factors and were removed from the questionnaire. Items 4. 21 and 34 could not be
grouped into a meaningful factor and were also removed from the questionnaire.
The first factor was labelled Organi.salionc11 S~rpporf. Items loading on this factor relate to
managerial support. communication. role clarity. and the extent of work autonomy. The
second factor was labelled Workload and encompasses physical; cognitive and emotional
load. Items loading on this factor relate to time pressure. attentiveness to many things at the
same time: too much work to do. and dealing with power struggles. The third factor was
labelled Resou,-ces and involves a variety of resources including collegial support, physical
resources such as staff and equipment. as well as financial resources. The fourth factor was
labelled Ad~wzcenzer~r Opporfunilies. Items loading on this factor relate to growth and
development, promotion and financial progress. The fifth factor was labelled Job Sccurir?/.
This factor reflects respondents' indications about being secure in keeping their current jobs
in the next year, and about keeping their current job levels in the nest year.
n
Table 5 reports the descriptive statistics. Cronbach alpha coefficients and product-moment
correlation coefficients of the mcasuring instruments. namely the MBI-GS, UWES. JDRS.
the Health subscales of the ASSET and the Organisational Commitment subscales of the
ASSET
Compared to the guideline of 0.70 provided by Nunnally and Rernstein (1994) for Cronbach
coefficient alpha levels. Table 5 shows acceptable Cronbach alpha coefficients varying from
0.71 to 0,94 for all the scales. In conclusion. it can be said that all the instruments showed
sufficient reliability to be used for the subsequent analysis.
Inspection of Table 5 illustrates that Exhaustion is practically significantly related to Physical
Ill health (medium effect) and Psychological 111 health (large effect). Vigour. and Dedication
are also practically significantly related to Physical and Psychological Ill health (all medium
effects). Cynicism is practically significantly related to Psychological I11 health. Affective
Commitment is positively related to Vigour and Dedication and negatively related to
Cynicism (all medium effects).
Exhaustion is practically significantly positively related to Workload and negatively related
to Organisational Support (both medium efrects). Cynicism is practically significantly
negatively related to Organisational Support and Advancement (both medium effects).
Vigour (medium effect) and Dedication (large effect) are practically significantly related to
Organisational Suppori.
Next. multiple regression analyses were carried out with exhaustion and cynicism (as
measured by the MBI-GS). vigour and dedication (as measured by the UWES) as dependent
variables, and job demands and resources (as mrasured by the JDRS) as independent
variables (see Table 6) . The multiple regression analyses were carried out by entering the
independent variables in blocks in two steps. In the case of exhaustion: overload and job
insecurity (as demands) were entered in the first step, while organisational support. resources
and advancement (as job resources) were entered in the second step. The change in R'
between the two steps is indicated in the table.
Table 6
h4ultiple Regwssion Analyses with Exhaustion, Cynicism. Vigour and Dedication us
Dependent lariables
Exhaustion
Iconstant)
Worwosd
Joh recurih
Organlsat~onal Suppan
Resources
Advancement Opponunmer
Cynmsrn
(Constant)
Organisatinnal support
Resouiccs
Advancement opllortunities
Wortinad
Job secunt)
V t p x
(Conslant)
Orgsnisalional support
Rcsourcca
Advancerncnl opportunmes
Worklaad
Job sccurq.
D c d ~ a u o n
ICanstant)
Orgrnisational support
Rciources
Advmccrnent opponunitm
Workload
Joh secunlv
Table 6 shows that 33% of the variance in exhaustion (as measured by the MBI-GS) is
predicted by workload. job insecurity and lack of resourccs ( F = 19.43.p 5 0,Ol). Adding the
three job resources to the multiple regression significantly increased the R2-value from 0.19
to 0:; 1. Furthermore. 24% of the variance in cynicism is predicted by a lack of organisational
support and poor advancement opportunities ( F = 17,6S. p 5 0.01). Vigour was best predicted
by best predicted by organisational support (21% of the variance) and dedication by both
organisational support and workload (34% of the variance).
Next, multiple regression analyses were carried out with physical and psychological ill health
(as measured bq the Heaith Scales) as dependent variables and exhaustion. cynicism, vigour
and dedication as independent variables (See Table 7).
Table 7
Mulfipic~ Reges.vion Ana!yses with Ill health as Depcnderll Variable
Model Non-standurd~sed Standardtred I P fi fi 8' AR' CoeFhems Coefficmts
B SF Beta
Physicrl 111 health 8s Dcpendrnt \ariahle
(Constant) 17.67 2.45 7.21 0,OO 17.53' ! I 0.21, 0.03
Psychological Ill health as Dependent Variahlc
(Constant) 16.342 2.88 5.6s 0.00 27.10' 0.611 0.36 0.02
trhausuon 0.60 u.0S 0.55 7.65 0.00'
Cyncctsm U.OO 0.10 -0.00 - U U I (199
Table 7 shows that physical ill health is best predicted by exhaustion. Exhaustion explained
26% of the variance in physical health (F = 29.5 1. p < 0.01). Exhaustion and Low dedication
predicted 36% of the variance in psychological unwell-being (F = 27.1 0.p < 0.01 ).
The results of a multiple regression analysis with organisational commitment (as measured by
the Commitment Scale) as dependent variable and exhaustion and cynicism (as measured by
the MBI-GS) and vigour and dedication (as measured by the CIWES) as independent
variables are reported in Table 8.
Table 8
Multiple Regression Analyses ~ ' i r h Organisalional Commirnzenl as Dependent I'ariablc
M o d d Noii-standardwd Srandard~scd r J i R K' dl)' Coeffic~rntr Coefficlenti
U SE Bcta
Alieclive Carnmitmcnt as Dependent Variabk
(Conslant) 11.97 0.40
Exhaustton 0.01 0,U3
Cynmsrn -0.17 0.04
(Constant) 10.08 1.1 h
Exhaustm U.04 0.03
Cp lc lsm -0.0s U.04
vlgolrr 0.1; 0.05
Dcdtcat~on 0.09 0.05
Dchavioural Cornmitmcnl as 1)rpendenf Variahlc
(Constantl 32.82 1.90
txhmslion -0,lIb 0.07
Cynwsrn -0.57 0.08
(Constant) 20.04 2.63
E*haust~on -0.02 0.07
C31clsrn -0.34 0.09
Vlgour 0.08 0.1 I
Table 8 reveals that vigour accounted for 24% of the variance in affective commitment. With
the addition of vigour and dedication to the regression, the R2 value increased significantly
from 0.13 to 0.24. Cynicism and dedication accounted for 38% of the variance in behavioural
commitment (F = 30.02. p < 0.01). Adding vigour and dedication to the multiple regression
significantly increased the R'-value from 0.29 to 0.38.
DISCUSSION
This study set out to investigate the relationships between job demands. job resources.
burnout, engagement, and organisational commitment at a platinum mine in thc North-West
Province.
In support of the COBE model (Schaufeli & Bakker. 2004). the Pearson correlation analysis
confinned that burnout (consisting nf exhaustion and cynicism) was negatively related to
engagement (consisting of vigour and dedication). Low levels of burnout were related to high
levels of engagement, i t . high levels of energy related to high levels o i identification.
confim~ing thc findings of Schaufeli, Martinez. Pinto. Salanova, and Bakker (7002).
Exhaustion was positively related to job demands because of workload (which encompassed
physical, emotional and cognitive workload) and negatively to job resources because of
insufficient organisational suppofl (which focused mainly on management support.
communication, performance feedback. participative decision-making. work autonomy and
role clarity). Maslach et al. (2001') iound strong correlations between job demands (heax,)
workload and time pressure) and exhaustion. The findings of this study confirmed the theory
underlying the JD-R model (Demerouti et al.. 2001) that job demands arc primarily related to
exhaustion.
Cynicism correlated negatively with job resources because of la& of organisational support
and advancement opportunities (which included growth. development and promotional
opportunities). Barkhuizen (2004) reported similar findings. Both burnout dimensions were
negatively related to organisational commitment. i.e. turnover intentions. and positively
related to both physical and psychological ill health. Barkhuizen (3001) also reported
exhaustion to be related to ill health (physical and psychological). Research has linked
burnout with various physical and psychological health problems (l.ee & Ashforth. 1990:
Maslach. 1982). Jonker (2004). Maslach (1998) and Wiese. Rothmann. and Storm (2003)
found a strong comelation between exhaustion and high job demands. Kleyn. Rothmann:
Louw, and Makgala (2003) as well as Stonn and Rothmann (2003b) confirmed the
association between exhaustion and lack ofjob resources.
Regarding thc positive outcomes of wellness_ vigour and dedication were positively related to
job resources because of organisational support and advancement opportunities. negatively to
i l l health (physical and psychological) and positively to organisational commitment (affctivt:
and behavioural). Coetzer and Rothmann (2004) found that job demands and a lack of job
resources increased levels of burnout. while availability of rcsources increased levels of
engagement. This study further confirmed the theory of the .ID-R model (Dcn~crouti et al..
2001 ) that lack of joh resources are related primarily to disengagement.
The results of the multiple regression analyses also supported the underlying theory of the
COBE model and confirmed that burnout is predicted by job demands (workload and job
insecurity) and lack of job resources (insufficient organisational support and advancement
opportunities) whereas engagement is predicted by availability of job resources
(organisational support). Similarly, Storm and Rotlmann (2003b) reported exhaustion to be
predicted by job demands and lack of job resources. In this study, exhaustion was predicted
by job demands because of workload and job insecurity as well as by lack of resources that
included mainly collegial assistance, insufficient equipment and unfamiliarity with new
technology. Cynicism was best predicted by lack of job resources because of inadequate
organisational support and lack of advancement opportunities. Jonker (2004) found that
cynicism was best predicted by job demands, lack of job resources and two specific
personality characteristics. Maslach (1998) cited that cynicism was best predicted by job
demands (work overload and social conflict). Organisational commitment uas predicted by
uawment both burnout and en, ,
Therefore this study confirmed the first hypothesis that burnout is predicted by job demands
and a lack of job resources. It was clear from the results that the exhaustion component of
burnout was predicted by overload (pace and amount of work and quantitative overload), job
insecuriv and a lack of resources (including equipment. staff and financial resources), while
cynicism was predicted by a lack of organisational support. The second hypothesis. which
stated that work engagement is predicted by job resources. is also accepted. 11 can bc
concluded, however. that organisational suppofl (including managerial support.
communication; role clarity. and the extent of work autonomy) has a strong effect on both the
vigour and dedication components of work engagement. The third hypothesis, namely that
exhaustion and cynicism predict physical and psychological ill health, is partially accepted.
The results showed that. although exhaustion predicted physical ill health, both exhaustion
and lack of dedication predicted psychological unwell-being. The fourth hypothesis. which
stated that vigour and dedication predict organisational commitment, is also partiall!
accepted.
It can thus be said that job demands, because ol' high workload and job insecurity together
with lack of job resources because of insufficient organisational support and adxmcement
opportunities. contributed to a significant level of exhaustion in this study. Exhaustion (low
energy) reduces engagement (identification) and organisational commitment psychological
attachment and identification) and impacts negatively on both physical and psychological
health. Existing theoretical relationships between burnout and engagement as well as burnout
and ill health were confirmed in this study, and specifically the theory that burnout develops
in response to excessive job demands and diminished joh resources (Schaufeli & Baker-
2004) and that hcalth problems are linked to burnout via job demands (Jackson et al.. in
press). This study supports the theory of the DC model and iindings of a large number of
studies which showed that job control. and sometimes job demands, are critical components
in a healthy work environment as indicated by various health outcomes (Elovainio el al..
2005). According to Iacovides. et al. (3003), inadequate control over one's work. frustrated
hopes and the feeling of loosing meaning in life seem to be important causes of burnout,
The results should be interpreted in view of the current transformation process in the
organisation and the history of the organisation. Eight months ago the organisation
commenced with restructuring aimed at becoming a world-ciass organisation and reducing
costs. The new organisational design includes centres of excellence and shared business
services that will result in job losses and possible demotions. The majority of affected
employees are within the management ranks. Although the aims of the restructuring exercise
were communicated eight months ago. communication on progess made has been limited
and the appointment of employees into their new roles has been extremely slow. 11 is likely
that the situation has escalated the anxiety levels of the employees in the organisation. and
contributed to the current levels of job insecurity experienced by the participants as well as a
sensc of reduced control, participation in decision-making and job autonomy.
Simultaneously, other change initiatives such as continuous improvement, an enterprise
resource system and a culture change initiative were implemented. The organisation expects
its managers to embrace and champion the change initiatives. According to Maslach and
Leiter (1997), major organisational transitions increase managers' workload in three ways: it
becomes more intense and more complex and demands more rime. It can thus be argued that
the workload (physical. emotional and cognitive) of the managers has increased significantly
over the past eight months. However, their job resources have not increased. In supporl of the
DC model it can thus be argued that the high job demands together with reduced influence on
thcir own control and decision making associated with the rransformation, had an adverse
effect on participants' health. both physically and psychologically.
Historically. the organisation's human resource systems were ineffective. The organisation
appointed management expertise from their competitors or promoted the best internal
technical experts into management positions without regard for the complexity of
management work or the competencies required to manage others. Development
interventions focused on technical development with little attention paid to the deveiopment
of management and leadership skills. Career and succession planning as well as formal
performance managemexlt were non-existent.
When interpreting the results. it must be kept in mind that the sample was very homogeneous.
88,6096 of the participants were male. 40% of them were younger than 40. and 450% were
between ages 41 and 50. Sixtyseven percent of the participants were employed at the entry
level ofthe management ranks. namely at Paterson grading of D-level. It can thus be said that
they fall in two career development stages. namely the early and mid-career stages
(Greenhaus. Callanan, & Godshalk. 2000). With regard to advancement opportunities. it is
evident that the career development needs. i.e. growth. development and advancement needs
of the management staff were not met in the past. Forty percent of the management corps are
in the early career stage d u r i n ~ which acceptance as a valued contributor to the organisation.
and upward mobility are the main career objectives (Greenhaus et al.. 2000). Forty-five
percent of the participants find themselves in the mid-career phase during which individuals
confront the midlife transition and reconcile their acconlplishments in life and their careers
with their youthful aspirations. Many may find themselves on a career plateau with associated
feelings of frustration. guilt and stagnation as they realise that future advancement
opportunities are unlikely (Greenhaus et a].. 2000). The implementation of the Employn~ent
Equity Act further restricted (and still does) advancement opportunities for especially white
males. i.e. the majority of the management corps (88.60% of the sample were male and
84,70% white). In general, it can thus he said that the managers did not reap the anticipated
return on the individual resources that they invested in the organisation and their jobs in the
past.
As far as or_eanisational support is concerned. the technical experts who were promored to
various levels of managerial positions were not prepared for thc responsibility of managing
and developing the perfomlance of their reporting staff through relevant development
initiatives. It is possible that this. combined with the absence of a fom~al performance
appraisal system, could have resulted in a lack of management support. ineffective
communication. little or ineffective performance feedback, and limited participation in
decision-making at different levels of management.
In conclusion, it can be argued that participants developed exhaustion in response to a
significant increase in workload, high levels of job insecurity, and insufficient job resources.
This resulted in psychological withdrawal (i.e. cynicism, reduced dedication and vigour) both
from the work and the organisation. as well as ill health of the participants. This is similar to
findings cited by Maslach et al. (2001) in a meta-analysis of burnout and engagement
research. The results confmed the underlying theory of the COBE model. Work weliness
(burnout and engagement) was predicted by both job demands (workload and job insecurity).
and lack of job resources (lack of organisational support and advancement opportunities).
Organisational commitment was predicted hy work wellness (burnout and engagement).
The present study has certain limitations. The research was a cross-sectional survey design.
As a result, n o causal inferences could be drawn, even though advanced analytical procedures
were employed. Another limitation is that the measurement of this model's variables was
based solely on self-reports. Furthcrmorc. the study population was very homogeneous. From
a sample of 202 managers. 88.6?h were male. and 84.7% white. South Africa's multicultural
society necessitates studying the constructs burnout. engagement and organisational
commitment for managers from different cultural groups. and proving the construct
equivalence and the absence of item bias for these groups. Future studies should also include
larger sample sizes.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Given the pervasi\;e nature of burnout, organisations should adopt a preventative approach.
According to Kompier and Kristensen (2001). interventions may, in the iirst place, bc
directed at the work situation or the coping capacity of employees. Work-oriented
interventions aim at improving the fit between an individual and the workplace to the benefit
of the individual and organisational system. Employee-oriented interventions aim at teaching
employees effective stress management skills. or skills to modify their appraisals of stressful
situations a being less stressful. In the context of the organisation, effective human resource
systems including career development, and perCurmance management should be implemented
as a matter of priority.
Secondly, inlervcntions may be aimed at eliminating. reducing or altering stressors (primary
interventions,). Possible interventions include: changes in decision-making processes; work
redesign, and provision of a more suppoitive climate including constructive performance
fccdback. Thirdly, secondary level interventions can be implemented to prevent employees,
who are already showing signs of stress. from getting sick and to increase their coping
capacity. Examples of this strategy include cognitive restructuring, time managcmcnt.
conflict resolution techniques and coping strategies.
More research should be conducted on how to prevcnt burnout and enhance engagement as
well as organisational commitment. Research should also be conduc~ed 10 evaluate the
effectiveness of interventions.
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CHAPTER 3
CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATlONS
This chapter encompasses conclusions regarding the literature review and empirical study.
The limitations of the study are highlighied and recommendations are made for further
studies.
3.1 CONCLUSION
In this section conclusions are drawn in terms of speckc theoretical objectives and the results
of the empirical study.
3.1.1 Conclusions in terms of specific theoretical objectives
A literature study was undertaken to conceptualise job characteristics, burnout. engagement.
and organisational commitment. Subsequently, the following conclusions are drawn in terms
of the theoretical objectives.
With reference to job characteristics, the work environment can be classified in terms of two
broad categories, namely job demands and job resources. Job demands refer to an individual's
work goals or the "things that have to be done" (Demerouti. Bakker. Nachreiner. &: Schaufeli.
2001). It encompasses the physical, social and organisational aspects of the job that require
sustained physical, mental and emotional effort. Job resources refer to physical.
psychological, social and organisational job aspects that facilitate achievement of work goals.
reduce job demands and the psychological costs associated with distress, and stimulate
personal growth and development (Demerouti et al., 2001; Rothmann, 2002).
Burnout as a pathogenic psychological syndrome is the extreme end result of cluonic
exposure to stressors on the job. It comprises three dimensions. namely emotional exhaustion.
cynicism and reduced professional efficacy (Maslach. Schaufeli- & Leiter. 2001). .As core
dimension of burnout. emotional exhaustion refers to feelings of being overextended and
exhausted. Cynicism relates to the interpersonal dimensions of burnout and results in
negative. callous responses to various job aspects (Maslach et al.. 2001). Professional
efficacy, the weakest dimension of burnout - and often reearded as unnecessary (Lee &
Ashforth. 1996: Schaufeli, 2003) - refers to individuals evaluating themselves as being
ineffective and incompetent in fulfilling required job responsibilities (Schaufeli & Ruunk.
1996).
Engagement is described as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is
characterised by vigour, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli & Bakker. 2002). It is a
persistent and pervasive affective-cognitive state rather than situation, object or event-
specific (Schaufeli. Saianova. Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker, 2002). Engagement is
characterised by being enthusiastic about work. doing the work with high levels of energy
and experiencing intrinsic enjoyment in doing the work. Vigour refers to high levels of
energy and resilience. willingness to invest effort in one's work and perseverance in the face
of difficulty. Dedication is described as a strong involvement in one's work accompanied by
feelings of enthusiasm, significance and pride (Maslach et a]., 2001). Absorption refers to a
state of emersion in one's work that is characterised by focused attention, time distortion and
intrinsic enjoyment, among other things (Csikszentmihalyi: 1990).
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) categorise organisational stressors as job demands and lack of
job resources. Job demands refer to activities to be performed or things to be done which
require sustained physical and mental effort (Demerouti et al.. 2001). Job resources refer to
all aspects that reduce job demands. facilitate achievement of work goals, andlor stimulate
individual growth (Demerouti et al.. 2001; Rothmann, 2002).
Physical ill health manifests in symptoms such as migraine, heart disease: ulcers, allergies.
and back problems. Psychological ill health manifests in stress-induced symptoms such as
depression: mood swings, irritability, etcetera and behaviours such as a tendency to smoke or
drink more than usual, loss of sense of humour, etcetera. Both physical and psychological ill
health have been associated with stress and burnout (Ho, 1997; Ryff & Singer. 1998; Sethi &
Schuler. 1990).
Organisational commitment refers to a reciprocal. psychological relationship between an
employer and its enlployees. On the one hand. it entails commitment of the organisation
towards the employees as reflected by employees' perception of the degree to which the
organisation trusts. values and respects them. On the other hand. i t refers to commitment of
the employee to the organisation as demonstrated through the extent to which the employee is
loyal and dedicated to the organisation and its goals. as well as the employee's desire to
remain employed by the organisation.
Literature confirmed strong and consistent correlations between exhaustion and job demands
(workload and time pressure) (Maslach et al.. 2001; Schaufeli et al.. 2002) and between
hurnout and a lack of job resources (social support, lack of feedback, poor incentives:
etcetera) (Maher, 1983: Maslach et al.. 2001). Poor engagement is also associated with a lack
of job resources (Schaufeli et al.. 2002). Burnout is mainly predicted by job demands and
lack of job resources, is related to health problems and turnover intentions, and mediates the
relationship between job demands and health problems. Engagement is exclusively predicted
by job availability of job resources, relates to turnover intentions and mediates the
relationship between job resources and turnover intentions (Schaufeli 8: Rakker. 2004).
Consistent evidence exists of a link between burnout and ill health (physical and
psychological). Organisational commitment diminishes in the presence of burnout (Leiter gi
Maslach, 1988). Aktouf (1992) also confirmed that poor engagement leads to reduced
organisational commitment.
3.1.2 Conclusions in terms of specific empirical objectives
This study set out to establish the extent to what job demands, job resources, burnout:
engagement. health and organisational commitment were correlated. The results confirmed
the findings or previous studies and supported the theoretical assumptions of the COBE
model (Schaufeli &r Bakker, 2004). Burnout (consisting of exhaustion and cynicism) was
negatively related to engagement (consisting of vigour and dedication). Low- levels of
hurnout were related to high levels of engagement. i.e. high levels of energy related to high
levels of identification: confirming the findings of Schaufeli et al. (2002).
Exhaustion was positively related to job demands because of workload (which encompassed
physical. emotional and cognitive workload), and negatively to job resources because of
insufficient organisational support (which focused mainly on management support,
communication. performance feedback, participative decision-making, work autonomy and
role clarity). The findings of this study confirmed the theory underlying the ID-R model
(Demerouti et al.. 2001) that job demands are primarily related to exhaustion.
Cynicism correlated negatively with job resources because of lack of organisational support
and advancement opportunities (which included growth: developn~ent and promotional
opportunities). Both burnout dimensions were negatively related to organisational
commitment, i.e. turnover intentions and positivcly related to hoth physical and psychological
ill health.
Vigour and dedication were positively related to job resources because of organisational
support and advancement opportunities, negatively to ill health (physical and psychological)
and positively tn organisational commitment (affective and behavioural). This study also
confirmed the theory of the ID-R model (Demerouti et al.. 2001) that lack of job resources
are related primarily to disenga, oement.
The results of the multiple regression analyses confirmed that burnout is predicted by job
demands (workload and job insecurity) and lack of job resources (insufficient organisational
support and advancement opportunities) whereas engagement is predicted by availability of
.job resources (organisational support) and workload. In this study exhaustion was predicted
by job demands because of workload and job insecurity as well as by lack of resources that
mainly included collegial assistance. insufficient equipment and unfamiliarity with new
technology. Cynicism was best predicted b> lack of job resources because of inadequate
organisational support and lack of advancement opportunities. Organisational commitment
was predicted by both burnout (cynicism) and engagement (vigour and dedication).
Therefore, this study confirmed the first hypothesis that burnout is predicted by job demands
and a lack of job resources. It was clear from the results that the exhaustion component of
burnout was predicted by overload (pace and amount of work and quantitative overload), job
insecurity, and a lack of resources (including equipment. staff and financial resources), while
cynicism was predicted by a lack of organisational support. The second hypothesis. which
stated that work engagement is predicted by job resources. is also accepted. However. it can
be concluded that organisational support (including managerial support. communication, ro!e
clarity. and the extent of work autonomy) has a strong effect on both the vigour and
dedication components of work engagement. The third hypothesis: namely that exhaustion
and cynicism predict physical and psychological ill health. is partially accepted. The results
showed that. although exhaustion predicted physical ill health, both exhaustion and lack of'
dedication predicted psychological unwell-being. The fourth hypothesis. which stated that
vigour and dedication predict organisational commitment. is also accepted.
It can thus be said that job demands because of high workload and job insecurity together
with lack of job resources because of insufficient organisational support and advancement
opportunities contributed to a significant level of exhaustion in this study. Exhaustion (ION
energy) reduces engagement (identification) and organisational commitment (psychological
attachment and identification), and impacts negatively on both physical as well as
psychological health. Existing theoretical relationships between burnout. engagement. ill
health and organisational commitment were confirmed in this study.
in conclusion, it can be argued that participants developed exhaustion in response to a
significant increase in workload. high levels of job insecurity. and insufficient job resources.
This resulted in psychological withdrawal (i.e. cynicism: reduced dedication and vigour) both
from the work and the organisation: as well as ill health of the participants. This is similar to
findings cited by Maslach et al. (2001 ) in a meta-analysis of burnout and engazetnent
research. The results confirmed the underlying theory of the COBE and JD-R models. Work
wellness (burnout and engagement) was predicted by both job demands (workload and job
insecurity) and lack of job resources (lack of organisational support and advancement
opportunities). Organisational commitment was predicted by work wellness (burnout and
engagement).
3.2 LIMITATIONS OF THIS RESEARCH
?he sample size was one limitation of this study. Kerlinger and Lee (2000) recommend that
the largest possible sample always be used (the smaller the sample size, the greater the error).
The small sample size could account for the misfit between some of the originally
hypothesised theoretical models and the data set.
The san~ple was very homogeneous with regard to gender (88.6% male) and racc (84.7%
white). The research findings can therefore not bc generalised. Seen from a practical
perspective, no meaningful comparisons could be made with regard to difkrent race and
gender groups. In view of South Africa's diverse population, additional research is needed to
explore important demographic variables.
Only English versions of the measuring instruments were used whilst English is the home
language of only 25.70% of the participants. This posed a language barrier and could also
have contributed to the misfit between some of the hypothesised theoretical models and the
data obtained, specifically in the case of the UWES where all the Absorption items had to be
eliminated.
The cross-sectional survey research design was limiting in itself. as it provides a snapshot
view of the topic under investigation and excludes determination of the causality of
relationships between the variables. According to Kerlinger and Lee (2000). the depth of the
survey information is ordinarily poor as compared to the scope.
Although the researchers adopted a systems approach to the research, the contribution of
personality, as a factor that impacts on the individual system. could not be studied in relation
to burnout. engagement and organisational commitment due to the scope and magnitude of
adding this additional variable. This research could not provide a holistic vieu of the
potential relationships that may exist between a variet) of potential factors that might play a
role within the individual and within the organisational system as far as burnout. engagement
and organisational commitment are concerned.
Because the organisation that formed the focus of this study was restructuring at the time of
the study, the internal organisational climate could have influenced the results of the study.
specifically with regard to job insecurity and cynicism. The potential influence of the
restructuring process on the dependent variables was not considered.
The research was presented from a pathogenic perspective and focused exciusivel> on
pathogens such as exhaustion. cynicism, reduced vigour and dedication. etcetera. No
attention was given to salutogenic or fortigenic factors.
3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations for the organisation and for future research are made in this section.
3.3.1 Recommendations for the organisation
The consequences of burnout include disengagement from work. reduced organisational
commitment, ill health (Lee & Ashforth, 1990: Maslach, 1981: Seiler & Pearson. 1984-9,
increased absenteeism, sick leave and turnover (Leiter & Harvie. 1998; Schaufeli &
Enzmann_ 1998). and reduced work performance and poor of service delivery (Blix.
Cruise, Mitchell, & Blix. 1994: Maslach & Sackson- 1984; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). In
light of these findings and the organisation's vision to become a world-class. performance-
driven organisation, it is strongly recommended that the organisation adopt multi-le~el
interventions to prevent and/or address the problem of burnout, lack of engagement and poor
organisational commitment. Interventions can be classified as primary. secondary and tertiary
with each with its own outcomes. These categories of intervention focus on the individual.
the interface between the individual and the organisation and the organisation itself
(Schaufeli & Enzmann. 1998).
Primary interventions aim at reducing risk factors or changing the nature of stressors.
Interventions that focus on the individual include self-monitoring and assessment, stress
management: and promotion of a healthy lifestyle. At the level of interface between the
individual and the organisation. interventions can include personal screening, training in time
management and interpersonal skills, promotion of a realistic job image, and balancing work
and private life. At the level of the organisation, organisation design and development
interventions feature strongly and may include improving job content and work environment.
management development interventions, career management, retraining as well as corporate
fitness and wellness programmes. In the era where organisations compete for talented
employees and given that managers can spread burnout to other employees through their
attitudes and behaviour. a preventative approach is strongly recommended. Seen from an
organisational design and development perspective. the organisation could design. develop
and implement integrated human resource systems that include effective work design and
allocation of sufficient resources, realistic recruitment and on-boarding of neM staff.
individual development plans. career and succession plans: performance management,
internal surveys to measure managers' satisfaction with the way the organisation addresses
their needs, and interventions to evaluate the effectiveness of the human resource systems.
Furthermore. the organisation could also consider the implementation and maintenance of a
corporate fitness and wellness programme that is specifically targeted at managers and
includes stress audits, awareness training. and annual or bi-annual psychosocial check-ups.
One way to encourage management to support health promotion is to make it a meaningful
part of their performance appraisal process.
Secondary interventions aim at changing the ways in which individuals respond to stressors.
'file organisation should consider implementing cognitive-restructuring. relaxation
techniques, time management and conflict handling skills at individual level. At the interface
between the organisation and the individual peer-support groups: coaching as well as career
plannine could be considered.
Tertiary interventions are rzactive and aim at treating those who already suffer from burnout.
Tertiary interventions are also referred to as treatment. At the level of interface between the
individual and the organisation. it could include specialised counselling and psychotherapy.
At organisational level, it could include institutionalisation of Occupational Health and Safety
Services and Employee Assistance Programmes, both of which the organisation already
provides. However, managers could be encouraged to use the current services.
Rehabilitatior. aims at re-integrating an employee who has suffered from burnout, back into
the workplace. It goes beyond the individual level by considering the employee's job as well.
Once ar employee who has suffered burnout returns to the workplace. individual guidance
and assistance are recommended at the level of interface between the individual and the
organisation. At organisational level. and possibly as a last resort. outplacement could be
considered.
3.3.2 Recommendations for future research
The study population was very homogeneous. From a sample of 202 managers. 88.6% were
male. and 84,7% white. South Africa's multi-cultural society necessitates studying the
constructs burnout, enzagement and organisational commitment for managers from different
cultural groups, and to prove the construct equivalence and the absence of item bias for these
groups. Future studies should also include larger saniplc sizes.
DuBrin (1990) reported that managers who suffer from burnout harm organisational
effectiveness because the> spread it to their subordinates. Verhage and Jordaan (2001 ) iound
that employee burnout could be attributed to inadequate leadership, inefficient and dictatorial
managcmcnt, nepotism, lack of transparency and poor interpersonal relations. From these
findings it is evident that managers impact on the functioning and psychological health of
subordinates and teams. and thus the effectiveness and productivity of the organisation.
Therefore, more studies should be focused on managers who, as leaders of the organisation
and its teams. can directly or indirectly "infect" subordinates with bumout.
Because of the negative organisational outcomes that result from burnout. and in the context
of global pressure and compztilion for ihc same scarce pool of talented human resources. thr
need for more research on burnout, t-ngagcment and organisational commitmeni is critical.
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