Vlomobility A critical analysis of planning and spaceTILL KOGLIN | DOCTORAL DISSERTATION | BULLETIN 284 | LUND UNIVERSITY

Lund UniversityFaculty of Engineering

Department of Technology and SocietyISBN 978-91-7473-623-6

ISSN 1653-1930

The purpose of this doctoral study is to bring a spatial dimension into the research on urban mobilities and connect the spatial dimension to the marginalisation of cyclists in urban space. This is been done by exploring the role of urban bicycling and transport planning. The theoretical frame of space, mobilities and power is used for analysing that role through case stu-dies in two Scandinavian cities, Copenhagen and Stockholm. Urban bicycling is a good example of showing the relation between space and mobilities, since cyclists often suffer from marginalised space in cities around the world. The philosophical foundation of the thesis is in critical realism and critical theory. For background data, observations and document studies have been conducted in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The main data collection for this thesis was done both qualitatively, in the form of interviews with planners and politicians, and quantitatively, in the form of survey studies among the citizens of Copenhagen and Stockholm. The data is analysed with the help of the theoretical framework that builds on mobility studies, spatial theory by Lefebvre, and Harvey and power theories deriving mainly from Lukes three dimensions of power. The materialisation of power relations is analysed with the example of modern planning in Sweden and Denmark. Overall this thesis manages to show how cycling as a mode of transport is marginalised in urban space, and that urban space wars between cyclists and car drivers and among cyclists are fought in Copenhagen as well as in Stockholm. The conclusion is that different factors, such as the economic situations in Denmark and Sweden, have affected urban and transport planning and thus have created two very different transport systems, where cycling plays a large role (Copenhagen) and a smaller role (Stockholm). Nevertheless, this thesis shows that even in cities that are very good for cycling, like Copenhagen, the motorised modes of transport create many problems and are still dominating urban space.

Printed by Media-Tryck, Lund 2013, Sw

eden

TILL KO

GLIN

V

lomobility A

critical analysis of planning and space

284

Vlomobility - A critical analysis of planning and space

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION by due permission of the Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, Sweden.

To be defended at the Faculty of Engineering, John Ericssons vg 1, in auditorium V:B in Lund. Friday the 20th of September 2013 at 10 am.

Faculty opponent

Professor Sven Kesselring, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

V l o m o b i l i t y - A c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f

p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e

D O C T O R A L D I S S E R T A T I O N

b y d u e p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g , L u n d U n i v e r s i t y , S w e d e n .

T o b e d e f e n d e d a t t h e F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g , J o h n E r i c s s o n s v g 1 , i n a u d i t o r i u m V : B i n

L u n d . F r i d a y t h e 2 0

t h

o f S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 3 a t 1 0 a m .

F a c u l t y o p p o n e n t

P r o f e s s o r S v e n K e s s e l r i n g , A a l b o r g U n i v e r s i t y , A a l b o r g , D e n m a r k

1

O r g a n i z a t i o n

L U N D U N I V E R S I T Y

F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g

D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d S o c i e t y

T r a n s p o r t a n d R o a d s

B o x 1 1 8

S E - 2 2 1 0 0 L U N D

D o c u m e n t n a m e

D O C T O R A L D I S S E R T A T I O N

D a t e o f i s s u e

2 0 1 3 - 0 9 - 2 0

A u t h o r ( s )

T i l l K o g l i n

S p o n s o r i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n

V i n n o v a , S K L , T r a f i k v e r k e t

T i t l e a n d s u b t i t l e

V l o m o b i l i t y A c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e

A b s t r a c t

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s d o c t o r a l s t u d y i s t o b r i n g a s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n i n t o t h e r e s e a r c h o n u r b a n m o b i l i t i e s a n d c o n n e c t

t h e s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n t o t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n s p a c e . T h i s i s b e e n d o n e b y e x p l o r i n g t h e r o l e o f u r b a n

b i c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e o f s p a c e , m o b i l i t i e s a n d p o w e r i s u s e d f o r a n a l y s i n g t h a t r o l e

t h r o u g h c a s e s t u d i e s i n t w o S c a n d i n a v i a n c i t i e s , C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . U r b a n b i c y c l i n g i s a g o o d e x a m p l e o f

s h o w i n g t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t i e s , s i n c e c y c l i s t s o f t e n s u f f e r f r o m m a r g i n a l i s e d s p a c e i n c i t i e s a r o u n d

t h e w o r l d . T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e t h e s i s i s i n c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r y . F o r b a c k g r o u n d d a t a ,

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e m a i n d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f o r

t h i s t h e s i s w a s d o n e b o t h q u a l i t a t i v e l y , i n t h e f o r m o f i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s , a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , i n

t h e f o r m o f s u r v e y s t u d i e s a m o n g t h e c i t i z e n s o f C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h e d a t a i s a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k t h a t b u i l d s o n m o b i l i t y s t u d i e s , s p a t i a l t h e o r y b y L e f e b v r e , a n d H a r v e y a n d p o w e r t h e o r i e s

d e r i v i n g m a i n l y f r o m L u k e s t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r . T h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i s a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e

e x a m p l e o f m o d e r n p l a n n i n g i n S w e d e n a n d D e n m a r k . O v e r a l l t h i s t h e s i s m a n a g e s t o s h o w h o w c y c l i n g a s a m o d e o f

t r a n s p o r t i s m a r g i n a l i s e d i n u r b a n s p a c e , a n d t h a t u r b a n s p a c e w a r s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d c a r d r i v e r s a n d a m o n g c y c l i s t s

a r e f o u g h t i n C o p e n h a g e n a s w e l l a s i n S t o c k h o l m . T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s , s u c h a s t h e e c o n o m i c

s i t u a t i o n s i n D e n m a r k a n d S w e d e n , h a v e a f f e c t e d u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d t h u s h a v e c r e a t e d t w o v e r y

d i f f e r e n t t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , w h e r e c y c l i n g p l a y s a l a r g e r o l e ( C o p e n h a g e n ) a n d a s m a l l e r r o l e ( S t o c k h o l m ) .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s t h e s i s s h o w s t h a t e v e n i n c i t i e s t h a t a r e v e r y g o o d f o r c y c l i n g , l i k e C o p e n h a g e n , t h e m o t o r i s e d m o d e s

o f t r a n s p o r t c r e a t e m a n y p r o b l e m s a n d a r e s t i l l d o m i n a t i n g u r b a n s p a c e .

K e y w o r d s : V l o m o b i l i t y , m o b i l i t y , p l a n n i n g , s p a c e , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , u r b a n c y c l i n g

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m a n d / o r i n d e x t e r m s ( i f a n y )

S u p p l e m e n t a r y b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n L a n g u a g e : E n g l i s h

I S S N a n d k e y t i t l e : 1 6 5 3 - 1 9 3 0 B u l l e t i n L u n d U n i v e r s i t y , F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g ,

D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d S o c i e t y , 2 8 4

I S B N :

9 7 8 - 9 1 - 7 4 7 3 - 6 2 3 - 6

( P r i n t )

9 7 8 - 9 1 - 7 4 7 3 - 6 2 4 - 3 ( P D F )

R e c i p i e n t s n o t e s N u m b e r o f p a g e s : 2 4 4 P r i c e :

S e c u r i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

S i g n a t u r e D a t e

2 0 1 3 / 0 7 / 3 0

Organization LUND UNIVERSITY Faculty of Engineering Department of Technology and Society Transport and Roads Box 118 SE-221 00 LUND

Document name DOCTORAL DISSERTATION

Date of issue 2013-09-20

Author(s) Till Koglin

Sponsoring organization Vinnova, SKL, Trafikverket

Title and subtitle Vlomobility A critical analysis of planning and space Abstract

The purpose of this doctoral study is to bring a spatial dimension into the research on urban mobilities and connect the spatial dimension to the marginalisation of cyclists in urban space. This is been done by exploring the role of urban bicycling and transport planning. The theoretical frame of space, mobilities and power is used for analysing that role through case studies in two Scandinavian cities, Copenhagen and Stockholm. Urban bicycling is a good example of showing the relation between space and mobilities, since cyclists often suffer from marginalised space in cities around the world. The philosophical foundation of the thesis is in critical realism and critical theory. For background data, observations and document studies have been conducted in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The main data collection for this thesis was done both qualitatively, in the form of interviews with planners and politicians, and quantitatively, in the form of survey studies among the citizens of Copenhagen and Stockholm. The data is analysed with the help of the theoretical framework that builds on mobility studies, spatial theory by Lefebvre, and Harvey and power theories deriving mainly from Lukes three dimensions of power. The materialisation of power relations is analysed with the example of modern planning in Sweden and Denmark. Overall this thesis manages to show how cycling as a mode of transport is marginalised in urban space, and that urban space wars between cyclists and car drivers and among cyclists are fought in Copenhagen as well as in Stockholm. The conclusion is that different factors, such as the economic situations in Denmark and Sweden, have affected urban and transport planning and thus have created two very different transport systems, where cycling plays a large role (Copenhagen) and a smaller role (Stockholm). Nevertheless, this thesis shows that even in cities that are very good for cycling, like Copenhagen, the motorised modes of transport create many problems and are still dominating urban space.

Key words: Vlomobility, mobility, planning, space, power relations, urban cycling

Classification system and/or index terms (if any)

Supplementary bibliographical information Language: English

ISSN and key title: 1653-1930 Bulletin Lund University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Technology and Society, 284

ISBN: 978-91-7473-623-6 (Print) 978-91-7473-624-3 (PDF)

Recipients notes Number of pages: 244 Price:

Security classification

Signature Date 2013/07/30

2

Vlomobility - A critical analysis of planning and space

Till Koglin

V l o m o b i l i t y - A c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f

p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e

T i l l K o g l i n

3

4

Copyright Till Koglin

Cover Photo: Christianshavn, Copenhagen, photo taken by Till Koglin

Lund University Faculty of Engineering Department of Technology and Society Bulletin: 284 ISBN 978-91-7473-623-6 (Print), 978-91-7473-624-3 (PDF) ISSN 1653-1930 Printed in Sweden by Media-Tryck, Lund University Lund 2013

A part of FTI (the Packaging and A part of FTI (the Packaging and Newspaper Collection Service) Newspaper Collection Service)

C o p y r i g h t T i l l K o g l i n

C o v e r P h o t o : C h r i s t i a n s h a v n , C o p e n h a g e n , p h o t o t a k e n b y T i l l K o g l i n

L u n d U n i v e r s i t y

F a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g

D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d S o c i e t y

B u l l e t i n : 2 8 4

I S B N 9 7 8 - 9 1 - 7 4 7 3 - 6 2 3 - 6 ( P r i n t ) , 9 7 8 - 9 1 - 7 4 7 3 - 6 2 4 - 3 ( P D F )

I S S N 1 6 5 3 - 1 9 3 0

P r i n t e d i n S w e d e n b y M e d i a - T r y c k , L u n d U n i v e r s i t y

L u n d 2 0 1 3

A p a r t o f F T I ( t h e P a c k a g i n g a n d A p a r t o f F T I ( t h e P a c k a g i n g a n d

N e w s p a p e r C o l l e c t i o n S e r v i c e )N e w s p a p e r C o l l e c t i o n S e r v i c e )

5

C o n t e n t s

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s 9

S u m m a r y 1 1

S a m m a n f a t t n i n g 1 6

Z u s a m m e n f a s s u n g 2 1

P r e f a c e C y c l i n g a n d t h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f i n e q u a l i t i e s 2 7

1 I n t r o d u c t i o n : C y c l i n g , m o b i l i t y a n d r e s e a r c h 3 0

2 R e s e a r c h d e s i g n a s t o r y a b o u t m e t h o d s 4 0

2 . 1 E x c u r s i o n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n 4 3

2 . 2 B a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s 4 8

2 . 3 I n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s 5 1

2 . 4 S u r v e y s t u d i e s 5 6

2 . 5 T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f m e t h o d s 5 8

3 M o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y f r a m i n g t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n 6 1

4 P o w e r , s p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e 7 0

4 . 1 P o w e r t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t s a n d i d e a s 7 1

4 . 2 S p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s 8 0

5 T h e m a t e r i a l i s a t i o n o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n m o b i l i t y 8 6

6 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e c a s e s : S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n 9 9

7 V l o m o b i l i t y , p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i t i c s T h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s v i e w 1 0 6

7 . 1 S p a t i a l , e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r

a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f m o b i l e s p a c e s 1 0 7

7 . 2 O r g a n i s a t i o n a l a s p e c t s 1 1 4

7 . 3 T h e p o l i t i c s o f p l a n n i n g p r a c t i s e 1 2 2

Contents

Acknowledgements 9Summary 11Sammanfattning 16Zusammenfassung 21Preface Cycling and the materialisation of inequalities 271 Introduction: Cycling, mobility and research 302 Research design a story about methods 40

2.1 Excursion to the philosophy of science the methodological foundation 432.2 Background information observations and document studies 482.3 Interview studies 512.4 Survey studies 562.5 The combination of methods 58

3 Mobility and vlomobility framing the dissertation 614 Power, space and space wars the theoretical outline 70

4.1 Power theoretical concepts and ideas 714.2 Space and space wars 80

5 The materialisation of power relations in urban mobility 866 Introduction to the cases: Stockholm and Copenhagen 997 Vlomobility, planning and politics The practitioners view 106

7.1 Spatial, economic, cultural and historical aspects the third dimension of power and the political economy of mobile spaces 1077.2 Organisational aspects 1147.3 The politics of planning practise 122

6

7.4 Planning, politics and the differences between Copenhagen and Stockholm 1308 Mobility and cycling The cyclists view 134

8.1 Cycling in Stockholm and Copenhagen a question of mobility and space 1369 Cyclists, planners, observations 15810 Conclusions 164Epilogue Changes in two cities 170References 172Appendix 1 Interview Guides 191Appendix 2 Surveys for Copenhagen and Stockholm 199Appendix 3 Background data from the survey for Copenhagen 228Appendix 4 Background data from the survey for Stockholm 232Appendix 5 Results from Chi 2 test 236Appendix 6 Results from the Mann-Whitney test 239Appendix 7 Frequencies and percentage for modes of transport that create problems for cyclists 241

7 . 4 P l a n n i n g , p o l i t i c s a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m 1 3 0

8 M o b i l i t y a n d c y c l i n g T h e c y c l i s t s v i e w 1 3 4

8 . 1 C y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n a q u e s t i o n o f m o b i l i t y a n d s p a c e 1 3 6

9 C y c l i s t s , p l a n n e r s , o b s e r v a t i o n s 1 5 8

1 0 C o n c l u s i o n s 1 6 4

E p i l o g u e C h a n g e s i n t w o c i t i e s 1 7 0

R e f e r e n c e s 1 7 2

A p p e n d i x 1 I n t e r v i e w G u i d e s 1 9 1

A p p e n d i x 2 S u r v e y s f o r C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m 1 9 9

A p p e n d i x 3 B a c k g r o u n d d a t a f r o m t h e s u r v e y f o r C o p e n h a g e n 2 2 8

A p p e n d i x 4 B a c k g r o u n d d a t a f r o m t h e s u r v e y f o r S t o c k h o l m 2 3 2

A p p e n d i x 5 R e s u l t s f r o m C h i 2 t e s t 2 3 6

A p p e n d i x 6 R e s u l t s f r o m t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t 2 3 9

A p p e n d i x 7 F r e q u e n c i e s a n d p e r c e n t a g e f o r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t t h a t c r e a t e p r o b l e m s f o r

c y c l i s t s 2 4 1

7

8

9

Acknowledgements

This doctoral thesis is grounded in the project called HASTA (Sustainable and attractive city) and was financed by The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA), the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions (SKL) and the Swedish Road Administration (Vgverkets Skyltfond). The project is based at the Department of Technology and Society, Transport and Roads at Lund University. I wish to thank my supervisors se Svensson, Jamil Khan and Malene Freudendal-Pedersen who have helped me tremendously throughout my studies, have criticised me, put my work in different perspectives and have pushed me to complete this PhD. I also want to thank Thomas Sick Nielsen from DTU who was a great help and support for the collection of the survey data and Anna Lindgren for her help with the analysis of the data. Moreover, special thanks have to go to all interview persons for their time and their input. A special thank has to go to Karolina Isaksson from VTI for her input, comments and criticism of the thesis during the final seminar.

Further, I want to thank all my colleagues at Transport and Roads for good and bad times and much fun. Especially I would like to thank Andrs Vrhelyi, who was my first supervisor, for his support at the outset of my thesis, for much fun at Transportforum and for the constant supply of chocolates and candies; David Lindelw, who took the time to write the protocol during my final seminar and whom I always could bother in his office for no particular reason, Mia Sinclair, who was always there to help with practical matters no matter how stupid the question was, Andreas Persson and Ebbe Parhamifar for all the talk about football (Heja BVB!) and all my fellow PhD students (and others) for their support.

I also want to thank my former colleague Charlotte Wahl for being my mudder, colleagues Guy Baeten, Anders Lund Hansen and Henrik Gutzon Larsen from the Department of Human Geography for their support, very interesting discussions and the nice times we had at the geography conferences and at several seminars, and Carina Listerborn for her support of my ideas for

9

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

T h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s i s g r o u n d e d i n t h e p r o j e c t c a l l e d H A S T A ( S u s t a i n a b l e a n d

a t t r a c t i v e c i t y ) a n d w a s f i n a n c e d b y T h e S w e d i s h G o v e r n m e n t a l A g e n c y f o r

I n n o v a t i o n S y s t e m s ( V I N N O V A ) , t h e S w e d i s h A s s o c i a t i o n o f L o c a l

A u t h o r i t i e s a n d R e g i o n s ( S K L ) a n d t h e S w e d i s h R o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

( V g v e r k e t s S k y l t f o n d ) . T h e p r o j e c t i s b a s e d a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f T e c h n o l o g y

a n d S o c i e t y , T r a n s p o r t a n d R o a d s a t L u n d U n i v e r s i t y . I w i s h t o t h a n k m y

s u p e r v i s o r s s e S v e n s s o n , J a m i l K h a n a n d M a l e n e F r e u d e n d a l - P e d e r s e n w h o

h a v e h e l p e d m e t r e m e n d o u s l y t h r o u g h o u t m y s t u d i e s , h a v e c r i t i c i s e d m e , p u t

m y w o r k i n d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d h a v e p u s h e d m e t o c o m p l e t e t h i s P h D . I

a l s o w a n t t o t h a n k T h o m a s S i c k N i e l s e n f r o m D T U w h o w a s a g r e a t h e l p a n d

s u p p o r t f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e s u r v e y d a t a a n d A n n a L i n d g r e n f o r h e r h e l p

w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a . M o r e o v e r , s p e c i a l t h a n k s h a v e t o g o t o a l l

i n t e r v i e w p e r s o n s f o r t h e i r t i m e a n d t h e i r i n p u t . A s p e c i a l t h a n k h a s t o g o t o

K a r o l i n a I s a k s s o n f r o m V T I f o r h e r i n p u t , c o m m e n t s a n d c r i t i c i s m o f t h e

t h e s i s d u r i n g t h e f i n a l s e m i n a r .

F u r t h e r , I w a n t t o t h a n k a l l m y c o l l e a g u e s a t T r a n s p o r t a n d R o a d s f o r g o o d

a n d b a d t i m e s a n d m u c h f u n . E s p e c i a l l y I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k A n d r s V r h e l y i ,

w h o w a s m y f i r s t s u p e r v i s o r , f o r h i s s u p p o r t a t t h e o u t s e t o f m y t h e s i s , f o r

m u c h f u n a t T r a n s p o r t f o r u m a n d f o r t h e c o n s t a n t s u p p l y o f c h o c o l a t e s a n d

c a n d i e s ; D a v i d L i n d e l w , w h o t o o k t h e t i m e t o w r i t e t h e p r o t o c o l d u r i n g m y

f i n a l s e m i n a r a n d w h o m I a l w a y s c o u l d b o t h e r i n h i s o f f i c e f o r n o p a r t i c u l a r

r e a s o n , M i a S i n c l a i r , w h o w a s a l w a y s t h e r e t o h e l p w i t h p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r s n o

m a t t e r h o w s t u p i d t h e q u e s t i o n w a s , A n d r e a s P e r s s o n a n d E b b e P a r h a m i f a r f o r

a l l t h e t a l k a b o u t f o o t b a l l ( H e j a B V B ! ) a n d a l l m y f e l l o w P h D s t u d e n t s ( a n d

o t h e r s ) f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t .

I a l s o w a n t t o t h a n k m y f o r m e r c o l l e a g u e C h a r l o t t e W a h l f o r b e i n g m y

m u d d e r , c o l l e a g u e s G u y B a e t e n , A n d e r s L u n d H a n s e n a n d H e n r i k G u t z o n

L a r s e n f r o m t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f H u m a n G e o g r a p h y f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t , v e r y

i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n s a n d t h e n i c e t i m e s w e h a d a t t h e g e o g r a p h y c o n f e r e n c e s

a n d a t s e v e r a l s e m i n a r s , a n d C a r i n a L i s t e r b o r n f o r h e r s u p p o r t o f m y i d e a s f o r

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1 0

f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k R i c F i s h e r f o r i m p r o v i n g

m y E n g l i s h a n d J u l i a K r a k o w f o r i m p r o v i n g m y G e r m a n i n t h e G e r m a n

s u m m a r y . I f I h a v e f o r g o t t e n s o m e b o d y : I t h a n k y o u n o w !

A t t h e e n d t h e r e i s o n l y o n e m o r e p e r s o n t o t h a n k . A n d t h a t i s m y w o n d e r f u l ,

s u p p o r t i v e , a m a z i n g w i f e T h e r e s e ! T h a n k y o u f o r a l w a y s b e l i e v i n g i n m e ,

f o r s u p p o r t i n g m e t h r o u g h a l l m y u p s a n d d o w n s , a n d f o r b e i n g o n m y s i d e

t h o u g h i t w a s n o t a l w a y s e a s y . T h a n k y o u f o r e v e r y t h i n g a n d a l l y o u r l o v e !

10

future research. Furthermore, I would like to thank Ric Fisher for improving my English and Julia Krakow for improving my German in the German summary. If I have forgotten somebody: I thank you now!

At the end there is only one more person to thank. And that is my wonderful, supportive, amazing wife Therese! Thank you for always believing in me, for supporting me through all my ups and downs, and for being on my side though it was not always easy. Thank you for everything and all your love!

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Summary

Transport has been at the heart of the development of todays societies. To move both people and goods is increasingly important, and the development of transport systems, urban, regional, national and global, has progressed rapidly since the invention of the steam engine. However, transport is not only a source of wealth and development. Infrastructure for motorised traffic also creates social exclusion, and both motorised traffic and air traffic create many environmental problems globally and locally. One part of mobility and transport is cycling. Cycling is a mode of transport quite often marginalised in urban space (e.g. Khayesi et al. 2010 and Emanuel 2012). This thesis is about urban cycling, mobility, planning and space, and what power relations are built into the urban space or have created the urban space. Urban cycling and mobility are seen as an approach to visualising injustice and power relations in the city through case studies in Copenhagen, Denmark and Stockholm, Sweden. Further, the intention is to make a connection to space and the materialities that affect peoples movements in an urban context.

Moreover, transport also has a social and cultural side to it. Through the mobility perspective one can add the social dimension to transport research, which is important in this thesis. The shift in social sciences from analysing societies to analysing mobilities was first initiated by John Urry in his book Sociology beyond Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-First Century from 2000. Urry also introduced the mobility paradigm, meaning that social sciences shift more from research on societies to research on mobilities (Urry 2007). Mobility or the field of mobilities includes more than just the movement from A to B. It includes also the social, cultural, political and economic aspects of movements and of transports. This thesis focuses on those aspects of mobility, cycling and transport.

The starting point of the methods used for the data collection for this research is in the methodological considerations and the philosophy of science, which is critical realism and critical theory, in order to use methods suited for a critical analysis of the transport systems, planning processes and cycling in Stockholm

1 1

S u m m a r y

T r a n s p o r t h a s b e e n a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o d a y s s o c i e t i e s . T o

m o v e b o t h p e o p l e a n d g o o d s i s i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t , a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , u r b a n , r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l a n d g l o b a l , h a s p r o g r e s s e d r a p i d l y

s i n c e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e s t e a m e n g i n e . H o w e v e r , t r a n s p o r t i s n o t o n l y a

s o u r c e o f w e a l t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . I n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a l s o

c r e a t e s s o c i a l e x c l u s i o n , a n d b o t h m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d a i r t r a f f i c c r e a t e m a n y

e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s g l o b a l l y a n d l o c a l l y . O n e p a r t o f m o b i l i t y a n d

t r a n s p o r t i s c y c l i n g . C y c l i n g i s a m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t q u i t e o f t e n m a r g i n a l i s e d i n

u r b a n s p a c e ( e . g . K h a y e s i e t a l . 2 0 1 0 a n d E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . T h i s t h e s i s i s a b o u t

u r b a n c y c l i n g , m o b i l i t y , p l a n n i n g a n d s p a c e , a n d w h a t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e b u i l t

i n t o t h e u r b a n s p a c e o r h a v e c r e a t e d t h e u r b a n s p a c e . U r b a n c y c l i n g a n d

m o b i l i t y a r e s e e n a s a n a p p r o a c h t o v i s u a l i s i n g i n j u s t i c e a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n

t h e c i t y t h r o u g h c a s e s t u d i e s i n C o p e n h a g e n , D e n m a r k a n d S t o c k h o l m ,

S w e d e n . F u r t h e r , t h e i n t e n t i o n i s t o m a k e a c o n n e c t i o n t o s p a c e a n d t h e

m a t e r i a l i t i e s t h a t a f f e c t p e o p l e s m o v e m e n t s i n a n u r b a n c o n t e x t .

M o r e o v e r , t r a n s p o r t a l s o h a s a s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l s i d e t o i t . T h r o u g h t h e

m o b i l i t y p e r s p e c t i v e o n e c a n a d d t h e s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n t o t r a n s p o r t r e s e a r c h ,

w h i c h i s i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s t h e s i s . T h e s h i f t i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e s f r o m a n a l y s i n g

s o c i e t i e s t o a n a l y s i n g m o b i l i t i e s w a s f i r s t i n i t i a t e d b y J o h n U r r y i n h i s b o o k

S o c i o l o g y b e y o n d S o c i e t i e s : M o b i l i t i e s f o r t h e T w e n t y - F i r s t C e n t u r y f r o m 2 0 0 0 .

U r r y a l s o i n t r o d u c e d t h e m o b i l i t y p a r a d i g m , m e a n i n g t h a t s o c i a l s c i e n c e s s h i f t

m o r e f r o m r e s e a r c h o n s o c i e t i e s t o r e s e a r c h o n m o b i l i t i e s ( U r r y 2 0 0 7 ) .

M o b i l i t y o r t h e f i e l d o f m o b i l i t i e s i n c l u d e s m o r e t h a n j u s t t h e m o v e m e n t f r o m

A t o B . I t i n c l u d e s a l s o t h e s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s o f

m o v e m e n t s a n d o f t r a n s p o r t s . T h i s t h e s i s f o c u s e s o n t h o s e a s p e c t s o f m o b i l i t y ,

c y c l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t .

T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e m e t h o d s u s e d f o r t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h

i s i n t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e , w h i c h i s

c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r y , i n o r d e r t o u s e m e t h o d s s u i t e d f o r a c r i t i c a l

a n a l y s i s o f t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d c y c l i n g i n S t o c k h o l m

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1 2

a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e f i r s t s t e p w a s t o c y c l e i n t h e t w o c i t i e s i n o r d e r t o g e t a

f e e l i n g a n d b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n s f o r

t h e i r c y c l i s t s . F u r t h e r , d i f f e r e n t d o c u m e n t s h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d i n o r d e r t o

p r e p a r e f o r t h e i n t e r v i e w s , w h i c h a r e t h e n e x t s t e p i n t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , a n d

a l s o a f t e r t h e i n t e r v i e w s , d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t s o m e i n t e r v i e w e e s r e c o m m e n d e d

o r m e n t i o n e d s o m e r e p o r t s , p o l i c y o r p l a n d o c u m e n t s . T h e d o c u m e n t s t u d i e s

s h o u l d b e s e e n a s a n e m p i r i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d a t a f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w s ,

c o n c e r n i n g f a c t s a b o u t b i c y c l e p l a n n i n g i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . T h u s ,

t h e n e x t p a r t o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n w a s i n t e r v i e w s w i t h p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s

i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t w o s u r v e y s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n

c o n d u c t e d ( o n e i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d o n e i n S t o c k h o l m ) i n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t d a t a

a b o u t c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e o f c y c l i n g , t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m a n d t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e

o f c y c l i n g i n t h e t w o c i t i e s .

T h e c o l l e c t e d d a t a i s a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k d e v e l o p e d i n

C h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 , i . e . w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e p o w e r , s p a c e a n d m o b i l i t y t h e o r i e s .

C h a p t e r 3 f r a m e s t h e t h e s i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f m o b i l i t y a n d

v l o m o b i l i t y i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l

p e r s p e c t i v e s u s e d i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . R e s e a r c h a b o u t m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y

i s a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t i n t h i s f r a m i n g . M o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y a r e

s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s w h e n a n a l y s i n g t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s a n d p l a n n i n g , w h i c h i s

w h y t h e f i e l d o f m o b i l i t y i s u s e d t o f r a m e t h i s t h e s i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y . T h i s i s a l s o

t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s t h e s i s . F r o m t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e n e x t s t e p

i s t o g o d e e p e r i n t o t h e n o t i o n s o f p o w e r a n d s p a c e , i m p o r t a n t f o r m o b i l i t y b u t

n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y d e a l t w i t h i n c o n n e c t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t o m o b i l i t y

r e s e a r c h .

D u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s t h e s i s d e a l s w i t h p e o p l e m o v i n g i n u r b a n a r e a s ,

t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , p o w e r p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e n o t i o n o f s p a c e

a n d s p a c e w a r s a r e a l l o f i n t e r e s t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f c y c l i n g , u r b a n m o b i l i t y a n d

t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . T h o s e a s p e c t s a r e h a n d l e d i n C h a p t e r 4 . T h e n o t i o n s o f

p o w e r a n d s p a c e a r e c e n t r a l w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h m o v e m e n t s i n c i t i e s , d u e t o t h e

f a c t t h a t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e c r e a t e d t h r o u g h s p a c e a n d d o c r e a t e s p a c e w a r s .

B e c a u s e u r b a n m o b i l i t y a n d v l o m o b i l i t y a r e s e t i n s p a c e ( u r b a n s p a c e s i n t h e

c a s e o f t h i s t h e s i s ) , s p a c e h a s t o b e d e a l t w i t h i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h e r e c o n f l i c t s o c c u r a n d h o w s p a c e i s p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h

m o b i l i t y a n d t h r o u g h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . H e r e I d r a w o n L e f e b v r e s t h e o r i e s o n

t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) a n d c o n n e c t t h a t t o h i s c o n c e p t o f t h e

r i g h t t o t h e c i t y ( 1 9 9 6 ) . C o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t c a n

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and Copenhagen. The first step was to cycle in the two cities in order to get a feeling and better understanding of the infrastructure and the situations for their cyclists. Further, different documents have been studied in order to prepare for the interviews, which are the next step in the data collection, and also after the interviews, due to the fact that some interviewees recommended or mentioned some reports, policy or plan documents. The document studies should be seen as an empirical contribution to the data from the interviews, concerning facts about bicycle planning in Copenhagen and Stockholm. Thus, the next part of the data collection was interviews with planners and politicians in Stockholm and Copenhagen. Furthermore, two survey studies have been conducted (one in Copenhagen and one in Stockholm) in order to collect data about cyclists experience of cycling, the transport system and the infrastructure of cycling in the two cities.

The collected data is analysed with the theoretical framework developed in Chapters 3 and 4, i.e. with the help of the power, space and mobility theories. Chapter 3 frames the thesis theoretically within the field of mobility and vlomobility in order to create a better understanding of the theoretical perspectives used in this dissertation. Research about mobility and vlomobility is an important aspect in this framing. Mobility and vlomobility are significant aspects when analysing transport systems and planning, which is why the field of mobility is used to frame this thesis theoretically. This is also the starting point for the analysis in this thesis. From this chapter, the next step is to go deeper into the notions of power and space, important for mobility but not particularly dealt with in connection to each other and to mobility research.

Due to the fact that this thesis deals with people moving in urban areas, transport planning and power relations, power perspectives, the notion of space and space wars are all of interest for the analysis of cycling, urban mobility and transport planning. Those aspects are handled in Chapter 4. The notions of power and space are central when dealing with movements in cities, due to the fact that power relations are created through space and do create space wars. Because urban mobility and vlomobility are set in space (urban spaces in the case of this thesis), space has to be dealt with in order to develop an understanding of where conflicts occur and how space is produced through mobility and through social relations. Here I draw on Lefebvres theories on the production of space (1991 [1974]) and connect that to his concept of the right to the city (1996). Conflicts between the different modes of transport can

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13

also be seen in the light of urban space wars, a concept developed by Zygmunt Bauman (1998). Moreover, the production of space and urban space wars has to do with power and power relations in cities and urban transport systems and therefore also with urban bicycling. In order to analyse such power relations, Chapter 4 develops a theoretical understanding of power and power relations in connection to space and space wars. This theoretical knowledge comes from different perspectives. I use the three dimensions of power developed by Lukes (2005) and connect his view to Lefebvre. Chapter 4 defines the theoretical outline of power, space and space wars for this doctoral thesis. It connects mobility research with research on power and space in order to develop a theoretical frame for the analysis in this thesis.

Chapter 5 explores how power relations and the productions of space are materialised in urban space, and what has affected and shaped modern urban transport and urban planning. Power relations have been built into our infrastructure, and the political economy of the automobile industry and industries connected to this branch have had a tremendous impact on transport and urban planning around the globe. In this chapter I give examples from Sweden, where I show how this has happened with the entrance of modernism into urban and transport planning and how that still affects planning today. I also connect this to Lefebvres concept of the right to the city and try to develop a better understanding of how and why infrastructure is shaped today with the help of the theoretical outline of this thesis. The focal point in this analysis of the materialities is modernism and how it has affected urban space. Examples are used from Stockholm and Copenhagen to show the impact of modernism on urban and transport planning. Moreover, the traffic safety and planning guidelines SCAFT, developed in Sweden in order to increase traffic safety, are also an example of how the transformations of urban space have led to the marginalisation of cyclists and a focus on motorised modes of transport. Through those transformations, power relations and structures have been built into the urban space and produced spaces of mobility that prioritise motorised traffic. Those spaces also produce urban space wars between the different road users and affect planning even today. It is, among other things, those structures that have an impact on planning. Here Lukes third dimension of power is a good analytical tool to explore those power relations and structures.

The case sites for this thesis, Stockholm and Copenhagen, are introduced in Chapter 6. This chapter explains the differences in the modal split, infrastructure and planning. Moreover, it explains why Copenhagens bicycle

1 3

a l s o b e s e e n i n t h e l i g h t o f u r b a n s p a c e w a r s , a c o n c e p t d e v e l o p e d b y Z y g m u n t

B a u m a n ( 1 9 9 8 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e a n d u r b a n s p a c e w a r s h a s

t o d o w i t h p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n c i t i e s a n d u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s a n d

t h e r e f o r e a l s o w i t h u r b a n b i c y c l i n g . I n o r d e r t o a n a l y s e s u c h p o w e r r e l a t i o n s ,

C h a p t e r 4 d e v e l o p s a t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p o w e r a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s

i n c o n n e c t i o n t o s p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s . T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e c o m e s f r o m

d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s . I u s e t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r d e v e l o p e d b y L u k e s

( 2 0 0 5 ) a n d c o n n e c t h i s v i e w t o L e f e b v r e . C h a p t e r 4 d e f i n e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l

o u t l i n e o f p o w e r , s p a c e a n d s p a c e w a r s f o r t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s . I t c o n n e c t s

m o b i l i t y r e s e a r c h w i t h r e s e a r c h o n p o w e r a n d s p a c e i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a

t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s t h e s i s .

C h a p t e r 5 e x p l o r e s h o w p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f s p a c e a r e

m a t e r i a l i s e d i n u r b a n s p a c e , a n d w h a t h a s a f f e c t e d a n d s h a p e d m o d e r n u r b a n

t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g . P o w e r r e l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n b u i l t i n t o o u r

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e i n d u s t r y a n d

i n d u s t r i e s c o n n e c t e d t o t h i s b r a n c h h a v e h a d a t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t o n t r a n s p o r t

a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g a r o u n d t h e g l o b e . I n t h i s c h a p t e r I g i v e e x a m p l e s f r o m

S w e d e n , w h e r e I s h o w h o w t h i s h a s h a p p e n e d w i t h t h e e n t r a n c e o f m o d e r n i s m

i n t o u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a n d h o w t h a t s t i l l a f f e c t s p l a n n i n g t o d a y . I

a l s o c o n n e c t t h i s t o L e f e b v r e s c o n c e p t o f t h e r i g h t t o t h e c i t y a n d t r y t o

d e v e l o p a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w a n d w h y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s s h a p e d t o d a y

w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o u t l i n e o f t h i s t h e s i s . T h e f o c a l p o i n t i n t h i s

a n a l y s i s o f t h e m a t e r i a l i t i e s i s m o d e r n i s m a n d h o w i t h a s a f f e c t e d u r b a n s p a c e .

E x a m p l e s a r e u s e d f r o m S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n t o s h o w t h e i m p a c t o f

m o d e r n i s m o n u r b a n a n d t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g . M o r e o v e r , t h e t r a f f i c s a f e t y a n d

p l a n n i n g g u i d e l i n e s S C A F T , d e v e l o p e d i n S w e d e n i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t r a f f i c

s a f e t y , a r e a l s o a n e x a m p l e o f h o w t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f u r b a n s p a c e h a v e l e d

t o t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s a n d a f o c u s o n m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t .

T h r o u g h t h o s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s h a v e b e e n b u i l t

i n t o t h e u r b a n s p a c e a n d p r o d u c e d s p a c e s o f m o b i l i t y t h a t p r i o r i t i s e m o t o r i s e d

t r a f f i c . T h o s e s p a c e s a l s o p r o d u c e u r b a n s p a c e w a r s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t r o a d

u s e r s a n d a f f e c t p l a n n i n g e v e n t o d a y . I t i s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s

t h a t h a v e a n i m p a c t o n p l a n n i n g . H e r e L u k e s t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f p o w e r i s a

g o o d a n a l y t i c a l t o o l t o e x p l o r e t h o s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s .

T h e c a s e s i t e s f o r t h i s t h e s i s , S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n , a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n

C h a p t e r 6 . T h i s c h a p t e r e x p l a i n s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e m o d a l s p l i t ,

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d p l a n n i n g . M o r e o v e r , i t e x p l a i n s w h y C o p e n h a g e n s b i c y c l e

13

1 4

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s b e t t e r t h a n S t o c k h o l m s a n d h o w t h e t w o c i t i e s h a v e d e v e l o p e d

t h e i r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . T h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r c y c l i n g i s m u c h b e t t e r i n

C o p e n h a g e n t h a n i t i s i n S t o c k h o l m ; f o r e x a m p l e t h e r e a r e b e t t e r s o l u t i o n s f o r

p r i o r i t i s i n g c y c l i s t s a t c r o s s r o a d s , a n d b e t t e r b i c y c l e t r a c k s . T h i s c h a p t e r a l s o

s e r v e s a s a b a c k g r o u n d f o r C h a p t e r 7 , w h e r e t h e e m p i r i c a l m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e

i n t e r v i e w s i n b o t h S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n i s a n a l y s e d . T h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n

t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r v i e w s h e l p e d c r e a t e a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w t h e t w o

c i t i e s h a v e b e e n p l a n n e d a n d a r e p l a n n e d t o d a y . M o r e o v e r , r e l a t i o n s a n d

s t r u c t u r e s w e r e u n c o v e r e d t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f

p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s , b o t h a t a p o l i t i c a l l e v e l a n d a t a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

l e v e l . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h r o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n u r b a n s p a c e ,

o n e c a n s e e w h a t i n f l u e n c e d a n d s t i l l i n f l u e n c e s t h e p l a n n i n g a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f

m o b i l i t y a n d t r a n s p o r t i n C o p e n h a g e n a n d S t o c k h o l m . F r o m t h a t a n a l y s i s t h e

q u e s t i o n o f h o w c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s e x p e r i e n c e c y c l i n g , t r a f f i c a n d t h e

p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s a r i s e s . P l a n n i n g i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y o r g a n i s e d i n t h e t w o

c i t i e s a n d h i s t o r i c a l , e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s h a v e i n f l u e n c e d

t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f t r a n s p o r t a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g . O n e

m a j o r a s p e c t , f o r e x a m p l e , i s t h a t C o p e n h a g e n , a f t e r W o r l d W a r T w o , d i d n o t

h a v e t h e f i n a n c i a l m e a n s t o r e b u i l d t h e c i t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o d e r n i s t i c i d e a l ,

i . e . h i g h w a y i n v e s t m e n t s e t c . , n o r c o u l d C o p e n h a g e n f i n a n c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f a s u b w a y . T h u s , p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i n g w a s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t i n

t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g a f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r . S t o c k h o l m o n t h e o t h e r h a n d

h a d b e t t e r f i n a n c i a l m e a n s a n d d i d i n v e s t i n h i g h w a y s a n d a s u b w a y . M o r e o v e r ,

t h e f a c t t h a t S w e d e n h a s a c a r i n d u s t r y a n d D e n m a r k d o e s n o t a l s o a f f e c t s

t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g .

I n C h a p t e r 8 t h e c y c l i s t s e x p e r i e n c e i s a n a l y s e d f r o m d a t a c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h

s u r v e y s t u d i e s i n S t o c k h o l m a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e f o c u s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e

s u r v e y d a t a i s o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m

a n d C o p e n h a g e n . T h i s i s a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e C h i 2 t e s t , t h e M a n n - W h i t n e y t e s t

a n d b y a n a l y s i n g t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e a n s w e r s . T h e r e s u l t o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s

t h a t c y c l i s t s i n b o t h c i t i e s s e e p r o b l e m s w i t h m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d o t h e r

c y c l i s t s . O v e r a l l t h e c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n h a v e a m o r e p o s i t i v e v i e w o n

p l a n n i n g , i n f r a s t r u c t u r e e t c . t h a n d o c y c l i s t s i n S t o c k h o l m . I t b e c o m e s c l e a r

t h r o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u r v e y d a t a t h a t t h e r e a r e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a t w o r k i n

b o t h c i t i e s , a n d t h a t u r b a n s p a c e w a r s b e t w e e n c y c l i s t s a n d o t h e r r o a d u s e r s a r e

a p r o b l e m . W i t h a s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a

( i n t e r v i e w s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s ) a n d t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a ( s u r v e y s ) , C h a p t e r 9

14

infrastructure is better than Stockholms and how the two cities have developed their infrastructure. The infrastructure for cycling is much better in Copenhagen than it is in Stockholm; for example there are better solutions for prioritising cyclists at crossroads, and better bicycle tracks. This chapter also serves as a background for Chapter 7, where the empirical material from the interviews in both Stockholm and Copenhagen is analysed. The data collection through the interviews helped create a deeper understanding of how the two cities have been planned and are planned today. Moreover, relations and structures were uncovered that affected the planning and the outcome of planning and policy decisions, both at a political level and at an administrative level. Additionally, through the analysis of the power relations in urban space, one can see what influenced and still influences the planning and the politics of mobility and transport in Copenhagen and Stockholm. From that analysis the question of how cyclists in both cities experience cycling, traffic and the planning for cyclists arises. Planning is very differently organised in the two cities and historical, economic, cultural and political factors have influenced the planning processes and the outcome of transport and urban planning. One major aspect, for example, is that Copenhagen, after World War Two, did not have the financial means to rebuild the city according to the modernistic ideal, i.e. highway investments etc., nor could Copenhagen finance the development of a subway. Thus, planning for cycling was a very important aspect in transport planning after the Second World War. Stockholm on the other hand had better financial means and did invest in highways and a subway. Moreover, the fact that Sweden has a car industry and Denmark does not also affects transport planning.

In Chapter 8 the cyclists experience is analysed from data collected through survey studies in Stockholm and Copenhagen. The focus of the analysis of the survey data is on the differences and similarities between cyclists in Stockholm and Copenhagen. This is analysed with the Chi2 test, the Mann-Whitney test and by analysing the frequencies of the answers. The result of this analysis is that cyclists in both cities see problems with motorised traffic and other cyclists. Overall the cyclists in Copenhagen have a more positive view on planning, infrastructure etc. than do cyclists in Stockholm. It becomes clear through the analysis of the survey data that there are power relations at work in both cities, and that urban space wars between cyclists and other road users are a problem. With a starting point in the analyses of the qualitative data (interviews and observations) and the quantitative data (surveys), Chapter 9

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15

brings the two together in an analysis of the differences between the views of planners and politicians and the users of the urban spaces of mobility, in this case, the cyclists. It seems that planners and politicians have one view of the outcome of their decisions, which might not correspond to the experience of the cyclists and to the modal split. For example, that motorised traffic still creates the most problems for cyclists in Copenhagen, a city that prioritises cycling. Moreover, connections are made to previous analyses in this thesis concerning automobility, political economy, modernism and power relations in urban space and urban cycling. Neither city has really managed to break free from motorised traffic and create a truly sustainable transport system.

The results from the data analysis and the research done in this doctoral thesis are concluded in Chapter 10. This doctoral thesis has dealt with the marginalisation of cycling in urban space and urban transport systems. Urban cycling, transport planning, peoples mobility and urban space are all interrelated, as this thesis shows. In this thesis I have used theories concerning mobility, power relations and space in order to explain todays dominance of motorised modes of transport and the marginalisation of cyclists in urban spaces. This theoretical discussion was followed by empirical research in Copenhagen, Denmark and Stockholm, Sweden, where interviews with planners and politicians have been conducted and surveys of the residents of the two cities have been analysed. Moreover, I have described the important factors that contribute to the development of todays transport infrastructure and the outcome of planning for cyclists in many cities today. Those factors are, among others, the development of modernism and, along with it, a way of performing transport planning that focused and to a certain degree still focuses on motorised traffic. This is also connected to the development of the Fordist production of cars. The influence of economic, social and cultural aspects also contributes to the increased use of motorised modes of transport and vice versa. In other words, this dissertation has been a research project on the political economy, the power relations and the space of mobility and the marginalisation of cyclists in an urban context.

1 5

b r i n g s t h e t w o t o g e t h e r i n a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e v i e w s o f

p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s a n d t h e u s e r s o f t h e u r b a n s p a c e s o f m o b i l i t y , i n t h i s

c a s e , t h e c y c l i s t s . I t s e e m s t h a t p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s h a v e o n e v i e w o f t h e

o u t c o m e o f t h e i r d e c i s i o n s , w h i c h m i g h t n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

t h e c y c l i s t s a n d t o t h e m o d a l s p l i t . F o r e x a m p l e , t h a t m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c s t i l l

c r e a t e s t h e m o s t p r o b l e m s f o r c y c l i s t s i n C o p e n h a g e n , a c i t y t h a t p r i o r i t i s e s

c y c l i n g . M o r e o v e r , c o n n e c t i o n s a r e m a d e t o p r e v i o u s a n a l y s e s i n t h i s t h e s i s

c o n c e r n i n g a u t o m o b i l i t y , p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , m o d e r n i s m a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s

i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d u r b a n c y c l i n g . N e i t h e r c i t y h a s r e a l l y m a n a g e d t o b r e a k f r e e

f r o m m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c a n d c r e a t e a t r u l y s u s t a i n a b l e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m .

T h e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s a n d t h e r e s e a r c h d o n e i n t h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s

a r e c o n c l u d e d i n C h a p t e r 1 0 . T h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s h a s d e a l t w i t h t h e

m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i n g i n u r b a n s p a c e a n d u r b a n t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s . U r b a n

c y c l i n g , t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g , p e o p l e s m o b i l i t y a n d u r b a n s p a c e a r e a l l

i n t e r r e l a t e d , a s t h i s t h e s i s s h o w s . I n t h i s t h e s i s I h a v e u s e d t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g

m o b i l i t y , p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d s p a c e i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t o d a y s d o m i n a n c e o f

m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d t h e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n u r b a n

s p a c e s . T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n w a s f o l l o w e d b y e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h i n

C o p e n h a g e n , D e n m a r k a n d S t o c k h o l m , S w e d e n , w h e r e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h

p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d a n d s u r v e y s o f t h e r e s i d e n t s o f

t h e t w o c i t i e s h a v e b e e n a n a l y s e d . M o r e o v e r , I h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h e i m p o r t a n t

f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o d a y s t r a n s p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e

a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f p l a n n i n g f o r c y c l i s t s i n m a n y c i t i e s t o d a y . T h o s e f a c t o r s

a r e , a m o n g o t h e r s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o d e r n i s m a n d , a l o n g w i t h i t , a w a y o f

p e r f o r m i n g t r a n s p o r t p l a n n i n g t h a t f o c u s e d a n d t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e s t i l l f o c u s e s

o n m o t o r i s e d t r a f f i c . T h i s i s a l s o c o n n e c t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e F o r d i s t

p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r s . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s a l s o

c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e i n c r e a s e d u s e o f m o t o r i s e d m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a n d v i c e v e r s a .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n h a s b e e n a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t o n t h e p o l i t i c a l

e c o n o m y , t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e s p a c e o f m o b i l i t y a n d t h e

m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n o f c y c l i s t s i n a n u r b a n c o n t e x t .

15

1 6

S a m m a n f a t t n i n g

T r a n s p o r t e r o c h t r a f i k r , o c h h a r v a r i t , e n v i k t i g d r i v k r a f t f r u t v e c k l i n g e n a v

d a g e n s s a m h l l e n . A t t f r f l y t t a m n n i s k o r o c h v a r o r b l i r a l l t v i k t i g a r e , o c h

u t v e c k l i n g e n a v t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , b d e u r b a n t , r e g i o n a l t , n a t i o n e l l t o c h g l o b a l t ,

h a r g t t s n a b b t s e d a n n g m a s k i n e n u p p f a n n s . T r a n s p o r t e r r d o c k i n t e b a r a e n

k l l a t i l l v l s t n d o c h u t v e c k l i n g . I n f r a s t r u k t u r f r m o t o r i s e r a d t r a f i k s k a p a r

s o c i a l e x k l u d e r i n g , o c h b d e m o t o r i s e r a d v g t r a f i k o c h f l y g t r a f i k s k a p a r m n g a

m i l j p r o b l e m s v l g l o b a l t s o m l o k a l t . C y k l i n g r e n d e l a v m o b i l i t e t o c h

t r a n s p o r t e r . C y k l i n g r e t t t r a n s p o r t s t t s o m f r h l l a n d e v i s o f t a m a r g i n a l i s e r a s i

s t a d s r u m m e t ( t . e x . K h a y e s i e t a l . 2 0 1 0 o c h E m a n u e l 2 0 1 2 ) . D e n n a a v h a n d l i n g

h a n d l a r o m c y k l i n g i s t a d e n , m o b i l i t e t , p l a n e r i n g o c h r u m , o c h d e

m a k t r e l a t i o n e r s o m b y g g s i n i s t a d s r u m m e t e l l e r s o m h a r s k a p a t s t a d s r u m m e t .

G e n o m a t t s t u d e r a m o b i l i t e t o c h c y k l i n g i K p e n h a m n , D a n m a r k , o c h

S t o c k h o l m , S v e r i g e , a v s e r d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g a t t v i s u a l i s e r a o r t t v i s o r o c h

m a k t f r h l l a n d e n i s t a d e n . V i d a r e r a v s i k t e n a t t g r a e n k o p p l i n g t i l l r u m m e t

o c h d e m a t e r i a l i t e t e r s o m p v e r k a r m n n i s k o r s m o b i l i t e t i e n u r b a n k o n t e x t .

T r a f i k o c k s e n s o c i a l o c h k u l t u r e l l s i d a . G e n o m e t t m o b i l i t e t s p e r s p e k t i v k a n

m a n l g g a t i l l d e n s o c i a l a d i m e n s i o n e n t i l l t r a n s p o r t - o c h t r a f i k f o r s k n i n g e n ,

v i l k e t r e n v i k t i g a s p e k t i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g . F r s k j u t n i n g e n i

s a m h l l s v e t e n s k a p f r n a t t a n a l y s e r a s a m h l l e n t i l l a t t a n a l y s e r a m o b i l i t e t

i n t r o d u c e r a d e s f r f r s t a g n g e n a v J o h n U r r y i s i n b o k S o c i o l o g y b e y o n d

S o c i e t i e s : M o b i l i t i e s f o r t h e T w e n t y - F i r s t C e n t u r y f r n 2 0 0 0 . U r r y i n t r o d u c e r a d e

o c k s d e t s k a l l a d e m o b i l i t e t s p a r a d i g m e t , v i l k e t i n n e b r a t t

s a m h l l s v e t e n s k a p l i g f o r s k n i n g f r s k j u t s f r n f o r s k n i n g o m s a m h l l e n t i l l

f o r s k n i n g o m m o b i l i t e t ( U r r y 2 0 0 7 ) . M o b i l i t e t o c h f o r s k n i n g s o m r d e n

r r a n d e m o b i l i t e t e r i n n e h l l e r d o c k b e t y d l i g t m e r n b a r a f r f l y t t n i n g f r n A

t i l l B . D e n i n n e h l l e r o c k s d e s o c i a l a , k u l t u r e l l a , p o l i t i s k a o c h e k o n o m i s k a

a s p e k t e r n a a v f r f l y t t n i n g a r o c h t r a f i k . D e n n a a v h a n d l i n g f o k u s e r a r p d e s s a

a s p e k t e r a v m o b i l i t e t , c y k l i n g o c h t r a f i k .

U t g n g s p u n k t e n f r v a l a v m e t o d e r f r d a t a i n s a m l i n g e n i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g

g r u n d a s i v e r v g a n d e n i k r i t i s k r e a l i s m o c h k r i t i s k t e o r i . D e t t a f r a t t k u n n a

16

Sammanfattning

Transporter och trafik r, och har varit, en viktig drivkraft fr utvecklingen av dagens samhllen. Att frflytta mnniskor och varor blir allt viktigare, och utvecklingen av transportsystem, bde urbant, regionalt, nationellt och globalt, har gtt snabbt sedan ngmaskinen uppfanns. Transporter r dock inte bara en klla till vlstnd och utveckling. Infrastruktur fr motoriserad trafik skapar social exkludering, och bde motoriserad vgtrafik och flygtrafik skapar mnga miljproblem svl globalt som lokalt. Cykling r en del av mobilitet och transporter. Cykling r ett transportstt som frhllandevis ofta marginaliseras i stadsrummet (t.ex. Khayesi et al. 2010 och Emanuel 2012). Denna avhandling handlar om cykling i staden, mobilitet, planering och rum, och de maktrelationer som byggs in i stadsrummet eller som har skapat stadsrummet. Genom att studera mobilitet och cykling i Kpenhamn, Danmark, och Stockholm, Sverige, avser denna avhandling att visualisera orttvisor och maktfrhllanden i staden. Vidare r avsikten att gra en koppling till rummet och de materialiteter som pverkar mnniskors mobilitet i en urban kontext.

Trafik ocks en social och kulturell sida. Genom ett mobilitetsperspektiv kan man lgga till den sociala dimensionen till transport- och trafikforskningen, vilket r en viktig aspekt i denna avhandling. Frskjutningen i samhllsvetenskap frn att analysera samhllen till att analysera mobilitet introducerades fr frsta gngen av John Urry i sin bok Sociology beyond Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-First Century frn 2000. Urry introducerade ocks det s kallade mobilitetsparadigmet, vilket innebr att samhllsvetenskaplig forskning frskjuts frn forskning om samhllen till forskning om mobilitet (Urry 2007). Mobilitet och forskningsomrden rrande mobiliteter innehller dock betydligt mer n bara frflyttning frn A till B. Den innehller ocks de sociala, kulturella, politiska och ekonomiska aspekterna av frflyttningar och trafik. Denna avhandling fokuserar p dessa aspekter av mobilitet, cykling och trafik.

Utgngspunkten fr val av metoder fr datainsamlingen i denna avhandling grundas i vervganden i kritisk realism och kritisk teori. Detta fr att kunna

16

17

anvnda metoder som lmpar sig fr en kritisk analys av transportsystem, planeringsprocesser och cykling i Stockholm och Kpenhamn. Det frsta steget i datainsamlingen var att sjlv cykla runt i de bda stderna fr att f en knsla fr och bttre frstelse fr infrastrukturen och situationen fr cyklisterna i de bda stderna. Vidare har olika dokument studerats i syfte att frbereda intervjuerna, som var nsta steg i datainsamlingen. ven efter intervjuerna har dokument studerats d vissa intervjuade personer rekommenderade eller nmnde olika rapporter, politiska dokument eller planeringshandlingar. Dessa dokumentstudier br ses som empiriskt bidrag till intervjudata, gllande fakta om cykelplanering i Kpenhamn och Stockholm. Nsta steg i datainsamlingen var intervjuer med planerare och politiker i Stockholm och Kpenhamn. Vidare har tv enktstudier genomfrts (en i Kpenhamn och en i Stockholm) fr att samla in data om cyklisternas upplevelse av cyklingen, transportsystemet och cykelinfrastrukturen i de tv stderna.

Insamlad data analyserades med det teoretiska ramverk som utvecklades i kapitel 3 och 4, det vill sga med hjlp av maktteorier, rumsliga teorier och mobilitetsteorier. Kapitel 3 bildar mobilitetsramverket fr avhandlingen och grundar sig teoretiskt inom omrdet mobilitet och vlomobilitet i syfte att skapa en bttre frstelse fr de teoretiska perspektiv som anvnds i denna avhandling. Forskning om mobilitet och vlomobilitet r viktiga aspekter i denna process. Mobilitet och vlomobilitet r viktiga aspekter nr man analyserar transportsystem och planering, vilket r anledningen till att omrdet mobilitet anvnds fr att skapa den teoretiska ramen i denna avhandling och r utgngspunkten fr analyserna av det empiriska materialet. I kapitel 3 frs ocks en frdjupad diskussion av begreppen makt och rum; begrepp som r viktigta fr mobilitet men som hr inte diskuteras med avseende p kopplingen dem emellan eller till forskningen om mobilitet.

D avhandlingen handlar om hur mnniskor rr sig i stadsomrden, trafikplanering och maktrelationer, r begreppen maktperspektiv, rum och s kallade space wars (kampen om utrymme i staden) av intresse fr analysen av cykling, mobilitet i stder och trafikplanering. Dessa aspekter hanteras i kapitel 4. D maktrelationer skapas genom rummet och skapar space wars r begreppen makt och rum centrala nr det handlar om mobilitet i stder. Eftersom mobilitet i stder och vlomobilitet sker i det fysiska rummet (stadsrum i denna avhandling), mste rummet behandlas i syfte att utveckla en frstelse fr var konflikter uppstr och hur rummet skapas genom mobilitet och genom sociala relationer. Hr anvnder jag mig av Lefebvres teorier om

1 7

a n v n d a m e t o d e r s o m l m p a r s i g f r e n k r i t i s k a n a l y s a v t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m ,

p l a n e r i n g s p r o c e s s e r o c h c y k l i n g i S t o c k h o l m o c h K p e n h a m n . D e t f r s t a s t e g e t

i d a t a i n s a m l i n g e n v a r a t t s j l v c y k l a r u n t i d e b d a s t d e r n a f r a t t f e n k n s l a

f r o c h b t t r e f r s t e l s e f r i n f r a s t r u k t u r e n o c h s i t u a t i o n e n f r c y k l i s t e r n a i d e

b d a s t d e r n a . V i d a r e h a r o l i k a d o k u m e n t s t u d e r a t s i s y f t e a t t f r b e r e d a

i n t e r v j u e r n a , s o m v a r n s t a s t e g i d a t a i n s a m l i n g e n . v e n e f t e r i n t e r v j u e r n a h a r

d o k u m e n t s t u d e r a t s d v i s s a i n t e r v j u a d e p e r s o n e r r e k o m m e n d e r a d e e l l e r

n m n d e o l i k a r a p p o r t e r , p o l i t i s k a d o k u m e n t e l l e r p l a n e r i n g s h a n d l i n g a r . D e s s a

d o k u m e n t s t u d i e r b r s e s s o m e m p i r i s k t b i d r a g t i l l i n t e r v j u d a t a , g l l a n d e f a k t a

o m c y k e l p l a n e r i n g i K p e n h a m n o c h S t o c k h o l m . N s t a s t e g i d a t a i n s a m l i n g e n

v a r i n t e r v j u e r m e d p l a n e r a r e o c h p o l i t i k e r i S t o c k h o l m o c h K p e n h a m n .

V i d a r e h a r t v e n k t s t u d i e r g e n o m f r t s ( e n i K p e n h a m n o c h e n i S t o c k h o l m )

f r a t t s a m l a i n d a t a o m c y k l i s t e r n a s u p p l e v e l s e a v c y k l i n g e n , t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m e t

o c h c y k e l i n f r a s t r u k t u r e n i d e t v s t d e r n a .

I n s a m l a d d a t a a n a l y s e r a d e s m e d d e t t e o r e t i s k a r a m v e r k s o m u t v e c k l a d e s i

k a p i t e l 3 o c h 4 , d e t v i l l s g a m e d h j l p a v m a k t t e o r i e r , r u m s l i g a t e o r i e r o c h

m o b i l i t e t s t e o r i e r . K a p i t e l 3 b i l d a r m o b i l i t e t s r a m v e r k e t f r a v h a n d l i n g e n o c h

g r u n d a r s i g t e o r e t i s k t i n o m o m r d e t m o b i l i t e t o c h v l o m o b i l i t e t i s y f t e a t t

s k a p a e n b t t r e f r s t e l s e f r d e t e o r e t i s k a p e r s p e k t i v s o m a n v n d s i d e n n a

a v h a n d l i n g . F o r s k n i n g o m m o b i l i t e t o c h v l o m o b i l i t e t r v i k t i g a a s p e k t e r i

d e n n a p r o c e s s . M o b i l i t e t o c h v l o m o b i l i t e t r v i k t i g a a s p e k t e r n r m a n

a n a l y s e r a r t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m o c h p l a n e r i n g , v i l k e t r a n l e d n i n g e n t i l l a t t o m r d e t

m o b i l i t e t a n v n d s f r a t t s k a p a d e n t e o r e t i s k a r a m e n i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g o c h r

u t g n g s p u n k t e n f r a n a l y s e r n a a v d e t e m p i r i s k a m a t e r i a l e t . I k a p i t e l 3 f r s

o c k s e n f r d j u p a d d i s k u s s i o n a v b e g r e p p e n m a k t o c h r u m ; b e g r e p p s o m r

v i k t i g t a f r m o b i l i t e t m e n s o m h r i n t e d i s k u t e r a s m e d a v s e e n d e p k o p p l i n g e n

d e m e m e l l a n e l l e r t i l l f o r s k n i n g e n o m m o b i l i t e t .

D a v h a n d l i n g e n h a n d l a r o m h u r m n n i s k o r r r s i g i s t a d s o m r d e n ,

t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g o c h m a k t r e l a t i o n e r , r b e g r e p p e n m a k t p e r s p e k t i v , r u m o c h s

k a l l a d e s p a c e w a r s ( k a m p e n o m u t r y m m e i s t a d e n ) a v i n t r e s s e f r a n a l y s e n a v

c y k l i n g , m o b i l i t e t i s t d e r o c h t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g . D e s s a a s p e k t e r h a n t e r a s i k a p i t e l

4 . D m a k t r e l a t i o n e r s k a p a s g e n o m r u m m e t o c h s k a p a r s p a c e w a r s r

b e g r e p p e n m a k t o c h r u m c e n t r a l a n r d e t h a n d l a r o m m o b i l i t e t i s t d e r .

E f t e r s o m m o b i l i t e t i s t d e r o c h v l o m o b i l i t e t s k e r i d e t f y s i s k a r u m m e t

( s t a d s r u m i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g ) , m s t e r u m m e t b e h a n d l a s i s y f t e a t t u t v e c k l a e n

f r s t e l s e f r v a r k o n f l i k t e r u p p s t r o c h h u r r u m m e t s k a p a s g e n o m m o b i l i t e t

o c h g e n o m s o c i a l a r e l a t i o n e r . H r a n v n d e r j a g m i g a v L e f e b v r e s t e o r i e r o m

17

1 8

p r o d u k t i o n e n a v r u m m e t ( 1 9 9 1 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) o c h k o p p l a r d e n t i l l h a n s k o n c e p t o m

r t t e n t i l l s t a d e n ( 1 9 9 6 ) . K o n f l i k t e r m e l l a n d e o l i k a t r a n s p o r t s l a g e n k a n o c k s

s e s i s a m b a n d m e d s p a c e w a r s , e t t k o n c e p t u t v e c k l a t a v Z y g m u n t B a u m a n

( 1 9 9 8 ) . D e s s u t o m h a n d l a r p r o d u k t i o n e n a v r u m m e t o c h s p a c e w a r s o m m a k t

o c h m a k t r e l a t i o n e r i s t d e r o c h u r b a n a t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m o c h d r m e d v e n o m

u r b a n c y k l i n g . F r a t t a n a l y s e r a s d a n a m a k t r e l a t i o n e r , u t v e c k l a s i k a p i t e l 4 e n

t e o r e t i s k f r s t e l s e a v m a k t o c h m a k t r e l a t i o n e r i a n s l u t n i n g t i l l r u m o c h s p a c e

w a r s . D e n n a t e o r e t i s k a k u n s k a p k o m m e r f r n o l i k a p e r s p e k t i v . J a g a n v n d e r d e

t r e d i m e n s i o n e r n a a v m a k t s o m u t v e c k l a d e s a v L u k e s ( 2 0 0 5 ) o c h k o p p l a r d e s s a

t i l l L e f e b v r e s t e o r i e r o m r u m m e t . I k a p i t e l 4 d e f i n i e r a s , f r d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g ,

d e n t e o r e t i s k a r a m e n f r m a k t , r u m o c h s p a c e w a r s . H r k o p p l a s f o r s k n i n g o m

m o b i l i t e t m e d f o r s k n i n g o m m a k t o c h r u m f r a t t u t v e c k l a e n t e o r e t i s k r a m f r

a n a l y s e n i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g .

I k a p i t e l 5 u n d e r s k s h u r m a k t r e l a t i o n e r o c h p r o d u k t i o n e n a v d e t u r b a n a

r u m m e t m a t e r i a l i s e r a s i s t a d e n , v a d s o m h a r p v e r k a t o c h f o r m a t m o d e r n

s t a d s t r a f i k o c h s t a d s - o c h t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g . M a k t r e l a t i o n e r h a r b y g g t s i n i v r

i n f r a s t r u k t u r . B i l i n d u s t r i n s p o l i t i s k a e k o n o m i o c h i n d u s t r i e r k o p p l a d e t i l l

d e n n a h a r h a f t e n e n o r m i n v e r k a n p t r a f i k - o c h s t a d s p l a n e r i n g r u n t o m i

v r l d e n . I d e t t a k a p i t e l g e r j a g e x e m p e l f r n S v e r i g e , d r j a g v i s a r v a d s o m h n t

i s a m b a n d m e d i n t r o d u k t i o n e n a v m o d e r n i s m e n i s t a d s - o c h t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g

s a m t h u r d e t t a p v e r k a r p l a n e r i n g e n n i d a g . J a g k o p p l a r o c k s d e t t a t i l l

L e f e b v r e s b e g r e p p o m r t t e n t i l l s t a d e n f r a t t p s s t t f r s k a u t v e c k l a e n

b t t r e f r s t e l s e f r h u r o c h v a r f r i n f r a s t r u k t u r e n r u t f o r m a d s o m d e n r i

d a g m e d h j l p a v d e n t e o r e t i s k a b e s k r i v n i n g e n i d e n n a a v h a n d l i n g . M o d e r n i s m

r t y n g d p u n k t e n i d e n n a a n a l y s a v m a t e r i a l i t i t e r o c h h u r d e t h a r p v e r k a t

s t a d s r u m m e t . E x e m p e l a n v n d s f r n S t o c k h o l m o c h K p e n h a m n f r a t t v i s a

e f f e k t e r n a a v m o d e r n i s m p s t a d s - o c h t r a f i k p l a n e r i n g . S C A F T , r i k t l i n j e r f r

p l a n e r i n g s o m u t v e c k l a d e s i S v e r i g e m e d s y f t e a t t k a t r a f i k s k e r h e t e n , r o c k s

e t t e x e m p e l p h u r f r n d r i n g a r n a a v s t a d s r u m h a r l e t t t i l l m a r g i n a l i s e r i n g a v

c y k l i s t e r o c h k a t f o k u s p b i l t r a f i k e n . G e n o m d e s s a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e r h a r

m a k t r e l a t i o n e r o c h s t r u k t u r e r b l i v i t i n b y g g d a i s t a d s r u m m e t o c h s k a p a r r u m a v

m o b i l i t e t s o m p r i o r i t e r a r m o t o r t r a f i k . D e s s a r u m s k a p a r o c k s s p a c e w a r s

m e l l a n o l i k a t r a f i k a n t e r o c h h a r e n p v e r k a n p p l a n e r i n g e n n i d a g . D e t r ,

b l a n d a n n a t , d e s s a s t r u k t u r e r s o m p v e r k a r p l a n e r i n g e n . H r r L u k e s t r e d j e

d i m e n s i o n a v m a k t e t t b r a a n a l y t i s k t v e r k t y g f r a t t u t f o r s k a m a k t r e l a t i o n e r n a

o c h s t r u k t u r e r n a i u r b a n a r u m .

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produktionen av rummet (1991 [1974]) och kopplar den till hans koncept om rtten till staden (1996). Konflikter mellan de olika transportslagen kan ocks ses i samband med space wars, ett koncept utvecklat av Zygmunt Bauman (1998). Dessutom handlar produktionen av rummet och space wars om makt och maktrelationer i stder och urbana transportsystem och drmed ven om urban cykling. Fr att analysera sdana maktrelationer, utvecklas i kapitel 4 en teoretisk frstelse av makt och maktrelationer i anslutning till rum och space wars. Denna teoretiska kunskap kommer frn olika perspektiv. Jag anvnder de tre dimensionerna av makt som utvecklades av Lukes (2005) och kopplar dessa till Lefebvres teorier om rummet. I kapitel 4 definieras, fr denna avhandling, den teoretiska ramen fr makt, rum och space wars. Hr kopplas forskning om mobilitet med forskning om makt och rum fr att utveckla en teoretisk ram fr analysen i denna avhandling.

I kapitel 5 undersks hur maktrelationer och produktionen av det urbana rummet materialiseras i staden, vad som har pverkat och format modern stadstrafik och stads- och trafikplanering. Maktrelationer har byggts in i vr infrastruktur. Bilindustrins politiska ekonomi och industrier kopplade till denna har haft en enorm inverkan p trafik- och stadsplanering runt om i vrlden. I detta kapitel ger jag exempel frn Sverige, dr jag visar vad som hnt i samband med introduktionen av modernismen i stads-och trafikplanering samt hur detta pverkar planeringen n idag. Jag kopplar ocks detta till Lefebvres begrepp om rtten till staden fr att p s stt frska utveckla en bttre frstelse fr hur och varfr infrastrukturen r utformad som den r i dag med hjlp av den teoretiska beskrivningen i denna avhandling. Modernism r tyngdpunkten i denna analys av materialititer och hur det har pverkat stadsrummet. Exempel anvnds frn Stockholm och Kpenhamn fr att visa effekterna av modernism p stads-och trafikplanering. SCAFT, riktlinjer fr planering som utvecklades i Sverige med syfte att ka trafikskerheten, r ocks ett exempel p hur frndringarna av stadsrum har lett till marginalisering av cyklister och kat fokus p biltrafiken. Genom dessa transformationer har maktrelationer och strukturer blivit inbyggda i stadsrummet och skapar rum av mobilitet som prioriterar motortrafik. Dessa rum skapar ocks space wars mellan olika trafikanter och har en pverkan p planeringen n idag. Det r, bland annat, dessa strukturer som pverkar planeringen. Hr r Lukes tredje dimension av makt ett bra analytiskt verktyg fr att utforska maktrelationerna och strukturerna i urbana rum.

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I kapitel 6 introduceras fallstudierna fr denna avhandling, Stockholm och Kpenhamn. I detta kapitel diskuteras mjliga frklaringar till skillnaderna i frdmedelsval, infrastruktur och planering i de bda stderna. Dessutom diskuteras varfr Kpenhamns cykelinfrastruktur upplevs som s mycket bttre n Stockholms och hur infrastrukturen har utvecklats i de tv stderna. Exempel p varfr infrastrukturen fr cykling upplevs som s mycket bttre i Kpenhamn n i Stockholm, r bttre lsningar fr att prioritera cyklister i korsningar och bttre cykelvgar. Detta kapitel fungerar ocks som en bakgrund till kapitel 7, dr det empiriska materialet frn intervjuerna i bde Stockholm och Kpenhamn analyseras. Intervjuerna har bidragit till att skapa en djupare frstelse fr hur de tv stderna har planerats och hur planeringen sker idag. Dessutom har relationer och strukturer upptckts som pverkat planeringen och resultatet av planering och politiska beslut, bde p politisk niv och p administrativ niv. Drutver kan man, genom analys av maktrelationerna i stadsrummet, se vad som pverkat och fortfarande pverkar planeringen och politiken av mobilitet och trafik i Kpenhamn och Stockholm. Frn denna analys uppstr frgan om vilka erfarenheter cyklister i bda stderna har nr det gller cykling, trafik och cykelplanering. Planeringen r mycket annorlunda organiserad i de tv stderna och historiska, ekonomiska, kulturella och politiska faktorer har pverkat planeringsprocesser och resultatet av trafik-och stadsplanering. En viktig aspekt r till exempel att Kpenhamn, efter andra vrldskriget, inte hade de ekonomiska mjligheterna att bygga om staden enligt det modernistiska idealet, dvs. med investeringar i stadsmotorvgar och tunnelbana osv. Sledes fortsatte planereringen fr cykeltrafik, som var och r en mycket viktig del i Kpenhamns trafikplanering ven efter andra vrldskriget. Stockholm dremot hade bttre ekonomiska resurser och investerade i stadsmotorvgar och tunnelbana. Det faktum att Danmark, till skillnad frn Sverige, inte har en egen bilindustri, har ocks pverkar transportplanering.

I kapitel 8 analyseras cyklisternas upplevelser frn data som samlats in genom enktstudier i Stockholm och Kpenhamn. Fokus fr analysen av enktdata r om det finns skillnader och likheter mellan cyklisters upplevelser i Stockholm och Kpenhamn. Detta analyseras med hjlp av Chi2-test, Mann-Whitney-test samt genom analys av svarsfrekvenser. E