Language and CultureLanguage and Culture

Language, Communication, and Language, Communication, and CultureCulture

Introduction to Language, Introduction to Language, Communication, and CultureCommunication, and Culture

How is language related to culture?How is language related to culture? How is How is a a language related to language related to a a culture?culture? Both questions are valid, and we look at Both questions are valid, and we look at

the issues through several lenses:the issues through several lenses: Kinesics and paralanguageKinesics and paralanguage Ethnolinguistics and code switchingEthnolinguistics and code switching Similarities and differences between Similarities and differences between

human and animal communication. human and animal communication.

Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication

There are two basic types of nonverbal There are two basic types of nonverbal communicationcommunication

KinesicsKinesics involves the all-too-familiar body involves the all-too-familiar body language: facial expression, gestures, language: facial expression, gestures, even eye contacteven eye contact

Paralanguage Paralanguage are the vocalizations that are the vocalizations that often accompany speech: slurs, tones of often accompany speech: slurs, tones of voice, nonmeaningful utterances including voice, nonmeaningful utterances including “um” and “uh”“um” and “uh”

Kinesics: GesturesKinesics: Gestures Kinesics:Kinesics: System of analyzing System of analyzing

postures, facial expressions, postures, facial expressions, “body language”“body language”

See that thumbs up? This gent See that thumbs up? This gent likes whatever you’re doing. likes whatever you’re doing. Buying his brand of coffee, Buying his brand of coffee, perhaps?perhaps?

In other countries, it would meanIn other countries, it would mean—well, you know! (Need a hint? —well, you know! (Need a hint? Think middle finger)Think middle finger)

This is one example how the This is one example how the same gesture might mean same gesture might mean different things in different different things in different cultures. cultures.

Kinesics: Facial ExpressionsKinesics: Facial Expressions Social smiles are commonplace, Social smiles are commonplace,

though women may do so more though women may do so more than men—a matter of expected than men—a matter of expected social sensitivitysocial sensitivity

Frowns express frustration, Frowns express frustration, sometime cynicism, as this cartoon sometime cynicism, as this cartoon suggests—if you smile, you’re suggests—if you smile, you’re naïvenaïve

Facial expressions and eye Facial expressions and eye contact are the most widely used contact are the most widely used forms of kinesics; gestures are forms of kinesics; gestures are also frequentalso frequent

Gesture Call Systems: Gesture Call Systems: Paralanguage Paralanguage

Paralanguage Paralanguage consists of consists of extralinguistic noises extralinguistic noises accompanying language accompanying language

Voice qualities:Voice qualities: tone, slur tone, slur (cartoon), other background (cartoon), other background noisesnoises

VocalizationsVocalizations: Identifiable : Identifiable noises turned on and off at noises turned on and off at short intervals—”uh,” “um,” short intervals—”uh,” “um,” other kinds of hesitationother kinds of hesitation

More ParalanguageMore Paralanguage

Vocal characteristics:Vocal characteristics: Sound production such as Sound production such as laughinglaughing

Vocal qualifiers:Vocal qualifiers: Tone or Tone or pitch-”Get Out!”pitch-”Get Out!”

Segregates:Segregates: “Shh!” “Oh “Shh!” “Oh oh,” “hmmm!” (cartoon) oh,” “hmmm!” (cartoon) among othersamong others

Historical Linguistic TechniquesHistorical Linguistic Techniques

When tracing the history of language, linguists have no writing When tracing the history of language, linguists have no writing to rely uponto rely upon

Several techniques have been developed to trace the Several techniques have been developed to trace the probable changesprobable changes

Glottochronology: Glottochronology: the reconstruction of past languages on the reconstruction of past languages on the assumption that 14% of a language changes every 1000 the assumption that 14% of a language changes every 1000 yearsyears

Core vocabulary: Core vocabulary: Comparison of words for common objects Comparison of words for common objects based on similaritybased on similarity

A list of words is compiled for each of two languages that refer A list of words is compiled for each of two languages that refer to objects that are common everywhere: body parts, sun, rain, to objects that are common everywhere: body parts, sun, rain, stones, trees, and othersstones, trees, and others

The closer the vocabulary—cognates or similar words The closer the vocabulary—cognates or similar words between two languages, the more closely related the two between two languages, the more closely related the two languages are thought to be. languages are thought to be.

Models of Language ChangeModels of Language Change

Language FamilyLanguage Family Group of languages descended from a single Group of languages descended from a single

ancestral languageancestral language Example: Indo-European is descended from Example: Indo-European is descended from

Proto-Indo-EuropeanProto-Indo-European Family Tree Model: Family Tree Model: a model that emphasizes a model that emphasizes

the derivation of language from a common the derivation of language from a common source source

Wave Model: Wave Model: A model that emphasizes A model that emphasizes borrowing across contemporary languagesborrowing across contemporary languages

EthnolinguisticsEthnolinguistics

Definition: Study of relationship between Definition: Study of relationship between language and culturelanguage and culture

Named after Named after Edward SapirEdward Sapir (top) and (top) and Benjamin Lee WhorfBenjamin Lee Whorf (bottom), the (bottom), the

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis states thatstates that language,language,

By providing habitual “grooves” of By providing habitual “grooves” of expressionexpression

Predisposes people to see world in Predisposes people to see world in certain wayscertain ways

Thus guiding thinking and behaviorThus guiding thinking and behavior

Ethnolinguistics: Do Languages Ethnolinguistics: Do Languages Structure Cultures. . .Structure Cultures. . .

Example of Sapir-Whorf Example of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis;hypothesis;

Hopi:Hopi: Conception of time as Conception of time as processes, not discrete unitsprocesses, not discrete units

For example, Hopi would not For example, Hopi would not divide time into seconds or divide time into seconds or hourshours

Nor would they perceive time Nor would they perceive time as object, such as wasting timeas object, such as wasting time

Or Do Cultures Structure LanguageOr Do Cultures Structure Language

The Nuer The Nuer of the Sudan are cattle of the Sudan are cattle herdersherders

Children are named after cattle, and Children are named after cattle, and poetry is composed about thempoetry is composed about them

More than 400 words are related to More than 400 words are related to cattlecattle

In our own culture, we have a In our own culture, we have a militaristic vocabulary; we make a militaristic vocabulary; we make a killing on Wall Street, we bomb the killing on Wall Street, we bomb the exam, we have a war on drugs, exam, we have a war on drugs, cancer, poverty, you name itcancer, poverty, you name it

So we have a chicken and egg So we have a chicken and egg questionquestion

Does language condition cultureDoes language condition culture Or does culture condition language?Or does culture condition language?

Ethnolinguistics: Some Areas of Ethnolinguistics: Some Areas of ResearchResearch

Kinship termsKinship terms: The terms father and mother may be : The terms father and mother may be extended to uncles and aunts. More on this laterextended to uncles and aunts. More on this later

Gender-based meaningsGender-based meanings: When women say “I’m sorry,” : When women say “I’m sorry,” are they taking responsibility for the problem or are they are they taking responsibility for the problem or are they regretting the situation, as Deborah Tannen argues. regretting the situation, as Deborah Tannen argues.

We have several We have several social dialectssocial dialects in this country, ranging in this country, ranging from Afro-American speech to “Spanglish” (Spanish-from Afro-American speech to “Spanglish” (Spanish-English word combinations) to regional dialects from the English word combinations) to regional dialects from the U.S. South, y’all, to Bostonian bahgains.U.S. South, y’all, to Bostonian bahgains.

Code Switching: Martin Luther KingCode Switching: Martin Luther King

We change our speech styles to fit We change our speech styles to fit the occasionthe occasion

Code Switching: Switching style of Code Switching: Switching style of speech according to occasion and speech according to occasion and audienceaudience

Martin Luther King, Jr., was a master Martin Luther King, Jr., was a master in code switching, ranging from in code switching, ranging from standard discourse in formal settings standard discourse in formal settings (Washington Monument, 1963, (Washington Monument, 1963, I I Have a DreamHave a Dream speech upper photo) speech upper photo)

To informal discourse in black To informal discourse in black settings (Here delivering a sermon at settings (Here delivering a sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church in the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, Georgia)Atlanta, Georgia)

Language Origins: Interspecies Language Origins: Interspecies ComparisonComparison

When language began is anyone’s guessWhen language began is anyone’s guess Defining communication and comparing Defining communication and comparing

different communication systems is a first stepdifferent communication systems is a first step Chimpanzees have used American Sign Chimpanzees have used American Sign

Language and computer buttons to convey Language and computer buttons to convey messages somewhat like languagesmessages somewhat like languages

But speech organs have long since But speech organs have long since deteriorated, so we have at best indirect deteriorated, so we have at best indirect evidence.evidence.

Language Origins: Fossil EvidenceLanguage Origins: Fossil Evidence

Did Neanderthals have language? A humanlike Did Neanderthals have language? A humanlike hyoid bone, which anchors the tongue, was hyoid bone, which anchors the tongue, was found in Kebara Cave, Israelfound in Kebara Cave, Israel

Endocasts indicating size of cerebrum and Endocasts indicating size of cerebrum and possible Broca’s area have been found among possible Broca’s area have been found among Homo habilisHomo habilis remains remains

Another indication is the flat surface at the skull Another indication is the flat surface at the skull base, suggesting the larynx was too high to base, suggesting the larynx was too high to enable language; nonhuman primates also have enable language; nonhuman primates also have a flat skull base and high larynxesa flat skull base and high larynxes

Basic conclusion: no one really knows when Basic conclusion: no one really knows when language got its startlanguage got its start

Features of Language Shared Features of Language Shared with Other Specieswith Other Species

Nevertheless, language does share some Nevertheless, language does share some features with the communication systems features with the communication systems of other animals.of other animals.

We look at some examples, such as We look at some examples, such as gibbons, stickleback courtship, and bee gibbons, stickleback courtship, and bee dances indicating the location of a nectar dances indicating the location of a nectar sourcesource

Common Features of Language Common Features of Language and Nonhuman Communicationand Nonhuman Communication

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness ProductivityProductivity InterchangeabilityInterchangeability DisplacementDisplacement SpecializationSpecialization Cultural TransmissionCultural Transmission

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness Definition: Absence of intrinsic Definition: Absence of intrinsic

relation between relation between communication element communication element (speech sound) and thing or (speech sound) and thing or event to which it refers event to which it refers (referent)(referent)

Iconic Relationship: Iconic Relationship: Existence of such a Existence of such a relationship between element relationship between element (e.g. gesture) and its referent(e.g. gesture) and its referent

Importance: Utterance is not Importance: Utterance is not “married” to meaning, such as “married” to meaning, such as this gibbon’s warning callthis gibbon’s warning call

Arbitrariness (Examples)Arbitrariness (Examples)

Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not meaningful in and of themselvesmeaningful in and of themselves

Meaning emerges when sounds are Meaning emerges when sounds are combined:combined:

[kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline, the [kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline, the one who caught a mouse)one who caught a mouse)

[tæk] “tack” has another (small nail)[tæk] “tack” has another (small nail) [ækt] “act” has a third (dog and pony [ækt] “act” has a third (dog and pony

show)show) Even then, this string is language Even then, this string is language

specific (English), not intrinsicspecific (English), not intrinsic

Arbitrariness (Across Arbitrariness (Across Languages)Languages)

Evidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse LanguagesEvidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse Languages ““Cat” has different pronunciations in different Cat” has different pronunciations in different

languageslanguages Similarities are the product of common roots and/or Similarities are the product of common roots and/or

diffusion from one language to anotherdiffusion from one language to another

Productivity (Definition)Productivity (Definition)

Productivity Productivity is the capacity for is the capacity for elements of communication system elements of communication system to be combined to form new to be combined to form new meanings which the speaker and meanings which the speaker and listener may never have learned listener may never have learned before, yet understands perfectlybefore, yet understands perfectly

Try this exercise: the top figure is a Try this exercise: the top figure is a wugwug

Now here are two of themNow here are two of them There are two ____There are two ____ If your response was [wIf your response was [wəgz] you əgz] you

produced an entirely new—and produced an entirely new—and correct--utterancecorrect--utterance

Productivity: Jabberwocky Productivity: Jabberwocky RiddleRiddle

From From Jabberwocky Jabberwocky by by Lewis Carroll (see Lewis Carroll (see illustration}illustration}

‘‘Twas brillig and the sllthy Twas brillig and the sllthy tovestoves

Did gyre and gimble in Did gyre and gimble in the wabethe wabe

Identify:Identify: The nounsThe nouns The verbsThe verbs The adjectivesThe adjectives

Productivity: The AnswersProductivity: The Answers

The nouns:The nouns: surely the article surely the article the the is a dead is a dead giveaway for giveaway for toves toves and and wabewabe

The verbs: ‘The verbs: ‘twas twas is poetic English for “is poetic English for “it it was,” was,” and the helping verb and the helping verb did did uncovers uncovers gyre gyre and and gimblegimble

The adjectives: The adjectives: Doesn’t the Doesn’t the –y–y ending of ending of slithy slithy suggest an adjective, similar to suggest an adjective, similar to slimyslimy? And ? And ’twas ’twas suggests suggests brilligbrillig to be to be another one. another one.

Productivity: Language LearningProductivity: Language Learning

Language drills use the principle of Language drills use the principle of productivity productivity

English: I am, you are. . .English: I am, you are. . . Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . Productivity simply involves taking a few Productivity simply involves taking a few

elements (phonemes, morphemes, even elements (phonemes, morphemes, even syntax) and generate unlimited syntax) and generate unlimited combinations of expressionscombinations of expressions

Productivity Among Other Species: Productivity Among Other Species: Bee DanceBee Dance

When a scout bee has discovered When a scout bee has discovered a flower or other nectar source, a flower or other nectar source, she returns and tell the other she returns and tell the other bees where it is with a dancebees where it is with a dance

Their figure-eight tell the other Their figure-eight tell the other bees the direction and distance of bees the direction and distance of the pollen sourcethe pollen source

The waggle of the tail also The waggle of the tail also indicates the directionindicates the direction

Amount of pollen brought back Amount of pollen brought back indicates pollen available thereindicates pollen available there

Productivity involves variations of Productivity involves variations of speed of the dance, the amount speed of the dance, the amount brought back, and the waggle.brought back, and the waggle.

InterchangeabilityInterchangeability Definition:Definition: Use of same communication Use of same communication

system to send and receive messagessystem to send and receive messages Illustrative CounterexampleIllustrative Counterexample: Three-spined : Three-spined

stickleback fish courtship (see diagram)stickleback fish courtship (see diagram) Female elicits male response by presenting Female elicits male response by presenting

distended bellydistended belly Male performs zigzag dance around femaleMale performs zigzag dance around female She follow him to nestShe follow him to nest Male point to nest on arrivalMale point to nest on arrival Female enters nest, male rubs abdomen, Female enters nest, male rubs abdomen, She discharges eggs, and male fertilizes She discharges eggs, and male fertilizes

them with spermthem with sperm

Displacement (Definition)Displacement (Definition)

Ability to refer to things and events not Ability to refer to things and events not present, nonvisible, intangible, or present, nonvisible, intangible, or nonexistentnonexistent

Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in San Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in San FranciscoFrancisco

Not visible: Termites in sealed moundNot visible: Termites in sealed mound Intangible: math equations, square rootsIntangible: math equations, square roots Nonexistent: dragons, unicornsNonexistent: dragons, unicorns

Displacement (Importance)Displacement (Importance) Ability to represent unseen parts of Ability to represent unseen parts of

worldworld Part of toolmaking abilityPart of toolmaking ability: to conceive a : to conceive a

design (above)design (above) Bee DanceBee Dance Scouting bee gives information on non-Scouting bee gives information on non-

present blossomspresent blossoms Direction of dance relative to sun: indicates Direction of dance relative to sun: indicates

direction of sourcedirection of source Length of tail waggle: distance of sourceLength of tail waggle: distance of source Other bees act on this information even Other bees act on this information even

though they cannot see the flower or though they cannot see the flower or blossomblossom

Cultural TransmissionCultural Transmission

Learning of an element of communication Learning of an element of communication (speech sound, gestures)(speech sound, gestures)

Bees and stickleback acquire behavior Bees and stickleback acquire behavior geneticallygenetically

Dogs learn by conditioning, do not pass Dogs learn by conditioning, do not pass learning onlearning on

Chimpanzees do learn by imitation and Chimpanzees do learn by imitation and pass it on: e.g., termite fishing. pass it on: e.g., termite fishing.

SpecializationSpecialization

Definition: Ability to transmit message with Definition: Ability to transmit message with minimal physical effortminimal physical effort

Language is the most specialized of all Language is the most specialized of all communication systemscommunication systems

Examples of unspecialized communicationExamples of unspecialized communication Chimpanzee displaysChimpanzee displays Bee danceBee dance Stickleback courtshipStickleback courtship

ConclusionConclusion Language is the basis of cultureLanguage is the basis of culture Knowledge of linguistics is prerequisite to knowing how cultures Knowledge of linguistics is prerequisite to knowing how cultures

function function We have looked at the following: We have looked at the following: Descriptive LinguisticsDescriptive Linguistics Language, Culture, and SocietyLanguage, Culture, and Society Comparative Human-nonhuman CommunicationComparative Human-nonhuman Communication One question remains: does culture condition language, or does One question remains: does culture condition language, or does

language condition culture: the old chicken-egg question.language condition culture: the old chicken-egg question. There are many similarities between human and animal There are many similarities between human and animal

communicationcommunication