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Language learningthese examples illustrate, information technology canserve as a medium both for carrying out service learn-ing projects and for reflecting on them.
00-452 Wood, Priscilla G. (U. of North Carolinaat Greensboro, USA). Who is using the NationalForeign Language Standards? Foreign LanguageAnnals (New York, USA), 32, 4 (1999), 435-40.
This article briefly traces the history of the NationalStandards for Foreign Languages in the United Statesand then addresses who is using the standards. TheCenter for Applied Linguistics, which designed a surveyto determine the effect of national and state standardson public and private foreign language teachers ingrades K(indergarten) to 12, reports that approximatelyhalf of the surveyed teachers are aware of national orstate standards. Finally, the issue of how states are devel-oping foreign language standards is addressed by exam-ining the curricula of Minnesota, New Jersey, andConnecticut. Recommendations follow as to how astate's curriculum can he aligned with the nationalstandards.
00-453 Zamborlin, Chiara (Istituto Italiano diCultura, Hiroshima, Japan). Osservazioni su alcunedifficolta implicite nell'acquisizione dell'imperfettoitaliano da parte di studenti giapponesi.[Observations on certain difficulties inherent in theacquisition of the Italian imperfect tense byJapanese students.) Rassegna Italiana di LinguisticaApplicata (Rome, Italy), 2/3 (1999), 95-108.
The verbal system is a major hurdle for foreign lan-guage students when it differs widely from their nativetongue. This article reports the experience of a teacherinvolved in elementary-level Italian classes for arts stu-dents in a Japanese university. As Japanese has only onetype of past tense, learners usually struggle to grasp thedifference between the several forms available in Italian,especially the imperfect tense. But if language is merelythe clothing of universal mental notions ('mentalese') asclaimed by Steven Pinker, then the imperfect can betaught more easily by drawing attention to semanticallyequivalent utterances in the first language; this may helpidentify temporal and discoursal constraints that applyto the target tense, without relying on grammar-bookprescriptions. The fact that Italian is not an exam-governed curricular course but only an optionalsubject means that teachers and learners can experi-ment more freely with intuitive methods of languagedevelopment.
Language learning
00-454 Ayoun, Dalila (U. of Arizona, USA). Web-based elicitation tasks in SLA research. LanguageLearning and Technology (http://llt.msu.edu), 3,2(2000), 77-98.
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This paper presents an experimental study in secondlanguage acquisition (SLA) designed with web-basedelicitation tasks to obtain greater internal and externalvalidity.The study intends to show how a rich and wideset of data can be elicited using a variety of innovativeWeb-based tasks offering a number of advantages. Thebackground information questionnaire and threeexperimental tasks—a scaled grammaticality judgmenttask, a preference/grammaticality task and a productiontask—were created with a web-based software, ClarisHomepage®, while a fourth experimental task-a mag-nitude estimation acceptability judgment task-wasdesigned with a multimedia software, Director®. Thepresent study tested the acquisition of the propertiessubsumed under the verb movement parameter and thenull subject parameter by English native speakersenrolled in French college classes. The results for theformer parameter but not the latter support thehypothesis of progressive parametric manifestation insecond language learners' grammar. The preference/grammaticality and production tasks proved particularlyinformative.
00-455 Benson, Phil and Lor, Winnie (HongKong U.). Conceptions of language and languagelearning. System (Oxford, UK), 27,4 (1999),459-72.
This paper questions whether the notion of learnerbeliefs as conceived in the second language acquisitionliterature is adequate to capture the complexity oflearners' thinking about language learning. It proposesas an alternative an analytical framework based on threelevels: conception, approach and belief. The notion ofconceptions of language and language learning is pro-posed as a higher level category conditioning specificbeliefs. The notion of approaches to learning is pro-posed as a category describing the level at which beliefsare made manifest in specific contexts of learning.These categories are illustrated with reference to theauthors' data drawn from interviews with first-yearundergraduate university students in Hong Kong.
00-456 Cajkler, Wasyl, and Thornton, Barbara(U. of Leicester, UK). Language learner perceptionsof strategy use in secondary schools. LanguageLearning Journal (Rugby, UK), 20 (1999), 45-50.
Since the early 1970s, a series of studies have sought toidentify successful language learner strategies, but thefocus has often been on the adult language learner.Thestudy reported here explored the strategies used by 14-15-year-old learners of modern languages, reportinggeneral findings from surveys of teacher and pupilperceptions of the use of strategies in the languageclassroom in three EU countries. Questionnaires werefollowed by interviews with individual students andteachers; in addition, some lessons were videotaped andexamined for patterns of interaction and strategy use.Findings showed that many teachers may not be awareof the extent to which learners seek to promote theirown foreign language learning. Results from student
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Language learningquestionnaires indicated that a majority seem to rely ontraditional approaches, despite national differences andthe fact that girls appear to use strategies more regularlythan boys. Extensive reading seemed to be under-used,and reading books in the foreign language did notfeature very highly as a home or school activity.
00-457 Castellotti, Veronique (University deTours, France) and Moore, Daniele. Sch6mas encoupe du plurilinguisme. (Cut-out models ofplurilingualism.l Bulletin suisse de linguistiqueappliquee (Neuchatel, Switzerland), 70 (1999),2-50.
This paper explores children's representations of plurilin-gualism. Children in a French elementary school, whohad previously been sensitised to other languagesthrough Language Awareness activities, were asked toproduce drawings representing 'what it is like inside thehead of someone who speaks several languages'. Groupdiscussions and interviews were conducted on the basisof these drawings. Children tended to produce eitherpictures of plurilinguals, in which the brain was dividedinto separate sections for different languages, or picturesof bilinguals in which the brain stored equivalencesbetween words from different languages. They positedcomplex systems in the brain for the learning of eachlanguage, including systems to keep the different lan-guages apart. But many children suggested that aplurilingual would experience difficulties in separatinglanguages, and that 'mixing' languages would be anunavoidable problem. The article concludes that mostchildren's models of plurilingualism are based on the ideaof'separate underlying competence', in which each lan-guage is learnt separately, and where competence in onelanguage cannot transfer to another. However, observa-tions of the children's own plurilinguisric competenciesdemonstrated an ability to transfer their knowledgebetween languages, a 'common underlying competence'.This suggests that there is a gap between children's repre-sentations of plurilingualism and their own competen-cies, with their practices as plurilinguals surpassing theirmonolingual- influenced representations.
00-458 Cenoz, Jasone and Lecumberri, LuisaGarcie (U. of the Basque Country, Vitoria-Gasteiz,Spain). The effect of training on the discriminationof English vowels. IRAL (Heidelberg, Germany), 37,4 (1999), 261-75.
The study reported here analyses the effect of trainingon the perception of English vowels by native speakersof Basque and Spanish. Participants were 109 universitystudents who received a training course in EnglishPhonetics and were asked to complete some question-naires and vowel perception tests.The findings are takento confirm that training exerts a positive effect on theperception of English vowels and that this effect is alsorelated to the desire to acquire a native accent.
00-459 Chavez, Monika (U. of Wisconsin-Madison, USA). Taking a turn for the better and the
worse: the relationship between achievement andself-reported discourse behaviour. DieUnterrichtspraxis/Teaching German (Cherry Hill,NJ, USA), 31, 2 (1998), 32-44.
This article describes an exploratory study comparingmore- and less-successful learners of German at universi-ty.The study focused on the relationship between level ofstudent achievement as measured by previous finalcourse grade and student-teacher discourse patterns.Using self-report data, the study revealed that less suc-cessful learners were less likely than their successfulcounterparts to report themselves as: (a) speaking inwhole sentences (especially to other students); (b) usingEnglish in class when talking to peers; (c) understandingthe gist of what the teacher said; (d) saying something inthe second language even when they knew the answerwas right; (e) collecting their thoughts before speaking;(f) initiating interactions with the teacher.They were alsoless likely to report their teachers as using fragmentaryspeech to individuals and the class. On the other hand,they reported themselves as more likely to use humourin class. There was a tendency for the less successfullearners to be more dependent on the teacher and forthe more successful ones to be more autonomous.
00-460 Cotterall, Sara (Victoria U. of Wellington,New Zealand; Email: [email protected]). Keyvariables in language learning: what do learnersbelieve about them? System (Oxford, UK), 27,4(1999), 493-513.
This paper reports on a study which investigated the lan-guage learning beliefs of a group of students enrolled inan English for Academic Purposes course. The studydrew on the results of an earlier study by the presentauthor [see abstract 96-15] which used factor analysis toidentify six dimensions underlying learner responses to aquestionnaire, and which explored the relationshipbetween each factor and autonomous language learningbehaviour. This study extends the earlier work in threeways. Firsdy, it adds new items based on the factor struc-ture previously identified. Secondly, it incorporates itemsdesigned as a result of a survey of current research in sec-ond language acquisition (SLA). This survey identifiedfactors which the literature suggests are important insuccessful language learning, particularly in autonomouslanguage learning. Thirdly, it provides a learner perspec-tive on topics in the SLA literature which researchersand teachers often claim as their domain.The paper dis-cusses the beliefs reported by the participants, and con-siders the implications of these beliefs for future researchand for interventions in the learning process.
00-461 Daller, Helmut (U. of the West of England,Bristol, UK; Email: [email protected]) andGrotjahn, Rudiger. The language proficiency ofTurkish returnees from Germany: an empiricalinvestigation of academic and everyday languageproficiency. Language, Culture and Curriculum(Clevedon, UK), 12,2 (1999), 156-72.
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Language learningThe study reported here analyses the everyday and aca-demic language proficiency of German-Turkish bilin-guals who grew up in Germany as children of Turkishimmigrants and learned German as a second language.They attended German schools before returning toTurkey, where German formed part of the school cur-riculum. The 159 participating bilinguals were all uni-versity students of German philology. Although thereturnees' command of German seemed to be native-like at a surface level, their teachers and lecturers fre-quently complained about their academic languageproficiency. Their everyday and academic language pro-ficiency were measured in this study with two differentC-tests, developed on the basis of Cummins' distinctionbetween basic interpersonal communicative skills andcognitive-academic language proficiency. The scoresobtained were compared with those of a control groupofTurkish university students who had spent their child-hood in Turkey and learned German at school. Statisticalanalysis of the data yielded the following results: (1) theC-tests were a useful means of measuring differentaspects of language proficiency; (2) the returneesshowed significantly higher scores for everyday languageproficiency in German compared to the control group;(3) the main predictor variables were school type andlength of time spent at a German school; and (4) attri-tion of everyday language proficiency in Germandepended on the length of time since return to Turkey.
00-462 Diehl, Erika. SchulischerGrammatikerwerb unter der Lupe Das GenferDiGS-Projekt. [Acquisition of grammar at school inthe light of the Geneva DiGS Project.! Bulletinsuisse de linguistique appliqu&e (Neuchatel,Switzerland), 70,1 (1999), 7-26.
This article summarises a three-year research project(1995-1998) related to the acquisition of Germangrammar in tutored conditions.The corpus consisted ofwritten essays of 220 French-speaking learners ofGerman as a second language in primary and secondaryschools in Geneva. The results show that, even underclassroom conditions, pupils use acquisition strategiesvery similar to those observed in natural acquisition set-tings. For the domains of verbal morphology, verbplacement and case marking, clear acquisitional stagesnot reflecting the instructed grammar programme couldbe distinguished. Instead, these stages coincide withthose observed in German first language acquisition inthe domains of verbal and noun morphology. In verbplacement, however, the initial learner hypothesis wasobviously taken from French, while progress in acquisi-tion was directly related to the learners' capacity to giveup the French basic sentence model. These results areseen as strongly supporting Pienemann's 'teachabilityhypothesis' which claims that grammar instruction onlyhas a chance of being effective if it takes natural acquisi-tion orders and strategies into account.
00-463 Ellis, Rod (U. of Auckland, New Zealand).Item versus system learning: explaining free
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variation. Applied Linguistics (Oxford, UK), 20,4(1999), 460-80.
This article sets out to provide an explanation for theexistence of free variation in learner language. It arguesthat interlanguage is best conceptualised as sets of looselexical networks which are gradually reorganised into asystem or systems. Free variation in learner language isseen as the behavioural manifestation of the lexical net-works and systematic variation of the existence of a sys-tem. The article reviews previous research providingevidence of the existence of free variation. It arguesthat free variation is of theoretical significance to sec-ond language acquisition researchers because it reflectsthe role of item learning in acquiring a second lan-guage (L2). Free variation arises when learners additems to those they have already acquired and beforethey analyse these items and organise them into a sys-tem. This view of free variation accords with currentcognitive views of L2 acquisition according to whichsyntactic categories are extracted from items that areimplicitly acquired through exposure to input (Ellis1996).
00-464 Faraco, Martine and Kida, Tsuyoshi (U.of Provence, France). Acquisition de L2 etsequences d'apprentissage: degre de stabilityinteractive. [Second language acquisition andlearning sequences: degrees of interactive stability.]IRAL (Heidelberg, Germany), 37,3 (1999), 215-30.
This article reflects on the role of'learning sequences'in second language classrooms. These are sequencesinserted into the conversation between native speaker(NS) and non-native speaker (NNS) which focusexplicitly on the language being learnt. The authorsoutline multiple factors which influence the NNS'scognitive integration of the NS's input in thesesequences. Examples demonstrating the instability oflearning sequences are taken from a corpus recorded inan intermediate-level French classroom. The examplesshow NNSs failing to take up NS input, and the inser-tion of learning sequences into ongoing conversationalinteractions causing difficulties in intercomprehension.However, when interactional and/or cognitive rupturesbecome evident, the NS often takes responsibility fortheir repair. The article concludes that the appearanceof learning sequences in interaction is inevitable,because NNS uncertainty and NS regulation of thisuncertainty are inherent in the didactic situation. Theyare also necessary, for regulating comprehension andconversation in the classroom. Although they can causecommunicative ruptures, their instability can also makeexolinguistic communication easier, when the NS takesresponsibility for regulating NNS perception and rep-resentation of linguistic input. But if learning sequencesare to contribute to language acquisition, teachers needto be trained in the theory and practice of using themeffectively.
00-465 Gass, Susan (Michigan State U., USA;Email: [email protected]), Mackey, Alison,
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Language learningAlvarez-Torres, Maria-Jose and Fernandez-Garcia, Marisol. The effects of task repetition onlinguistic output. Language Learning (Maiden, MA,USA), 49, 4 (1999), 549-81.
The recent literature on second language acquisition(SLA), and, in particular, SLA within a classroom con-text, has witnessed a growing interest in focus on formand focus on meaning. This article explores theform/meaning relationship from the point of view ofthe use learners make of their internal second languagelinguistic resources as a function of focus on meaning.In this study, native speakers of English watched videosegments four times while recording their own on-linerendition in Spanish. One group watched the samevideo three times and the other group watched differ-ent videos each time. At Time 4 both experimentalgroups saw a new video. A control group saw videosonly at Time I and Time 4. Analyses were conducted onthe basis of overall proficiency, morphosyntax, and lexi-cal sophistication. The results provide limited supportfor the prediction of improvement over time for thegroup that saw the same video, but no support for a'carryover' effect when the content changed.
00-466 Guido, Maria Grazia (U. of London, UK).Sociolinguistica applicata e relativismo pragmaticonell'acquisizione delle lingue seconde. [Appliedsociolinguistics and pragmatic relativism in secondlanguage acquisition.] Rassegna Italiana diLinguistica Applicata (Rome, Italy), 2/3 (1999),27-35.
This paper discusses the advantages of a functional-communicative approach to second language teaching,as compared to more formal models inspired by genera-tive grammar. After a brief overview of the sociolinguis-tic foundations (from Firth to Halliday) that underpincurrent thinking in the field, the author points to theincreasing role of cognitive psychology. Language acqui-sition is shaped and constrained both by the subjectssociocultural environment and by his/her mentalschema or background knowledge. This means thatteaching methodology should exploit such resourcesthrough communicative activities which, while allowingenough critical detachment for self-monitoring, makethe learner literate in the target culture and its norms oflinguistic behaviour.To benefit from the insights of soci-olinguistic research, practitioners have to acknowledgethe fact that language competence is essentially a prag-matic phenomenon and can only be acquired in a learn-er-oriented classroom centred on the social andpsychological functions of discourse.
00-467 Han, Zhaohong (Teachers Coll.,Columbia U., USA). Persistence of the implicitinfluence of NL: the case of the pseudo-passive.Applied Linguistics (Oxford, UK), 21,1 (2000),78-105.
This paper re-examines the case of the'pseudo-passive',an interlanguage structure considered to be typical of
first language (Ll)-Chinese learners of second language(L2) English, i.e., where the intended form/meaning isassumed to be that of the passivised construction in thetarget language. Earlier approaches to the analysis of thestructure, i.e., typological and syntactic, are reviewed,and an alternative approach, i.e., discourse-syntactic, isproposed to bridge a methodological gap left from theearlier studies. This approach is subsequently adoptedfor analysing the structure found in a two-year longitu-dinal database consisting of the written data producedindependently by two adult speakers of advanced LIChinese-L2 English interlanguage. The study showsthat the pseudo-passive is driven by a topic-commentfunction and structure in the LI, which confirms theunderstanding reached by the earlier research. Moreimportantly, however, it provides evidence that the'pseudo-passive' is reincarnated into a target-like passiveas a result of increased syntacticisation, thereby showingthe persistence of the LI influence.
00-468 Horwitz, Elaine K. (U. of Texas, Austin,USA). Cultural and situational influences on foreignlanguage learners' beliefs about language learning:a review of BALLI studies. System (Oxford, UK), 27,4(1999), 557-76.
Understanding learner beliefs about language learningis essential to understanding learner strategies and plan-ning appropriate language instruction; however, to datethere has been no examination of how these beliefsmay differ across learner groups. This paper reviewsrepresentative studies (including American learners ofFrench, Spanish, German, and Japanese, U.S. universityinstructors of French, and Korean, Taiwanese, andTurkish heritage English as a Foreign Language Englishstudents) using the authors 'Beliefs about LanguageLearning Inventory' (BALLI) to identify similarities anddifferences across cultural groups. Although instances ofdiffering beliefs between and among the American,Korean, and Turkish heritage groups were identified, anexamination of the responses to individual BALLIitems did not yield clear-cut cultural differences inbeliefs. The differences between the instructors ofFrench and American learners suggest that beliefs mayvary based on age, stage of learning, and professionalstatus. Several of the differences identified in the vari-ous American groups and the two groups of Koreanand Turkish heritage learners may be more clearlyattributable to differences in learning circumstancesthan culture.
00-469 Hulstijn, Jan H. (U. of Amsterdam, TheNetherlands; Email: [email protected]). The useof computer technology in experimental studies ofsecond language acquisition: a survey of sometechniques and some ongoing studies. LanguageLearning and Technology (http://llt.msu.edu), 3, 2(2000), 32-43.
This paper first gives a brief characterisation of theways in which second language acquisition (SLA)researchers use the computer to elicit second language
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Language learning(L2) production data or to record how L2 learnersprocess L2 input. Eight tasks and/or techniques aredescribed, most of them borrowed from the experi-mental toolbox of psychologists. The paper thendescribes the use of computer technology in someongoing investigations in which the author participates.These investigations pertain to the acquisition of auto-maticity in L2 reading, writing, and listening, and to theuse of electronic bilingual dictionaries.The author con-cludes that the software and tasks described have had anenormous impact on the study of language acquisitionand use, and that they offer researchers the means to getcloser to the processes involved. It is hoped the surveywill encourage those interested in SLA research toexplore some of the methods and tools surveyed, whichin turn may stimulate their theoretical understanding ofthe phenomena they seek to explain.
00-470 Jiang, Nan (The Pennsylvania State U.tUSA). Lexical representation and development in asecond language. Applied Linguistics (Oxford, UK),21, 1 (2000), 47-77.
A psycholinguistic model of vocabulary acquisition in asecond language (L2) in instructional settings is out-lined in this paper. Considered in the light of how thelexical entries in the L2 lexicon evolve, L2 vocabularyacquisition is seen as consisting of three stages: the for-mal stage when a lexical entry with formal specifica-tions is established; the first language (LI) lemmamediation stage when the lemma information of the LIcounterpart is copied into the L2 lexical entry andmediates L2 word use; and the L2 integration stagewhen semantic, syntactic, morphological specificationsare integrated into the lexical entry. It is argued that,due to the practical constraints imposed on L2 learn-ing, a majority of L2 words fossilise at the second stage.Thus, lexical representation in L2 in general has threeunique features: (a) a lexical entry consists of L2 lexemeand LI lemma; (b) little morphological specificationsare integrated within the entry; (c) the links betweenL2 words and concepts are weak.The processing conse-quences of these features, relevant research evidence insupport of this model, and its implications for L2vocabulary acquisition research are discussed.
00-471 Laufer, Batia (U. of Haifa, Israel; Email:[email protected]) and Hill, Monica.What lexical information do L2 learners select in aCALL dictionary and how does it affect word «retention? Language Learning and Technology(http://llt.msu.edu), 3, 2 (2000), 58-76.
The study reported here investigates a relationshipbetween what is looked up about new words when dif-ferent kinds of information are available and how wellthese words are remembered. The dictionary informa-tion has been incorporated into a CALL program com-prising a text, highlighted low-frequency words, andaccess to different lexical information about thesewords (explanation in English, translation into first lan-guage, sound, root, and 'extra' information). Participants
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were English as a Foreign Language (EFL) universitylearners in Hong Kong and Israel.Twelve low frequen-cy target words- unfamiliar to most participants-wereexamined for incidental learning. Participants wereasked to read the text on the screen and understand itso that they could then take a comprehension test.Unknown words could be looked up in the CALL dic-tionary built into the program. During the task, log filesregistered every selection of dictionary information.After task completion, participants were unexpectedlytested on meaning recall of the target words. Recalldata were analysed (ANOVAs, repeated measures, andcorrelations) to establish possible connections betweenretention and lookup behaviour (type of informationselected, and number of lookups for each word).Results suggest that different people have differentlookup preferences and that the use of multiple dictio-nary information seems to reinforce retention. Theteaching implication is, therefore, to provide a varietyof lookup options catering to different lookup prefer-ences in paper or CALL dictionaries when assigningtasks that involve reading comprehension and under-standing of unfamiliar words.
00-472 Literio, Pietro. Motivazione, self-efficacyed apprendimento linguistico. [Motivation, self-efficacy and language acquisition.! RassegnaItaliana di Linguistica Appficata (Rome, Italy), 2/3(1999), 109-67.
This paper begins from the premise that languageacquisition can only be understood within the widerframework of human cognitive and behavioural pat-terns. It looks at the crucial relationship between moti-vation and self-efficacy (i.e., the type and level ofbehaviour an individual believes s/he can achieve).After an extensive overview of the literature, the authorobserves that teachers should be made aware of thecomplexity of students' primary and secondary needs,both as people and as learners. Stimulation of motivat-ing factors can overcome or remove learning problems;similarly, knowledge of human response to experientalstimuli can be used to enhance self-efficacy. A clearexample of the latter are learners'beliefs regarding theirability to adjust to the school environment; teachers'beliefs concerning their ability to motivate learners;and, finally, teaching-staff's perception of the schoolingand its educational adequacy. For the language class-room, cognitive psychology offers a three-tier model ofmotivation targeting the learner, the learning environ-ment and, of course, the language itself; teaching meth-ods that neglect any of these factors are likely to proveinadequate.
00-473 Littlewood, William (Hong Kong BaptistU; Email: [email protected]). Do Asian studentsreally want to listen and obey? ELT Journal(Oxford,UK), 54,1 (2000), 31-36.
This article examines some common preconceptionsabout Asian students and their learning attitudes, in par-ticular the belief that they see the teacher as an authority
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Language learningfigure, and as a fount of all the knowledge which theywill need to acquire. Students in eight Asian countriesand three European countries responded to three state-ments which reflect these attitudes.The responses-from2,307 Asian students studying at senior secondary andtertiary level, and from 349 European students-indicatethat these preconceptions do not reflect what the stu-dents really want, and that there is actually less differencein attitudes to learning between Asian and Europeancountries than between individuals within each coun-try. The results underline the need to question these pre-conceptions, and to explore in greater depth the natureand extent of cultural influences on learning.
00-474 Mackey, Alison (Georgetown U.,Washington, USA; Email:[email protected]). Input,interaction, and second language development: anempirical study of question formation in ESL.Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York,USA), 21, 4 (1999), 557-87.
The study reported here examines the relationshipbetween different types of conversational interactionand second language acquisition (SLA). Long's (1996)updated version of the interactionist hypothesis claimsthat implicit negative feedback, which can be obtainedthrough negotiated interaction, facilitates SLA. Similarclaims for the benefits of negotiation have been madeby Pica (1996) and Gass (1997). Some support for theinteraction hypothesis has been provided by studiescited in this article which have explored the effects ofinteraction on production, on lexical acquisition, onthe short-term outcomes of pushed output, and forspecific interactional features such as recasts. However,other studies have not found effects for interaction ongrammatical development. The central questionaddressed by the current study was whether conversa-tional interaction can facilitate second language devel-opment. The study employed a pretest-posttest design.Adult English as a Second Language (ESL) learners(Ar= 34) of varying first language backgrounds, dividedinto four experimental groups and one control group,took part in task-based interaction. Research questionsfocused on the developmental outcomes of taking partin various types of interaction. Active participation ininteraction and the developmental level of the learnerwere considered. Results of the study are taken to sup-port claims concerning a link between interaction andgrammatical development and to highlight the impor-tance of active participation in the interaction.
00-475 Mallows, David (Hammersmith andWest London Coll., UK). Anxiety and the ESLclassroom. Language Issues (Birmingham, UK), 11,2(1999), 14-20.
This paper begins by examining why the study of anxi-ety should be of importance to the second-languageclassroom and whether it is possible to isolate foreignlanguage anxiety.The second part presents the results ofa study of the foreign language anxiety levels of a group
of 73 intermediate-level English as a Second Language(ESL) students from seven different classes studying inLondon, and attempts to correlate this with theirachievement in English. Using an adapted version ofthe Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale(FLCAS), findings showed no correlation between lev-els of foreign language classroom anxiety and achieve-ment. It is concluded that three main reasons mayexplain the apparent inconsistencies with previousfindings in second-language environments. Firstly,within a monolingual group studying in the UK, for-eign language classroom anxiety may be more preva-lent. Secondly, the fostering of a positive, supportiveand communicative atmosphere within class mayreduce any effects of anxiety on the learners' perfor-mance. Finally, in an ESL classroom more emphasis isplaced on improving reading and writing rather thanon speaking. This may lead to less of the type of oralactivity which is thought to be most anxiety-inducing.
00-476 Mattar, Hameed (U. of Bahrain).Translation elicitation techniques and mother-tongue interference: any significant connection?IRAL (Heidelberg, Germany), 37,4 (1999), 307-20.
This paper is based on a research project carried out atthe authors institution to examine the validity of Dulay,Burt and Krashen's (1982) Hypothesis that the use oftranslation as an elicitation technique in foreign and sec-ond language (L2) research artificially increases the L2learners reliance on the mother tongue, and according-ly, the proportion of interference errors. Two elicitationtasks were constructed, one a translation of Arabic sen-tences into English and the other a series of English sen-tences with blanks for the students to fill with thedefinite article the, if necessary.The participants' interfer-ence errors in the use of the English definite article wereexamined to find out whether or not those in the trans-lation task significantly outnumbered those in theblank-filling task. Participants were 60 Arabic-speakinguniversity students at different language levels, but withsimilar sociocultural and educational backgrounds.Following error analysis, the interference errors wereisolated, and a statistical analysis was carried out on theLI related errors in both tasks. The results are taken toindicate that Dulay, Burt and Krashen's hypothesis,which links translation elicitation techniques to learn-ers' resorting to the mother tongue, is not valid.The par-ticipants made consistendy, but not significandy, moreinterference errors in the blank-filling task than in thetranslation task. Interestingly enough, however, with twogroups of the participants there were significantly moreinterference errors in the blank-filling task than in thetranslation task.
00-477 McCreesh, Bernadine (Universite duQuebec a Chicoutimi, Canada; Email:[email protected]). If practice makesperfect, why does familiarity breed contempt?Computer Assisted Language Learning (Lisse, TheNetherlands), 12, 4 (1999), 311-21,
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Language learningThe author of this article compared different learningstyles, specifically, setting out to answer the questionwhether students learn better from an exercise inwhich they repeat the original sentence they got wrongor are instead presented with a different parallel sen-tence. It was found that some students preferred to redothe same sentence, while others preferred a differentone. The nature of this difference and the reasons for itare examined. One main difference seems to be in thestudents' metacognitive skills. If this is the case, it is sug-gested that computer programs could be developed toimprove students' metacognitive skills while catering todifferent learning preferences. It is concluded thatCALL exercises, unlike traditional drills, have thepotential to adapt to these different styles, therebyenhancing the student's learning experience.
00-478 Mochizuki, Akihiko (The U. of Tsukuba,Japan). Language learning strategies used byJapanese university students. RELC Journal(Singapore), 30, 2 (1999), 101-13.
The study reported here examined (1) the kinds of lan-guage learning strategies Japanese university studentsuse, (2) factors affecting the learners' choice of strate-gies, and (3) the reliability of the learners' self-evalua-tion of English proficiency .The Second Grade Test ofthe Society of Testing English Proficiency (STEP) andan 80-item Strategy Inventory for Language Learning(SILL) were administered to 44 second-year and 113first-year students at a Japanese state university. Resultsindicate that: (a) the students use compensation strate-gies most often, and affective ones least; (b) the moreproficient students use cognitive and metacognitivestrategies more frequently; (c) the main factors influ-encing choice of strategies are the type of course stu-dents are majoring in, learner motivation andenjoyment of English, and the student's gender; and (d)self-evaluation does not seem very reliable.
00-479 Mori, Yoshiko (Georgetown U.,Washington, USA; Emaih [email protected]). Beliefs about language learning and theirrelationship to the ability to integrate informationfrom word parts and context in interpreting novelkanji words. The Modern Language Journal(Maiden,MA, USA), 83,4 (1999), 534-47.
The study reported here explores the relationshipbetween the strategies second language learners ..use tointerpret unfamiliar words in a target language, andtheir general epistemological beliefs (i.e., beliefs aboutthe nature of knowledge) and beliefs specifically aboutlanguage learning. More specifically, the study examineshow learner beliefs are related to the ability to combineinformation from word parts and context in interpret-ing novel semantically semi-transparent kanji com-pounds (i.e., words consisting of two or more Chinesecharacters). Forty-seven English-speaking learners ofJapanese completed both a belief questionnaire and a72-item multiple-choice kanji compounds test. Resultsindicate modest but statistically significant correlations
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between (a) belief in the simplicity of knowledge and atendency to over-rely on a single source of informa-tion, (b) avoidance of ambiguity and over-reliance onkanji clues, and (c) perception of the difficulty of kanjilearning and greater use of contextual clues.These find-ings are taken to suggest that language learners' wordinference strategies at least partially reflect their beliefsabout learning in general and language learning inparticular.
00-480 O'Grady, William (U. of Hawai'i, USA;Email: [email protected]). Toward a newnativism. Studies in Second Language Acquisition(New York, USA), 21, 4 (1999), 621-33.
The field of language acquisition is divided over thequestion of whether the inborn mechanisms underly-ing linguistic development include actual grammaticalcategories and principles or are of a more general char-acter. Recent proposals suggest a possible convergenceof views on this matter, with implications for the studyof both first language acquisition and second languagelearning.This paper explores this possibility by examin-ing the evolution of grammatical nativism with partic-ular emphasis on a radical shift in the generality of theinborn principles which have been posited in recentwork.The nature and implications of this shift are illus-trated with the help of developmental data involvinggap-containing structures in first and second languageacquisition.
00-481 Pellizzon, Ugo Giuseppe (U. Cattolica,Brescia, Italy). I bisogni relativi allo studiodell'inglese degli studenti del terzo anno dieconomia e commercio. [The English learningneeds of third year students of economics andbusiness studies.! Rassegna Italiana di LinguisticaApplicata (Rome, Italy), 2/3 (1999), 59-93.
This article reports the results of a survey of undergrad-uates' attitudes to English, as taught in a university ofNorthern Italy. A sample of 83 students was given aquestionnaire and then interviewed in small groups toassess whether and to what extent their self-perceivedlearning needs were satisfied. Statistical analysis of theresults provided several interesting findings, e.g., strongmotivation despite a high level of unsatisfied needs;considerable interest in English language and culturefor professional purposes; and, finally, the need for bet-ter teaching. Surprisingly, frustration remained low anddid not correlate with unsatisfied needs; this may bedue to resignation, unawareness of better alternatives, orjust a fair amount of realism. Drawing on the data inhand, the author ends with a list of recommendationsfor academic authorities and teachers, generally towardsa more task-based, less formal approach.
00-482 Ramos, Rosinda de Castro Guerra(PUC-SP, Brazil). O que e saber uma palavra: aperspectiva do aluno e a perspectiva do professor.[What is meant by 'knowing a word': the learner's
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Language learningperspective and the teacher's perspective.] TheESPecialist (Sao Paulo, Brazil), 20, 2 (1999), 157-78.
In spite of the fact that pedagogical practices within thecontext of reading courses for academic purposes show aconcern with the teaching of vocabulary, it is still verycommon for students to complain about the lack ofknowledge of vocabulary and to perceive their difficultiesas due to the lack of this kind of knowledge. Although theliterature points out the possible causes of these difficul-ties and ways of dealing with them (Carter & McCarthy,1988; Nation, 1990),'not many studies have investigatedwhat this kind of knowledge means to the teacher andthe student. This paper investigates the beliefs of teachersand students regarding'knowing a word', comparing sim-ilarities and differences between these two views. It isbelieved that this knowledge can influence the currentpedagogical practices in these courses and help studentsto recognise and make a diagnosis of their own learningproblems, an important step towards a change andimprovement in their own learning.
00-483 Rehner, Katherine (Ontario Inst. forStudies in Ed., Toronto U., Canada) and Mougeon,Raymond. Variation in the spoken French ofimmersion students: To ne or not to ne, that is thesociolinguistic question. The Canadian ModernLanguage Review/La Revue canadienne deslangues vivantes (Toronto, Ont.), 56,1 (1999),124-54.
This paper investigates a case of linguistic variationobservable in the spoken French of students fromFrench immersion programmes in Ontario, namely,alternation between negative constructions with andwithout the negative particle ne (e.g., // ne comprcnd pasvs. // comprcnd pas, 'he does not understand'). The stu-dents' use of ne is markedly more frequent than thatdocumented in previous studies of both Canadian fran-cophones and Irish speakers of French as a SecondLanguage (FSL). The students clearly favour the stan-dard variant (ne usage). It was also found that the stu-dents vary their frequency of ne usage/non-usage toreflect their own socioeconomic background and gen-der, but that they do not shift their level of ne non-usage in accordance with topic formality. Thesefindings suggest that the learning of even a mildlymarked non-standard variant, like ne non-usage,requires a minimum of interactions with francophones,especially if such a variant is not explicitly taught byimmersion educators.The research thus raises questionsabout how FSL programmes can best help studentsacquire native-like sociolinguistic competence whenthey interact infrequently with francophones.
00-484 Rosa, Elena and O'Neill, Michael D.(Georgetown U., Washington, USA; Email:[email protected]). Explicitness,intake, and the issue of awareness: another pieceto the puzzle. Studies in Second LanguageAcquisition (New York, USA), 21, 4 (1999), 511-56.
The conditions (implicit or explicit) under whichexposure to second language input takes place and thelevel of awareness raised while processing input may bestrongly related to the learning process. The studyreported here investigates how intake was affected bothby awareness and by the conditions under which aproblem-solving task was performed. Spanish condi-tional sentences were presented to learners through fivedifferent degrees of explicitness, which were the resultof combining the factors [±formal instruction] and[±directions to search for rules]. Intake was measuredthrough a multiple-choice recognition test adminis-tered immediately after the experimental task. Level ofawareness was assessed by means of think-aloud proto-cols collected during input processing. Results indicatethat (a) the degrees of explicitness had a differentialeffect on intake, (b) the higher the level of awarenessdemonstrated, the stronger the effect on intake, and (c)the conditions under which the task was administeredinfluenced the way information was processed.
00-485 Rott, Susanne (U. of Illinois at Chicago,USA; Email: [email protected]). The effect of exposurefrequency on intermediate language learners'incidental vocabulary acquisition and retentionthrough reading. Studies in Second LanguageAcquisition (New York, USA), 21,4 (1999), 589-619.
Research has been investigating the role of reading asone source of input in language learners' vocabularydevelopment, the expectation being that lexical growthmay be furthered in foreign and second language learn-ers by engaging them in extensive reading. The studyreported here was designed to examine whether inter-mediate learners incidentally (a) acquire and (b) retainunknown vocabulary as a result of reading. The studyfurther assessed (c) the effect of the text variable ofexposure frequency. The data analysed here were gath-ered from 67 university learners of German as a foreignlanguage who were exposed to unfamiliar words eithertWQ, four, or six times during reading.Vocabulary acqui-sition and retention measured productive and receptiveknowledge gain. Results indicated that only twoencounters with unfamiliar words during reading sig-nificantly affected learners' vocabulary growth.Moreover, two or four exposure frequencies resulted infairly similar word gain, but six exposures produced sig-nificantly more vocabulary knowledge. Retentionmeasures showed mixed results: on productive vocabu-lary knowledge only half the participants displayed asignificant rate of retention; on receptive knowledge allbut one experimental group retained vocabulary overfour weeks.
00-486 Sakui, K. (Konan U. / St. Andrew's U.,Osaka, Japan; Email: [email protected]) and Gaies,S. J.. Investigating Japanese learners' beliefs aboutlanguage learning. System (Oxford, UK), 27,4(1999), 473-92.
This article reports on a study of the beliefs about lan-guage learning of almost 1300 Japanese university
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Language learninglearners of English. The primary aims of the studywere: (1) to validate a questionnaire, developed for theJapanese context and written in Japanese, on a varietyof beliefs (e.g., person, task, strategy, achievement) aboutlanguage learning; (2) to investigate the value of inter-view data to complement and explain questionnairedata; and (3) to describe the beliefs about languagelearning of Japanese learners of English and to deter-mine, through factor analysis, how those beliefs areorganised. One of the principal findings of the study isthat, without complementary sources of data, learners'responses to questionnaires such as the one developedfor this study can be easily misinterpreted as evidenceof instrument unreliability. The study found evidencethat many of the respondents' beliefs about learningEnglish correspond to the distinction which manyteachers would make between traditional and contem-porary approaches to language teaching and learning.The article concludes by describing how data on learn-ers' beliefs can inform efforts at policy and programmeevaluation.
00-487 Schliemann, Magda Maria C. O. C.(LAEL/PUC-SP, Brazil). Ensino de ingles numaescola tecnica de 2° grau-um projeto emandamento. [English teaching in a technical highschool-a project in progress.l The ESPecialist (SaoPaulo, Brazil), 20, 2 (1999), 213-25.
The research reported here has certain similarities toand differences from that of Matsumoto's (1996): whilethe latter aimed at leading Japanese second-year collegestudents to reflect upon their second language learningthrough self-analysis, the objective of the present studywas to explore the feelings of Brazilian second-gradetechnical high-school students towards an English forSpecific Purposes course recently introduced in theschool. Nevertheless, the two studies used the samedata-gathering instruments, i.e., questionnaires, studentdiaries and interviews. This paper sets out to comparethe two studies, highlighting their similarities and dif-ferences; in so doing, a discussion of students' beliefsand learning strategies is brought into focus.
00-488 Schwartz, Bonnie D. (U. of Durham, UK;Email: [email protected]). Let's make upyour mind: 'special nativist' perspectives onlanguage, modularity of mind, and nonnativelanguage acquisition. Studies in Second LanguageAcquisition (New York, USA), 21, 4 (1999), 635-55.
This paper defends the idea that language is a unique,genetically underwritten (informationally encapsulat-ed) 'module of the mind' and considers some conse-quences such a stance holds for the psycholinguisticstudy of nonnative language (L2) acquisition. As is wellknown, language as conceived within the tradition ofgenerative grammar (e.g., Chomsky, 1965, 1975, 1980,1986) is unlike other types of cognition, and its basis(viz., Universal Grammar) is innately given; this is theposition supported in this paper. Specifically, it beginsby summarising the main arguments for this position,
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then discusses (following Segal, 1996) four differentconceptions of what a module is. Particular attention isdevoted to the theory developed by Fodor (1983,1985)on the architecture of mind (his 'modularity thesis').There follows a comparison between the distinct viewsheld by Chomsky and by Fodor on the conception of'the language module' and on the structure of mindmore generally. Arguing that the two views are notinherently incompatible, the author speculates on howto begin to reconcile them, which leads her to advancethree specific implications for the theoretical study ofL2 acquisition within the framework of generativegrammar, couched within a theory of the modularmind.
00-489 Shehadeh, AH (U. of Aleppo, Syria / KingSaud U., Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Email:[email protected]). Non-native speakers'production of modified comprehensible output andsecond language learning. Language Learning(Maiden, MA, USA), 49,4 (1999), 627-75.
Swain (1985) argued that comprehensible input is notsufficient for successful second language acquisition(SLA), but that opportunities for non-native speakers(NNSs) to produce comprehensible output are alsonecessary.The study reported here investigated the abil-ity of NNSs to modify their output toward compre-hensibility in the contexts of NS-NNS and NNS-NNSinteractions, and the degree to which such modifiedcomprehensible output (MCO) was other- or self-ini-tiated. Picture-dictation and opinion exchange taskswere used to collect data from eight NSs and 24 NNSsof English representing 13 different first language back-grounds. The two tasks were performed in pairs (NS-NNS and NNS-NNS) and were audiotaped. Theresults showed that most repairs were self-initiated andthat NNS-NNS interactions produced more other-ini-tiations and other-initiated MCOs on the picture-dic-tation task. The frequencies of these MCOs are seen assupporting the importance of modification towardscomprehensible output as a process of SLA.
00-490 Wei, Longxing (Montclair State U., NJ,USA). Unequal election of morphemes in adultsecond language acquisition. Applied Linguistics(Oxford, UK), 21,1 (2000), 106-40.
Morpheme accuracy and acquisition order is a frequentsubject in the second language acquisition research lit-erature. However, the treatment is largely descriptive,i.e., researchers offer few explanations for the data dis-cussed. The most frequently invoked explanation putsthe burden on first language (LI) acquisition theorybecause the observed orders are similar to thoseobserved in LI acquisition. In contrast, this paperexplains observed accuracy orders on the basis of amodel of morpheme classification originally proposedto account for other bilingual phenomena, the 4-MModel (Myers-Scotton & Jake 1999). The paper basesits analysis on a cross-sectional analysis of acquisition ofEnglish by Japanese and Chinese LI speakers. The
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Language learningresults indicate that not all functional elements have thesame accuracy order. The paper argues that this orderreflects the fact that functional elements differ in howthey are activated. The model of morpheme classifica-tion assumes that there are three types of system mor-phemes (functional elements) as well as contentmorphemes. One type of system morpheme is indirect-ly elected at the same time that content morphemes aredirectly elected by the speaker's intentions. The othertwo types of system morphemes are activated later inthe production process. Their abstract lexical-concep-tual structure is not relevant to conveying the speaker'sintentions, but rather is required by the grammaticalframe of the target language. For this reason, the 4-MModel predicts that they are harder to acquire.The datareported in this paper support that hypothesis, i.e., theyindicate an implicational hierarchy of morphemeacquisition: content morphemes are acquired beforeany system morphemes and early (indirectly elected)system morphemes are acquired before later systemmorphemes.
00-491 Wenden, Anita L (City U. of New York,USA). An introduction to Metacognitive Knowledgeand Beliefs in Language Learning: beyond thebasics. System (Oxford, UK), 27,4 (1999), 435-441.
In this introduction to a special issue of System, theauthor distinguishes between innate domain knowl-edge, social knowledge and metacognitive knowledge,the latter also being termed 'learner beliefs'. Sheexplains the powerful role that learner beliefs may havein influencing attitudes and behaviour, even if the personconcerned is not fully conscious of them or if they arenot valid. Learner beliefs have a key role in self-regula-tion, including its two key phases of task analysis andmonitoring. She also points to possible future directionsin learner belief research. These might include: inter-and intra-group differences (e.g., extent to whichlearner beliefs about language learning are culturallybased); role of knowledge in learning (e.g., relevance ofmetalinguistic knowledge to the development of fluen-cy in listening, speaking, reading or writing); and devel-opment of learner beliefs (e.g., how these change overtime and according to context). [Sec also abstracts 00-455,00-460,00-468,00-486, 00-492,00-495,00-511.]
00-492 White, Cynthia (Massey U., PalmerstonNorth, New Zealand). Expectations and emergentbeliefs of self-instructed language learners. System(Oxford, UK), 27, 4 (1999), 443-57.
This article reports on findings from a longitudinalstudy tracking the expectations, shifts in expectationsand emergent beliefs of 'novice' self-instructed lan-guage learners. Participants were learners of Japaneseand Spanish experiencing learning in a distance modefor the first time evolved over a 12-week period. Aniterative data collection cycle was used through fivephases to investigate how the learners experienced andarticulated their experience of the solo distance lan-guage learning context.The discussion here focuses on
the learner-context interface, tolerance of ambiguityand locus of control; these constructs emerged from thereports as central to an understanding of how learnersconceptualised the initial stages of the process of self-instructed language learning.
00-493 Wilhelm, Kim Hughes (Southern IllinoisU. at Carbondale, USA). Building an adult ESLknowledge base: an exploratory study using anexpert system. Applied Linguistics (Oxford, UK), 20,4 (1999), 425-59.
The major focus at the first phase of the study reportedhere was to examine 57 language learning (LL) back-ground features in relationship to overall grade, rate ofprogress, and completion of an intensive English pro-gramme (IEP). Data analyses for 319 completed casesallowed the researcher to identify variables showingdivergent patterns for high versus low success groupsfor each of the success categories. Eleven features weretargeted for omission. In the second stage of the study,the focus shifted to determining the extent to whichsuccess could be accurately predicted by the expert sys-tem when basing inferences on feature constellationsincluding LL background features only, entry proficien-cy features only, and LL background and entry profi-ciency features combined. Results indicated that entryproficiency variables were most effective when predict-ing low grade and high IEP completion success.Constellations including only LL background featureswere most effective when predicting high grades andlow rate of progress. Constellations including both LLbackground and entry proficiency features were mosteffective when predicting high rate of progress and lowprogramme completion success.
00-494 Williams, Jessica (U. of Illinois atChicago, USA; Email: [email protected]). Learner-generated attention to form. Language Learning(Maiden, MA, USA), 49,4 (1999). 583-625.
Recent studies have suggested that the incorporation ofsome attention to form into meaning-centred instruc-tion can lead to improved performance in processinginput and increased accuracy in production. Most haveexamined attention to form delivered by instructors orinstructional materials. The study reported here exam-ines the production of eight adult classroom learners atfour levels of proficiency to determine the extent towhich learners can and do spontaneously attend to formin their interaction with other learners. Results suggestthat the degree and type of learner-generated attentionto form are related to proficiency level and the nature ofthe activity in which the learners are engaged. They alsoindicate that learners overwhelmingly choose to focuson lexical rather than grammatical issues.
00-495 Yang, Nae-Dong (National Taiwan U.).The relationship between EFL learners' beliefs andlearning strategy use. System (Oxford, UK), 27,4(1999), 515-35.
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ReadingThe study reported here addressed the question of howforeign/second language learners' beliefs about lan-guage learning are related to their learning strategy use.Participants were 505 EFL (English as a ForeignLanguage) university students in Taiwan; and the rela-tionship between their beliefs about language learningand their use of learning strategies was investigated. Itwas found that language learners' self-efficacy beliefsabout learning English were strongly related to theiruse of all types of learning strategies, especially func-tional practice strategies. Additionally, learners' beliefsabout the value and nature of learning spoken Englishwere closely linked to their use of formal oral-practicestrategies. The results of the study suggest cyclical rela-tionships between learners' beliefs and strategy use.Thearticle proposes a theoretical construct of learners'beliefs, and the pedagogical implications are discussed.
Reading
00-496 Arden-Close, Christopher (Tokyo Inst. ofTechnology, Japan). Taiwanese universityfreshmen's difficulties with reading in English.Reading in a Foreign Language (Plymouth, UK), 12,2 (1999), 325-54.
This article examines, by means of student essays, thedifficulties Taiwanese university freshmen had in theirEnglish reading.The concept of receptivity to the targetlanguage and culture is used throughout. A widerframework than merely what happens in the universityclassroom is examined. The first section deals with thestudents' previous learning of English reading in sec-ondary schools and its effect on their present learning.The second section examines the students' attitudestowards the English-speaking culture vis a vis their ownTaiwanese culture, and to the English language. Theseare seen as important determinants of their present dif-ficulties. The third section examines their present diffi-culties via their attitudes to the methods of teachingused in the university. It is concluded that reading in aforeign language involves much more than what hap-pens in the classroom, and that further studies castingsuch a wide net should be carried out.
00-497 Beke, Rebecca (Universidad Central deVenezuela, Caracas). Spanish-speaking studentsreading expository texts written in English. [Aleitura de textos expositivos em ingles por alunosfalantes de espanhol.l The ESPecialist (Sao Paulo,Brazil), 20, 2 (1999), 115-42.
The research reported here examines the process used byfour Spanish-speaking university students identified astwo competent and two non-competent readers whenreading academic texts written in English. The mainobjective of the study was to describe and discover simi-larities and differences between the two groups in termsof the processes taking place in a foreign language (FL)
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reading situation. An additional aim was to generatehypotheses for further research and implications for theteaching of FL reading. In that sense the research wasconceived from a heuristic-holistic-synthetic perspective(Seliger & Shiohamy, 1989). Comprehension activitieswere designed and applied to four text types-descrip-tion, problem-solution, cause-effect and comparison-contrast following Meyer (1975)-and complementedwith retrospection interviews. Both the comprehensionactivities and the interviews were carried out individual-ly with each reader. The data suggest important differ-ences between the two groups of readers as to thecognitive schemata and strategies underlying readingperformance and the readers' attitude towards differenttext structures. From the point of view of the teaching ofFL reading, the need to emphasise bottom-up processes,particularly morphosyntactic aspects such as noun phras-es, -///£ forms and modal verbs, was confirmed as basiclinguistic knowledge necessary for effective reading inEnglish.
00-498 BougaTeff, Andre (Universite duQuebec a Trois-Rivieres, Canada; Email:[email protected]). Le plaisir de lireen frangais par internet. [The pleasure of reading inFrench through the Internet.l Computer AssistedLanguage Learning (Lisse, The Netherlands), 12,4(1999), 361-70.
This article describes a project designed to make sec-ond-language reading a less onerous and more pleasur-able activity than is usually the case. The author wasstruck by the cumbersome process of reading a second-language text for most students. Burdened with a dictio-nary and reference grammar, to which they are obligedto have frequent recourse, students often look uponreading assignments as a drudgery rather than as a plea-sure. In addition, they rarely find in their bilingual dic-tionary the contextual meaning of the word or phrasethey do not understand. Thus, it is argued, despite theirrecourse to the dictionary, their understanding of thetext remains only approximate. The article suggests thatcurrent computer technology and software have thepotential to allow the student to achieve this goal.
00-499 Carlisle, Anthony (Wen Tzao UrsulineJunior Coll. of Modern Languages, Kaohsiung,Taiwan; Email: [email protected]).Reading logs: an application of reader-responsetheory in ELT. ELT Journal (Oxford, UK), 54,1(2000), 12-19.
Reader-response theory is having a growing influenceon English as a Foreign Language (EFL) literature class-es. This article introduces the activity of student-writ-ten reading logs as a practical application of the theoryin EFL literature teaching. Since reader-response theo-ry stresses the synthesis between reader and text, so it isproposed that practical applications should be based onthis interaction. Students make notes in their readinglogs as they read a novel, setting down their thoughtsand feelings.This encourages them to interact with the
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