KINS 7210 Sport and the Mass Media

Mastromartino KINS 7210 Final Exam 2

KINS 7210 Sport and the Mass Media

Final Exam

Brandon Mastromartino

The University of Georgia

Fall 2014


1. As a visual medium, there are often connections between sex and sport. In the

documentary Beyond the Glory: Sex and Sport, they highlight many important aspects of

how sex influences sport. I don’t believe sport and sex are synonymous, but I do believe

it plays a big part in how the sport is packaged and displayed, especially on television

broadcasts and related product advertising. Relying primarily on advertising dollars to

fund their networks, there is constant pressure for the networks to broadcast quality

programming to increase viewership numbers and appeal to advertisers. Although I am

more interested in the actual game and quality of performance, I am fine with using sex

to sell the sport. If the athlete, league, and consumer want to participate in that they

should be able to. If there is someone that is against that, they don’t have to watch it.

There are still some athletes who don’t participate in endorsements or use their body to

sell their sport which is why I don’t believe they are synonymous, but those who are

consenting adults should be allowed to participate in that. To make it as a professional

athlete is extremely tough and once they make it, most don’t stay on top or in the public

eye for very long. They should be able to capitalize on their celebrity and make a living

how they see fit.

I believe sport has made a negative impact on what is an acceptable body

image for females. Since sport is close to the entertainment industry, star athletes

are in advertisements, magazines, and tabloids along with other celebrities. These

mediums want to attract readership and advertising dollars, so they put images of

females that will make people want to buy. Since sport is such a visual medium, it’s

constantly around us and it becomes part of the paradigm that these are the images


of people who are healthy, successful, and happy. I believe this is a negative impact.

Many magazines use photo-editing software to enhance pictures and create

unrealistic versions of the human body. However, people see these images, not

realizing they are fake, and force themselves through unhealthy diets or workouts

that can lower self-esteem and harm them.

I believe there is a double standard in the demands on women and men

sports regarding performance, body image, and producing a profit. As mentioned in

the documentary, women’s sports have to perform and entertain. They have to sell

their sport to advertisers, audiences, and TV networks unlike men’s professional

sports, which sell themselves because of how popular they have been for decades.

Women’s sports often have to be visually appealing in order to get on the public’s

radar and generate a profit. We are socialized to see sport in a certain way and it is a

double standard for men and women. Also mentioned in the documentary, women

are often criticized for being attractive athletes who are endorsing a product, but

that rarely happens with men. There have been strides made in order to create a

more serious and respected image of female in sport. One example of this is there

are more and more female broadcasters who are part of the overall presentation of

a sport, including male sports, and they aren’t just the cheerleaders anymore. There

is still a double standard in that area as the majority of the time, the female

broadcasters are attractive individuals who are used to appeal to a certain

demographic, whereas for male broadcasters there are many who most would not

consider attractive.


2. There are two major components that are involved in content decisions as it

relates to broadcast media. The first is ratings, which are important to content decisions

because without a certain amount of viewers, there could be no program at all. These

ratings measure how many people are watching, and who is watching. Content is often

geared toward a specific audience and decisions are based on the type of audience they

want to attract. Neilsen and Arbitron are the two major ratings companies in the United

States. These ratings drive the price the networks set for advertisers on how much it will

cost them to air ads. Advertising is the second major component that is involved in

content decisions. Content needs to be high quality and something a lot of people want to

watch in order for advertisers to pay top dollar for air time.

The TV Industrial complex is the idea that a product is created (a television

broadcast) which leads advertisers to buy ad space, which creates more money for the

network who can then create more products, and then more ad space is sold and it creates

a never ending cycle. This is important to content decisions because it is in the network’s

best interest to put high quality content out there so advertisers keep buying it and the

network will have more money to create even better programming in the future. It is this

complex that allows networks to be profitable and continue to stay in business.

There are a few ways in which content decisions impact what I choose to watch.

The first is following my favorite sports and hometown teams. It’s important to me I’m


able to see these teams, even though I don’t live in the region where these teams are

based. Content providers are aware of other viewers like me and find ways broadcast

sports and teams to viewers who might be outside of the main region. I choose products

like online streaming services because that content appeals to me and gives me the ability

to still follow my favorite sports and teams that aren’t broadcasted regularly here.

Second, is the overall broadcast package. It’s important for me to have good on air talent

who are knowledgeable in the sport, passionate about the game, and provide a quality

visual experience. I enjoy the insider tips and expert breakdowns of the game to give me

a more in depth look at the sport. If there are multiple broadcasts of the same event, the

decision to put high quality broadcasters on air leads me to choose that product. Lastly,

large and historical sporting events are important for me to see. The Super Bowl,

Olympics, a famous athlete’s last game, a potential record-breaking performance, are all

events I’d like to be able to see. If a network is promising a good presentation and

coverage of those events, I will tune in and consume that product.

3. There are two main theoretical and two “sub-theoretical” explanations that

explain why and how we consume media content (Raney, 2006). The first theoretical

explanation is “Balance Theory” which says viewers look for content and information

that align with their own personal beliefs, attitudes, and thoughts. The second one is

“Cognitive Dissonance Theory” which goes along with Balance Theory in that when


people consume information or content that goes against their personal beliefs, attitudes,

or thoughts they go through cognitive distress that causes them to look out for means to

alleviate that distress through other content consumption. The first “sub-theoretical”

explanation is “Selective Exposure Theory” which says people intentionally select media

content that is aligned with their attitudes, beliefs, and thoughts. The second sub-

theoretical explanation is “Mood Management Theory” which says viewers use media

content to minimize the length and intensity of bad moods and also use it to increase the

length and intensity of good moods.

From the class presentations, how most people consume media was generally

aligned with the theoretical explanations. The majority of people consumed media for

entertainment, companionship, and eustress. Other factors followed closely behind

including family, aesthetics, and release. These align with Raney’s theories. All of these

factors have something to do with one’s personal beliefs and psychological release from

stressful times. Usually, one gets their beliefs and attitudes from family and they also

choose their friends base on things in common, including common thoughts, beliefs and

attitudes. This makes sense then why media consumption also aligns with those factors

and it all comes together. Eustress and release were also common themes in why our

class consumed media. This goes with the mood management theory in how one seeks

out media in order to relieve some stress or distract them from other things in their life.

Factors such as self esteem and economics were commonly low on our class’s list of

reasons for consuming media. This can also make sense as Raney’s theories outlined that

the other reasons explain the greater reasons for consuming media.


Selective Exposure Theory best describes my consumption of media content, and

specifically sport media content. I usually go out of my way to find sports or sport

content that aligns with my personal attitudes and I don’t stray too far from it. I am a very

team, good sportsmanship, positive leadership orientated person. I tend to lean toward

team sports and don’t usually have much interest in solo sports. I enjoy the human side of

the sports story and will usually look for sporting events where there is an underdog of a

team that I can relate to and watch. My favorite regular sporting event is “Hockey Night

in Canada” which airs every Saturday night and shows NHL hockey games. They usually

take time to profile human interest stories and often profile small Canadian towns and

their impact on hockey. Being from a small Canadian town, watching this makes me feel

closer to home when I’m away, and when I lived there it made me feel connected to the

world outside of the town. Especially now that I live away from my home country, I

intentionally seek out sports that are related to my strong passion for my home country

and align myself with other sport media that identifies those passions and contributes to

my identity.

4. There are 11 main steps in developing a crisis management plan. To highlight

each step, I will discuss it in context of the University of Georgia’s football team’s

perspective who went through a crisis when their star player Todd Gurley was suspended

by the NCAA earlier this year for alleged violations of his eligibility requirements. The

first step is research. UGA would look through all related contracts and documents to


make sure they have all the information. They would have to contact other schools and

see if there have been similar situations elsewhere and how they dealt with it. Next they

would prepare an assessment, which is a brief situational analysis, and evaluate what they

need to do going forward. After that, they would outline common communication

channels. For the UGA Bulldogs, this means their webpage, twitter account, and

University outlets such as the campus newspaper, University webpage, and University

twitter account. Here they would also keep all key stakeholders in the loop and outline

their responsibilities who would include the team coach, University Athletic Director,

and University President. Next is preparing notification procedures, which outline what

each member of the crisis management team will do when the news breaks.

Communication control center is the next step, which is setting up a central location

where the team prepares and releases all of the information to the media and public. This

is probably in an office on campus near the Athletic Director’s office. This area is usually

also a common meeting area for the crisis management team. A crisis kit will then be

prepared in that room which will include phone and Internet connections, office supplies,

and other logistical materials. Here it will also become important to prepare steps on

dealing with the media. Next is a recap of all the policies and procedures, which comes

from the research at the beginning. These will be reviewed at this stage and be kept

handy in the crisis kit at the communication control center. Lastly, Appendices will be

created which includes contact information for all executives, media contacts, University

personnel or any other key stakeholder information. In this case, it could also include the

lawyer or agent for the player.


In times of crisis, it is important the Sports Information Director (SID) works

effectively with their two major stakeholders, the institution and the media. The SID

works as an inbetween for those two and they must be well organized and have a plan of

attack for the incident. They should be creating a timeline for the situation and assisting

the institution with the process as it goes. They should be in constant communication

with both stakeholders and be available when either side has questions or issues. They

could stage events on campus to add or lessen attention from a certain team and help

portray the institution in other positive lights if something negative is happening in

another area. They can come up with features on athletes or lower profile sports and give

the media lots of material to work with. The SID can assist and encourage the institution

to come up with a schedule of public announcements to coincide with key events or to

help get the message of a crisis out to the public. Overall, the SID should be flexible,

organized, and on top of all issues and act as a link between the institution and the media.

5. Expanded media coverage is the movement for sports media in countries outside

the United States. This goes two ways now more than ever, American sports are being

broadcasted outside of the country, and International sports are now being broadcasted in

the United States. This impacts globalization because it has now become a global

business entity that allows other businesses to expand. Many corporations are buying

properties in other countries to expand their media empire, which allows for expanded

coverage of various sports in many countries. Since the rise of PVR and on demand

television watching, live sports have become a very lucrative product for networks to

broadcast because it is one of the few things viewers tune in to see live. This is means


potential for even larger profits for the media organizations because advertisers pay top

dollar for these time slots. The expanded coverage of sport media also impacts

globalization because as the world becomes more accessible with other technologies and

other businesses expanding worldwide, it’s important for people to stay connected to

their favorite sports if they are traveling or living elsewhere than their home town.

With this expanded coverage also come some challenges. One of them being

losing some the unique culture that comes with how one nation can broadcast a sport.

Few large corporations own many smaller stations that account for much of this globally

expanded media coverage. They now have a large influence in the agenda that is set and

what sorts of ideals are portrayed in their broadcast. Some of these beliefs and attitudes

may not reflect those of people in every culture, which will cause some conflict. When

looking at a global mega event such as the Olympics, this expanded coverage can cause

other political and economical challenges. An example is the Russia winter Olympics in

2014. Leading up to the event there were many stories of poor human rights in the

building of the stadiums, human equality debates and other politically related stories

coming out of Russia. Different media coverage showcased these stories in different

ways, some not at all. This raises the challenge and asks the question if it’s the Sport

media’s role to cover this or just focus on the sport itself. In an increasing global

spotlight, content and coverage decisions are now scrutinized on a global level, not just in

one country.


There are advantages and disadvantages of this expanded media coverage. The

advantages are you get to learn about new sports you may never had access to, stay

connected to home if you’re traveling, and have more opportunity to work in the sport

media field. Some disadvantages include a loss of unique culture, a small amount large

companies having a lot of control, and oversaturation of the product. Overall, I believe

most of these challenges can be overcome and the globalization of sport media is a

positive movement.

6. With more globalization and corporations becoming larger, there is greater

consolidation in the media industry. There are few companies controlling the majority of

media influence. I believe there are some ethical dilemmas that have developed from this

consolidation. The first is the media’s duty to report the truth up against their partnership

with other corporations. Since the media outlet may be the only one, they may be making

content decisions based off of corporate interest, not what is in the best interest of the

public. If they are controlling all of the decisions, there may be things that the public

never gets to hear about. Also, the power of shaping cultural ideology will lie in the

control of just a few people at the top of these organizations. Few will decide the

perspective in which the content is broadcasted and their beliefs and attitudes may not

align with the general public, but it could force change.

The media gained its power through four main ways. First is constitutional

protection in that there are many laws that make it hard to break up or control large media


conglomerates and what they broadcast. Second is their universal access to the public.

They have the type of reach to spread their message that the average person doesn’t.

Third is corporate organization where they have the resources to make purchases of other

corporations and have those other corporations make money for the parent company and

continue to build power. Fourth is the ideological hegemony where they are dominating

individuals by controlling their ideas. This was mentioned above and the large

corporations are able to shape other’s opinions and have their own agendas projected and

the general public goes along with it.

There are some advantages and disadvantages of having larger, but fewer media

corporations. For advantages, one is more access to more content. The larger the

conglomerate, there is an ability to have more channels and create more interesting

content, as well as reaching out to niche markets. Also, they have the ability to provide

global access to their sport content, covering international events and sports that occur in

other countries while this world wide reach gives the viewer more options and an ability

to see the global landscape of sports. The disadvantages associated with this are that there

is too much power in the hands of a few executives at the top of the chain. These few get

to shape the thoughts and ideas of their viewers and have final say on what does and

doesn’t go into the public eye. Also, it becomes harder for others to show their own

independent media as it gets swallowed up and overpowered by larger corporations. It’s

hard for anyone else to have a voice.


This media consolidation contributes to the process of globalization. Often large

companies are buying out smaller media companies in other countries and have media

properties in various countries. This allows coverage of various sports to cross boarders

and a global audience to have access to the same content.

7. There are four major theories used to explain television violence (Gunter, 2006).

The first is the “arousal theory” which says when someone watches violence on

television it increases aggression because it “arouses” the viewers and causes excitement.

The second is the “social learning” theory that suggests we behave by learning and

observing others. Especially for children, this is a way of acquiring unfamiliar behavior.

However, acting on that new behavior depends on several other factors as well. Third is

the “disinhibition hypothesis” which states, that in certain circumstances, violence on

television will result in increased interpersonal aggression because it lowers the

inhibitions against that particular behavior. Fourth is the “catharsis hypothesis” that says

under certain circumstances exposure to television violence will reduce any following

aggression. This means that once someone sees it on TV, that urge is fulfilled and they

won’t feel the need to act it out in real life.

In our group interviews, we found that most people are motivated to watch violent

sports because it is something they grew up watching with their family, they find it

interesting, and because it sparks interesting conversations and debate. They enjoyed

being a part of the public conversation and we found that fairly consistent with the other


groups. Many other groups cited tradition and the need to be part of debates or office

chatter regarding big violent sporting events. We found that in general the people we

interviewed enjoyed violent sports when they are part of the natural game, but didn’t

enjoy seeing freak accidents or violent fights break out. They enjoy a good body check or

tackle, but if there is a player who showed intent to injure, they felt that had no place in

sports or on television. This was also consistent with the other groups where it

entertained people but extreme violence was unnecessary for their viewing pleasure. One

difference between groups was that most females from other groups had no interest at all

in violent sports and preferred other non contact sports, but the females we interviewed

preferred the violent sports more than the males. This could be due to the small sample

size, but it also shows that males, as well as females do enjoy violent sports on television.

These results reinforced my ideas about violence in sport on television. Those sports are

constantly the highest rated and most talked about. When an extremely violent incident

happens, it is all over the news and talked about in schools and offices. I am not surprised

that many people enjoy violent sports on TV and find it exciting.

For me, the catharsis hypothesis best describes how I consume violent sports on

television. I’m also a fan of other violent media such as films or video games, and for me

it relates to that theory. I don’t feel the need to play those acts out in real life and it

fulfills any need to show aggression or be a part of violent acts. Also, the arousal theory

does apply to me too, as I can feel excitement rising when there is a big hit. Fighting in

hockey is a hot debate, but it doesn’t matter which side you’re on in that debate, in the

moment when a fight breaks out, it causes arousal and excitement for the viewer. I can


feel those changes in me when those events happen. Those are the two theories that most

apply to my consumption of violent sports on television.

8. The media content analysis conducted in our group assignments were very

informative in learning how and why we consume that particular media. It was also a

good way to think critically about the messages we are receiving and how the people

putting them out there construct those messages. These analyses allowed for a more

objective evaluation than just casual watching or reading about sport. Through

interviewing other people, quantifying some of it like ad space and content, and doing

external research really gave a broad view of the content and made me think in different

ways about what I am consuming. It allowed me to be objective and detect some trends

that were happening across all mediums.

The first of the major trends is the large presence and influence of advertisers.

This was especially noted in the print media content analysis. A lot of the times reading a

magazine or newspaper you don’t notice the ads and it’s easy to just flip by them.

However, in the presentations it was noted that some publications had upwards of 60-

70% of ad space and the rest was actual content. As well, advertisers have a significant

influence on what is broadcasted on television. Networks rely on advertising dollars in

order to stay profitable and choose their content accordingly in order to attract advertisers

to their programming. This became very apparent in the television content analysis,

especially around sports programming since they attract large live audiences. The next


major trend is how technology is shifting the type of content we see. The presentations

that covered newspaper showed that readership is in decline and those publishers are

constantly adjusting their content to keep it fresh and keep people reading. As well,

television content is trying to link up and synergize with online content because that’s

where the technology is on the rise. Many of the presentations on TV programming

mentioned online options where people could consume that media on their computer or

mobile phone instead of traditionally watching it on a television with a cable

subscription. The third theme of sport media was the demographic audience it was

targeted to. The majority of all the sport media content across all mediums is targeted

toward males, especially those around 14-55. Some appealed to females, but after doing

the critical analysis most of them were clearly targeted to that audience. Most groups

discussed the need for more female related programming and some mediums, such as the

Sports Illustrated with Mo’ne Davis on the cover, are showing growth in that area.

However, many cited that sports media content needs to be more appealing toward

female audiences.

Overall, there were many similarities across the board. It is interesting to see that

some of the mediums at first seem very different, but are very much the same after all.

These analyses allow me to think more critically about what I’m consuming and allows

me to look at many areas before deciding what I consume and how I consume it.


9. New and emerging technologies are changing the landscape of sport media. Social

media is one of the larger ones, with Facebook and Twitter really taking the lead and

making an impact in sport media. Many journalists use Twitter to break news first and

comment on games as they go on. Sport teams and leagues also use these tools to send

out information. The advantage of this technology is that information can get out fast and

reach a wide audience. Also, with athletes on social media the fan has more access and

insight to their life than they ever have. A disadvantage with this is it’s hard to separate

real information from fake. On Twitter, anyone can have an account and put out any kind

of information. Often, rumors get started that cause confusion and untrue information to

spread. Twitter has taken steps against this by creating the “verified” user account so

people know which users are legitimate, but it is still sometimes a sea of information and

finding the truth is hard. A second emerging technology is television upgrades. The

picture quality has changed drastically as is no longer a fuzzy black and white picture on

cable with one or two games a week, it is high definition, sometimes in 3D, and hundreds

of channels, games, and sports to choose from at any time of day or night. An advantage

is this is the amount of sports available is incredible and watching from the comfort of

your own home on a high definition television can be an even better experience than

going to the event. A disadvantage for this is on the end of the sports teams and leagues.

Often people will choose to stay home and enjoy the game from their own home instead

of paying for tickets and concessions at an actual event. A third emerging technology is

streaming video. An advantage of this is it allows for even more access to sporting

events, especially for niche audiences whose events might not be on mainstream national

television. The NBA, MLB, and NHL all offer streaming services to watch out of market


games that won’t be on local television. However, a disadvantage is a slow internet

connection could make for a bad viewing experience. Also, games that are available on

network cable are often blacked out on these services, even if you don’t subscribe to

cable. So, it cannot be a replacement for cable and has some limitations in what you can

view. A fourth emerging technology is podcasts. These are becoming very popular and

are often free content available on the Internet for download. They often contain

interviews with important sports figures, and commentary on sporting events. Podcasts

are great for the consumer because they are usually free and are accessible for you to

listen whenever you want. A disadvantage is for radio technology that is losing

consumers to podcasts. Advertisers will pay less to radio stations for declining users and

the podcasts could hurt the radio industry. A fifth major emerging technology is smart

phones. It’s hard to find someone who doesn’t a smart phone who benefits from having

sports updates, news, and video streams available to them right in their pocket.

Information gets sent instantly and a sports fan constantly has access to any type of sport

media no matter where they are. A disadvantage to this is perhaps to athletes or high

profile sports figures. If they are out in public, a mistake can be caught be someone with

a smart phone in a photo and sent across the world via social media within seconds. This

has caused some controversy and landed some people in hot water because of the

prevalence of smart phones.

For me, all of these technologies are something I use a lot and add to my

enjoyment of sport media. Since I live out of my home team’s regional network I rely on

streaming services for access to my favorite team’s games. Also, having social media on


my smart phone is something I check multiple times a day to get the latest sports news

and information. It’s important for me to watch sporting events in high definition and I

purchased a high quality television with watching sports in mind. I look out for and

download many sports podcasts and enjoy them while I’m working and on long drives.

They all add to my experience as a sports fan and I hope these technologies continue to

grow and improve.

10. Sport media content has come a long way since mainstream media and technology

became accessible to the average citizen. Sport media content began being disseminated

in print form in the late 1800’s and people were able to purchase periodicals like “The

Sporting News”. Over time, circulation began to rapidly increase and the sports section

became a staple in most daily newspapers. Eventually color and wider distribution led to

popular magazines and niche magazines being available. When the Internet came along

in the early 90’s, there has been a decline in print sports media. With technologies such as

e-readers, social media, and websites – much of the print media is now outdated before it

even hits shelves. There is a small niche audience for these mediums but many of them

are due to nostalgia and remembering the feeling of holding a newspaper and are

purchased more so out of habit and tradition. However, as that audience gets older, I

believe in the next 30-50 years print media will be totally abolished and it will all be

online. Shortly after print media became accessible, radio broadcasts were made available

and this was popular for listening to live events, especially baseball and boxing. To this

day, many sporting events are still broadcast over the radio. It experienced a sharp


decline with the introduction of television but there remains a following. Sports such as

baseball still lend itself to radio, as it is a very descriptive game with lots of breaks

between action for commentators to discuss other interesting things. It is still useful for

people driving or in remote areas with no internet or cable, there is often still radio

technology. Television is arguably the biggest and most important technological advance

in sport media and it came to be mainstream in the early 1950’s after the second world

war. At first, black and white grainy images were celebrated and it was a breakthrough

technology. Football was the first sport to really take advantage of this technology and

changed the way sports were broadcasted. The NFL created a package around the actual

game with pre and post game shows with talented and interesting broadcasters,

interviews with players, and separate features. It has made television the most important

technology for sport media. Today, with many people choosing to PVR their favorite

shows and watch them when they want and fast forward through commercials, live sport

media are often the most watched live television programs. Advertiser’s television deals

with professional sports leagues are extremely high cost because of the amount of people

who want to watch live. This directly impacts the teams and players as they get a piece of

the revenue and it has changed the way sports business is done. Even with the rise of

internet streaming devices, television will still be the most important sport media

technology. Going forward, they are improving it through more cameras, more player

interaction, and increased TV capabilities such as high definition and 3D. Other

technologies such as websites and social media are going to be used as a compliment to

television with the purpose of making the broadcast more interactive. The television


broadcast will synergize with online social media and encourage viewers to use those

tools to be more interactive with the sport broadcast.

Documents

KINS 7210 Sport and the Mass Media