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1998

Leadership, gender, and division I athletics, a studyof athletes' needs based on genderCarol Knerr

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Recommended CitationKnerr, Carol, "Leadership, gender, and division I athletics, a study of athletes' needs based on gender" (1998). Honors Theses. 1202.https://scholarship.richmond.edu/honors-theses/1202

Leadership, Gender, and Division I Athletics A study of athletes' needs based on gender

By

Carol Knerr

Senior Project

Jepson School of Leadership Studies

University of Richmond

Richmond, Virginia

May,1998

Leadershig, Gender, and Division I Athletics A study of athletes' needs based on gender

Leadership Senior Project Carol Knerr

April 13, 1998

Contents

Introduction & Literature Review 1

Methods 12

Results 16

Discussion 38

Appendix I 42

Appendix II 43

Appendix Ill 44

Bibliography 45

Introduction

Athletics is a significant area where leadership can be observed and studied.

Through my experience in athletics up to the college level, I have noticed that coaches

coach differently depending on if they are coaching male or female athletes. For

example, I have noticed that coaches of male sports teams sometimes yell, scream,

and directly insult their players in order to motivate them. This technique seems to

work for the men but generally might not be as successful for female athletes. This is

simply an observation that is not backed up by research. Some research has been

done on different issues about gender and athletics. This research Is discussed in the

Literature Review section. However, there has not been a significant amount of

research conducted on the needs male and female athletes have of their coaches, and

what coaching styles are effective for each particular gender. Many coaches are

always looking for ways in which they can improve at their job. Discovering certain

coaching styles which are effective for athletes based on their gender is one way a

coach can improve. If the coach is more in tune with the needs of his/her athletes, the

athletes are more likely to receive a coaching style that they prefer. For this reason, I

decided to conduct research to identify the needs that athletes have of their coaches

based on the athletes' gender. Furthermore, I conducted a survey that was designed

to measure some of the components in Chetladurai's Multidimesional Model of Sport

Leadership. The results allowed me to evaluate the usefullness of the model.

In order to review the literature, I first look at and evaluate the empirical

research and the prescriptive research related to gender, coaching and leadership.

Then I review the one piece of literature that is the most closely related to the topic at

hand. Finally, I discuss leadership theories that relate to the literature on gender and

athletics.

Literature Review

In the contemporary study of leadership, there are many accepted definitions of

leadership. One popular definition by Roach and Behling (1984) states that

leadership is "the process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its

goals1

' .1 Leadership can be observed in many different situations, from the work

place, to the classroom, to the athletic field. Within these situations, there is always a

leader/follower relationship. The leader/follower, or coach/athlete relationship in

athletics is unique to any other situation of leadership. If a student fails in the

classroom the teacher can simply give him or her an "F" and eliminate further contact

with him or her. However, in athletics, the coach is continually in contact with players

who fail in many ways everyday. In athletics there is always a winner and a loser;

there is always a player who fails to score, fails to make the hit, or fails to make the free

throw. However, the coach needs to work with the athlete through these failures and

help guide the athlete to a more successful level. Until the athlete reaches the high

level Of skill, the coach must work through and live with the mistakes being made by

the athlete.2

The relationship between a coach and an athlete is a lot like the parent/child

relationship. Coach Jake Gaither, from Florida A&M College, described the player­

coach relationship as follows:

The coaching profession is right up there with ministers for the concern and influence they have on others. Coaches try to do what a lot of mamas and papas haven't done or won't do (32, p.37)

Dr. Arnold Beisser, in his book The Madness in Sports, points out that the father

and the coach play similar roles in our society, although the father generally has failed

1 Richard L. Hughes, Robert c. Ginnett, and Gordon J. Curphy, Leadership Enhancing the Lessons ofExperience (Burr Ridge: Library of Congress Cataloging, 1993. 2 Patsy E. Neal and Thomas A Tutko, Coaching Girls and Women. Psychological Perspectives (Boston:Allyn and Bacon, 1975) 143

to maintain a strict patriarchal structure, leaving the coach as the last stronghold "of the

archaic family structure." 3

Furthermore, in high level athletics, such as the NCAA Division I level, athletes

are required to spend copious amounts of time with their coach, probably more time

than they have with any other leader in their life at that time. College athletes spend

time together, not only on the field, but at meals, traveling to away games, running

clinics for young children, and many other things. In order for the athlete to be able to

participate in college athletics, he or she must be successful academically.

Furthermore, the athlete may have trouble preforming to his or her potential if he or

she is having a problem in his or her personal life. Because of these outside forces,

the coach may have to take on further roles such as Counselor, Organizer, Friend,

Planner, Supporter, Teacher and Tourist. All of these roles make the relationship

between a coach and an athlete unique to any other leader/follower relationship in

Western culture.

Many studies have been conducted on the issues of gender and athletics.

None of these studies are exactly like the one associated with this project; however,

they are all directly related to and give a general understanding of the subject.

In 1984, Weinberg, Reveles, and Jackson preformed a study to gather data

concerning the attitudes of male and female athletes towards male and female

coaches. The results showed that "males displayed more negative attitudes toward

female coaches than did females while males and females did not differ in their view of

male coaches." The authors suggest this finding may be due to the fact that the

background of males in competitive sports emphasizes that competitiveness and

masculinity are compatible whereas femininity and competitiveness are not

compatible. Essentially, at the time it was not considered appropriate for women to be

3 Neat & Tutko. 144.

competing, coaching, and performing in a man's domain. 4

A 1989 study by Eitzen and Pratt showed that there is little difference in

coaching philosophy between male and female coaches. The only difference found

was that female coaches were sometimes on the more "traditional'' side. One

explanation given for this occurance is that mate coaches of female teams may be less

demanding of their female athletes than are female coaches because they do not take

women's sports seriously, thereby reinforcing the societal stereotype that male

activities are more important than female activities. Women coaches, on the other

hand, may be more likely to take their coaching much more seriously because it is one

of the few areas where women can prove thelr worth in competitive situations.s

In a 1985 study, Officer and Rosenfeld found that male and female athletes

would disclose different information to their coaches based on their gender. Topics of

disclosure to female coaches were concerned primarily with self-concept development

and role clarification, whereas topics of disclosure to male coaches were concerned

primarily with school matters and interaction with significant males. In addition, the

researchers found that although amount of disclosure to the female coach was

positively correlated with the athlete's disclosure to strangers, disclosure to the male

coach was positively correlated with her disclosure to friends. s

In 1995, Weinberg & Gould wrote that practice and research have identified

some consistent themes and concerns that motivate female athletes. Coaches should

understand these themes when trying to facilitate an optimal environment for females

to achieve excellence both on and off the playing field. They urge coaches to

4 Weinberg, R. Reveles, M.m and Jackson, A.. "Attitudes of Male and Female Athletes Toward Mate and Female Coaches,· Journal of Sport Psychology 6 (1984): 448-452. 5 D. Eitzen and S. Pratt. "Gender Differences In Coaching Philosophy: The Case of Female Basketball Teams: Research WuarterlvtorExercise and Sport so {1989) 152-158. 6 S.A. Officer and L.B. Rosenfeld, "Self-Disclosure to Male and Female Coaches by Female High School Athletes.· Journal ot Sport Psychology 7 (1985) 360.

recognize that female athletes:

-value friendship and camaraderie,

-cooperate with and support each other, and focus on team unity,

-value personal improvement over winning,

-have realistic views of their capabilities,

-tend to be sensitive to teammates' feelings and willing to share feelings,

-respond best to a democratic coach,

-work hard to achieve personal and team goals,

-need to have their self-confidence nurtured, not attacked,

-like to estabfish personal relationships with coaches,

-prefer coaches who are empathic and communicate openly, and

-respond better to positive feedback rather than criticism. 7

This prescriptive literature added to the knowledge of effective coaching techniques for

female athletes because it gave coaches guidelines as to what female athletes value.

However. this topic has still not been studied to a great length.

The chapter entitled •• Leading Women Athletes", by Anson Dorrance, in his

book Building Soccer Cbampjons , is the piece of literature that relates best to the

topic at hand. This chapter presents one man ts observations about coaching female

verses mate athletes and what leadership styles are the most effective with each

group. He writes that men's style of leadership is a hierarchical style, a very top-to­

bottom command structure. A woman's style is more like a network. Women lead by

connecting with everyone in the organization, rather than simply those around them in

the hierarchical structure. This is very important when coaching a female team. All the

players on the team have to feel like they have a unique personal connection with the

coach. It seems like a male leadership style is enacted through status, memorandum

7 Robert Weinberg & Daniel Gould, Foundations of Boon anct Emmhse PaYSbolggv. Champaign: Human Kinetics, 1995) 221.

and intimidation. The great leaders and consistently successful coaches of men, are

strong personalities who lead with a powerful presence and will. Their effectiveness

comes through their resolve. Yet with women, a coach's effectiveness is established

through his/her ability to relate. Female athletes have to feel that you care about them

personally or have some kind of connection with them beyond the game. Women

want to experience a coach's humanity. To motivate men you usually have to demand

things from them. To be an effective leader of a men's team you do not need to have a

personal rapport with the players as long as you have their respect. However, with a

women's team, the coach needs to have both respect and a personal rapport with the

athletes. Dorrance suggests that women need to feel as though their coach cares

about them beyond their athletic capabilities. s

Furthermore, Dorrance claims that women listen more to the tone of the coach,

than to what he or she is saying. If the tone or body language is negative, the athlete

will see the message as negative, no matter the content of the verbal message.

Therefore, when coaching female athletes, it is important for a coach to have a positive

approach, even ifs/he is being critical.9

According to Dorrance, another aspect that is different between male and

female athletes is the use of videotape to help athletes learn. When male athletes are

watching their performance on tape, they think that everyone else made mistakes

except them. However. female athletes will take full responsibility for any problems

revealed on the tape, which does not help build their self-confidence. When using

video tape to improve the performance of female athletes, you need to balance the

negative with the positive. With male athletes, you have to show the video, and

convince each person that he was the one who made a mistake.10

a Dorrance, Anson. Building Soccer Champions. 64.65 9 Dorrance, Anson. 66

10 Dorrance, Anson. 67

In summary, the author's discussion in this chapter suggests distinct differences

between the way males and females coach and between the needs of male and

female athletes. Unfortunately, however, no empirical support is offered for the

recommendations he presents.

There are many leadership models that give a framework for understanding

leadership, eg., the Trait Approach, the Behavioral Approach, the lnteractional

Approach, the Contingency Model and the Path-Goal Theory. These theories are

helpful in understanding leadership in non-sport settings such as business and the

military. However, they are not specific to athletics. Chelladurai developed the

Multidimensional Model of Leadership specifically for athletic situations. (See

Appendix 1) This model explains leadership as an interactional process. Chelladurai

argues that the effectiveness of the teader in sport is dependant upon situational

characteristics of both the leader and the group members. Therefore, effective

leadership can and will vary depending on the characteristics of the athletes and

constraints of the situation. According to Chelladurai, athlete satisfaction and

performance (box 7 in the figure) depend on three types of leader behavior: required

(box 4), preferred (box 6) and actual (box 5). The situation (box 1 }, leader (box 2), and

members (box 3) lead to these three kinds of behavior, so they are termed

antecedents.11

To explain this model in interactional terms, leader characteristics are the

personal factors, whereas characteristics of the situation and members are the

situation factors. Chelladurai hypothesizes that a positive outcome-that is optimal

performance and group satisfaction-occurs if the three aspects of leader behavior

agree. If the leader behaves appropriately for the particular situation and these

behaviors match the preferences of the group members, they will achieve the best

11 Weinberg & Gould, 221

performance and feel satisfied.12

Required leader behavior consists of the behavior expected of the leader in

certain situations. For example, social norms determine how a coach should act

around other coaches, reporters and spectators. Preferred leader behavior consists of

those behaviors that members want from the leader. Age, gender, skill, and

experience influence what kind of guidance, social support, and feedback they prefer.

For example, a senior captain of a sports team probably expects less guidance than

an incoming freshman. Actual leader behavior is simply the behaviors that the leader

exhibits, for example being considerate, or being democratic in decision making.

According to Chelladurai, the leader's characteristics, such as personality, ability, and

experience affect these behaviors directly. Characteristics of both the situation and

group members would influence the coaches_ 13

Researchers have applied Chelladurai's model in interesting ways to test its

accuracy and usefulness. The Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS) was developed to

measure leadership behaviors, including the athletes' preference for specific

behaviors, athletes' perceptions of their coaches' behaviors. and coaches' perceptions

of their own behavior. The LSS has five dimensions. It measures, 1.Training

(instructional behaviors), 2.Democratic behavior (decision-making style), 3.Autocratic

behavior (decision-making style), 4.Social support (motivational tendencies), and

5. Positive feedback (motivational tendencies). 1 4

Some studies have focused on the antecedents that affect leader behavior.

These studies have produced many insights, including the following:

-As people get older and mature athletically, they increasingly prefer an

12 Weinberg & Gould, 211. 13 Weinberg & Gould, 212. 14 Weinberg & Gould, 213,214.

autocratic coaching style. Thus, coaches of college athletes should adopt

a more autocratic style than high school coaches.

-Males prefer training and instruction behaviors and an autocratic coaching

style more than females do. Hence, coaches should be more directive with

males and provide plenty of instructional feedback.

-Females prefer a democratic and participatory coaching style allowing them to

help make the decisions. Coaches and other group leaders should allow

females opportunities for input.

-Athletes preference for training and instruction progressively decreases

throughout high school but increases again in college.1s

Other studies have focused on the consequences of leader behavior.

According to Chelladurai, when a coach leads in a style that matches group member

preferences, optimal performance and satisfaction result. Using Chelladurai's model

to study the consequences of how a sport leader behaves, researchers have found the

following:

·Athletes not receiving the coaching style they prefer clearly affects their

satisfaction. Especially with training and instruction and positive behaviors,

the greater the discrepancy, the less the satisfaction.

-The relationship between athlete satisfaction and leadership discrepancy varies

15 Weinberg & Gould, 214.

by sport. Leadership that could produce satisfaction among basketball

playerst for example, would not predict satisfaction among wrestlers and

track-and-field athletes. Clearly, if you value athlete satisfaction, you need

to identify the players' preferences for leadership style for the specific

activity.

-High frequencies of rewarding behavior, social support, and democratic

decision-making are generally associated with high satisfaction among

athletes.

-High frequencies of social support are related to poorer team performance

(i.e., win-loss record). However, it is unrelated that increased social support

causes a team to lost more. More likely, losing teams need more social support

from leaders to sustain motivation.

-When a coach reports developing the same decision styfe that his or her

athletes prefer and perceive, coaching effectiveness is rated highly. 1s

There has not been a significant amount of research conducted on the

relationship betWeen gender, coaching styles and needs of athletes. Some research

has been done on gender in athletics, but very study looks at a different aspect of

gender, none of which directly related to this study. For example, one study looks at

gender differences in coaching philosophy while another looks at self-disclosure of

female athletes. Studying gender in athletics can be very beneficial to coaches. If it

can be determined what styles and characteristics male and female athletes want from

their coaches, then coaches can have a strong framework to guide them in their

16 Weinberg & Gould. 214,215.

10

coaching. It is the goal of this study to find out the needs Of female athletes, regardless

of the coachs' gender.

Methods

This study sought to determine what needs female athletes have of their

coaches. This is a naturally occurring and contemporary phenomenon which I seeked

to describe. I used two research strategies to collect data: (1) a qualitative suivey with

the athletes, and (2) in-depth interviews with the coaches. My goal was to design a

survey that had high informational adequacy and efficiency. It was also important that I

considered ethical issues when I designed the survey. For example, l did not want to

design a survey that would violate the subject's human rights or put the subject at

risk. 17

As a focus of study, I collected data from athletic programs in the Colonial

Athletic Association (CAA). Among the schools in this group, four sports had the

highest gender diversity among coaches and therefore were picked to be the four

sports examined in this research. Since there were nine schools in the CAA, my goal

was to study a total or thirty six teams. As I was researching the teams in the CAA, I

discovered that there was no gender diversity among head coaches of men's teams.

All of the head coaches were males. This discovery led me to refocus my study

specifically on female sports teams. I chose the teams that had the highest gender

diversity of head coaches. The four sports that I studied were women's basketball,

women's cross county, women's soccer and women's tennis.

In order to collect data from the coaches, I used in-depth interviewing. Eleven

phone interviews were conducted, however. they were only included for analysis if the

respective team sent back their surveys. Therefore, eight interviews were included in

the research. Since I planned on interviewing about thirty six coaches, my interviews

required some degree of systematization. Appendix A presents the "Coaching

Questionnaire0 that was the guide for my interviews. However, given the exploratory

17 Marshall, C.,& Rossman. G. (1989). Designing OuaHtatjye Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.:101 12

nature of this study, and the need for flexibility, as the study progressed, I reserved the

right to identify additional relevant themes to explore with respondents. Each question

in the phone interview was designed to relate to different parts of Chelladurai's

Multidimensional Model of Sport Leadership. When the interview was constructed, I

was not exactly sure how I would use the answers in my study. I knew I would use

questions 11 and 12, however I was not sure how the other questions would fit into the

study. I thought that I should ask questions that deal with every past of Chelladurai's

model to make sure that all of the areas were covered. It turned out that the only

relevant questions were 8 and 1 1-16. These questions measured what coaches

though differences were between male and female athletes and different coaching

styles they would use for both genders. The answers were listed in the Results section

along with the number of years respondents reported coaching and playing their sport,

the number of years they have coached maand female athletes, and the satisfaction

ratings given to them by members of their specific team. This information was given to

illustrate the level of experience each coach has. For example, more weight could be

put on an answer from a coach that was rated by his team as being satisfied "to a large

extent'' and had coached male and female athletes for 15 years than a coach who was

rated by his team as being satisfied "to some extent" and had coached only women for

5 years.

To collect data from the athletes, I administered a self-report survey. I chose my

sample from the Colonial Athletic Association (CAA). From this conference I chose the

4 women's teams that had variability in the gender of the coach. These teams are

women's basketball, soccer, cross country and tennis. One hundred and twenty eight

surveys were sent out to athletes on twenty teams in the CAA. Some teams could not

participate for various reasons, and some teams failed to return their surveys. Sixty­

nine surveys were returned for a 54% response rate. They represented eight teams.

In this case, a survey was the best method because of its generalizability. The CAA

was only a small sample, but could be generalized to the entire institution of Division I

athletics (within the known limits of error, for example, specific to the four sports used

in thts study). Appendix B presents the survey that was administered to the athletes.

One goal of this study was to fill in two of the pieces of the puzzle in

Chelladurai's Multidimensional Model of Sport Leadership. Two of the sections in his

model are member characteristics and preferred leader behavior. Gender is a

member characteristic. I wanted to figure out if the gender of the athlete would

automatically dictate what some of the preferred leader behavior would be. Therefore,

if a coach wished to use Chelladurai's model, they could already know what leader

characteristics are favored simply by knowing the gender of their athletes.

Another purpose of this study was to test Chelladurai's hypothesis about his

model that "a positive outcome-that is, optimal performance and group satisfaction­

occurs if the three aspects of a leader behavior agree."1a Testing of the hypothesis

was done through the written surveys. Every question in the survey was designed tor

a certain reason. Each question asked the athletes about the extent to which their

coach actually exhibited certain behaviors, and the extent to which they would prefer

their coach to exhibit certain behaviors. These behaviors were picked based on

Chelladurai's Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS) as discussed in the literature review.

Question 1 dealt with Training. Questions 2 and 3 dealt with Democratic and

Autocratic Behavior. Questions 4, 7, and 8 dealt with Social Support, and Question 6

dealt with Positive Feedback. Question 5 dealt with Required Characteristics of

Leader Behavior. This survey measured the three types of Leader Behavior in

Chelladurai's modeL After these data were collected, I compared the differences

between Preferred and Actual behavior and their association with the level of

18 Weinberg & Gould, 221

14

performance and satisfaction.

Questions 11 and 12 were asked in order to discover what qualities athletes like

about their current coaches and what qualities they desire from any coach. These

questions were open-ended. Once the answers were collected, they were categorized

based on commonalities in the responses. Then they were organized into a table

based on the frequency each answer was given.

Results

The main goal of this project was 10 discover·the needs that female athletes

have of their coaches. Questions 11(1n your opinion, what are the best qualities of

your current head coach?) and 12(Please list at least five of 1he most important

qualities you desire from any DMsion I coach) were asked in the survey rn order to

discover these needs. In order to organize -the answers. I looked for commonalities in

the responses and classified them into specific categories. The following is a list of

every category, (in no particular order) along with an operational definition and

examples of responses that fit into each category.

1 )PosHive- stresses the good in a situation.

ex.positive, optimistic, positive feedback, positive attitude, positive outlook,

positive reinforcement.

2)Falr- treats everyone equally and follows the rules.

ex. fairness, equal treatment, un-bias.

3)Motlvattona·l-pushes you to want to work your hardest.

ex.motivating, encouraging, tnspiring.

4)Determlned-focused on achieving one's goals.

ex.determined.

5)Hard Working-works hard at the task at hand.

ex.hard working, works hard.

6)Knowledge-understands aspects of the sport, such as strategies and techniques.

ex.knowledge, insightful in sport, knowledge of game, inteltigent in the game.

7)1mprove players-works to improve the performance of players.

ex. helps players improve, pushes players to improve, tries to make us better.

8}Trust- having a firm belief in the honesty, integrity, reliability, etc. of the coach.

ex. trust, trusting, trustworthy

9)Carlng-to show care, concern, and interest in others.

ex.caring, compassionate, concern, supportive, sensitive, sincere.

1 O)Sense of humor-finds things funny, is not always serious.

ex. sense of humor, humorous.

11)Enthuslastlc-energetic and arouses the interests of others.

ex.enthusiastic, enthusiasm for the game, excited.

12)Intense-serious and focused.

ex.Intense

13)Good Listener-has and applies good listening skills.

ex.good listener, listens, gets feedback from the team, ability to listen.

14)Good Communicator-has and applies good communication skills.

ex.good communicator, excellent communication skills, communicates,

communicates effectively with team, easy to communicate with.

1 S)Patlent-waits calmly for athlete to grow.

ex.patient, has patience.

16)Understandlng-has a sympathetic awareness of athletes.

ex.understanding, understands psyche of team, understanding of problems

outside sport.

17)Dedtcated-willing to devote time and effort.

ex.dedicated, dedication to team.

18)Competltlve-likes to compete against others.

ex.competitive.

19)Honest-tells the truth.

ex. honest, honesty.

20)Respect-to show consideration for others.

ex. respect, respectful.

33)A pproachable-easy to talk to.

ex.approachable, easy to talk to.

34)Flexlble--can easily adjust to change and different situations.

ex.flexible.

35)Lald back•relaxed, not easily disturbed.

ex.laid back.

36)Serlous-very focused, does not joke.

ex.serious

Once these categories were established, I was able to develop lists of the top ten

qualities given for answers 11 and 12. The lists for Top Ten Quallties of Current Head

Coach were analyzed for: all athletes, athletes with male coaches, athletes with female

coaches, male athletes, female athletes, and the four individual sports used in this

study. Qualities were only listed if they had a frequency of at least two. Therefore, in

some cases 1 0 qualities were not available to be listed. The results of this analysis

are reported in Table 1. In turn, Table 2 reports the lists for Top Ten Desired Qualities

of any Division I coach tabulated to all athletes, male athletes, female athletes, and the

fou specific sports.

19

Table l

Joo Jen Qui!Uie§ of current Head C@ch

AH Athletes Quality 1. Knowledge2.Caring3. Motivational4. Improves Players5.Positive6.Organized7.Builds Relationships with players8. Understanding9.lntense1 O.Good Listener

Athletes w1tn Male coaches Quality 1. Knowledge2.Caring3. Motivational4. Improves Players5.Positive6. Understanding7.Hard Workinga.Good Listener9. Focuses on Success

10.Builds Relationships with players

Athletes with Femnle Coaches auolity 1.Knowledge2.Organized3.Caring4.Positive5. Motivational6.lntense7.Builds Relationships with playersa.Improves Players9.Good Communicator10.Fun

Eregueocy 24

17 12

11 9 7 6

5

5 4

Fr(jgyen!t_Y 16 11 9 8

5 4 3 3 3 3

Ecegueas,,y 8 7 6

4

3

3 3

3 2

2

Male Athletes auality 1.Caring2. Knowledge

Female Athletes Quality 1.Knowledge2.Caring3.Motivational4.1 mp roves Players5.Positive6. Organized7. Builds Relationships with Players8. Understanding9.lntense10.Good Listener

Tennis Teams Quality 1. Organized2.Positive3. Knowledge4. Good Listener5. Understanding6.Builds Relationships with Players7. Approachable8.Laid Back9.Caring

Basketball Teams Quality 1.Knowledge2.Fair3. Improves Players4. Focuses on Success

Frequency 2 2

Frequency 22 15 12 11 8 7 6

5

5

4

FreguenGy 4 3 3

3

3

3 2

2 2

Frequency 5 3 2

2

21

Cross Country Teams Quality 1.Caring2. Knowledge3.Positlve4. Organized5.Good Communicator6.Teamwork7.Good Personality

Soccer Teams Quality 1.Knowledge2. Motivational3. Improves Players4.Caring5.lntense6.Positive7.Hard Workinga.Demanding

Fregyency 7 5

3 3

2

2

2

Freguency 11 10

8 5 4

3

3

3

Table 2

Top Ten Desired Qualities of any Division I Coach

All Athletes Quality 1 . Motivational 2.Caring3.Positive4.Knowledge5. Improves Players6.Patience7 .Good Communicator8-Fair9.Good Listener10.Builds Relationships with Players

Male Athletes Quality 1.Caring2.Patient3.Competitive4.Experience

Female Athletes Quality 1. Motivational2.Caring3.Positive4.Knowledge5. Improves Players6.Patience7.Good Communicator8.Fair9.Good Listener10.Builds Relationships with Players

Freguency 24 22

19

19

14

13

10 9 8

8

Freguency 2 2 2 2

Frequency 24 20

19 19

14

11

10

9 8

8

23

Tennis Jeam1 auaiit;y 1. Motivational2.lmproves Players3.Positive4.Fair5. Knowledge6. Good Listener7. Builds Relationships with Players8. Enthusiastic9. Understanding10.Honest

Basketball T earns QYiilitY 1.Caring2. Knowledge3. Improves Players4.Good Communicator5. Discipline6. Focuses on Success

Qro,as CountrY T1ams Quality 1.Caring2. Motivational3.Patient4.Knowledge5.Good Communicator6.Competitive7.Teamwork8. Leadership9.Good Personality

Ereauency 6

6

5

5

4

4

4

3

3

3

Fregueow 7

2

2

2

2

2

Freguency 7

7

5

3

3

3

3

3

3

Soccer Teams Quality 1.Positive2. Motivational3. Knowledge4.Patient5. Improves Players6.Caring7.Focuses on Success8.Fun9.Good Personality10.Good Communicator

Frequency 11 10 10 8

5 5

4

4

4

3

25

Phone Interviews with Coaches

The questions in the phone interviews that turned out to be of the greatest

importance were questions 8, and 11-16 (refer to Appendix ti). They were the most

important because they supplied information about the needs of female athletes. The

results are as follows:

Coach 111

Gender: Female

Degree to which team is satisfied with coach: Some Extent

8) 4.2

11)" Male and female athletes would be physically treated the same. Their emotional

needs are different. Women are more personal, they need their coach to be their

friend. That is not as important with the guys. I won't recruit an athlete, if the people on

the team don't like her. This is not an issue with guys."

12) "I would train the athletes the same. However, I would relate to guys in a different

way. You have to learn how to talk differently."

13) 4

14) 22

15) 0

16) 22

Coach #2

Gender: Male

Degree to which team is satisfied with coach: Great Extent

8) 5 with room for improvement

11) "I would treat them the same."

26

12) "I would treat them the same."

13) 9

14) 13

15) 13

16) 13

Coach #3

Gender: Female

Degree to which team is satisfied with coach: Great Extent

8)4

11) "I'm not sure if they have different needs. Division I male and female athletes have

the same pressure. Males and females have different learning styles. Females want

more discussion while males just want to be told what to do."

12) "I would not change anything."

13) 11

14) 4

15) 3

16) 10

Coach #4

Gender: Male

Degree to which team is satisfied with coach: Great Extent

8) 3.5

11) "I think all of the needs are the same. The way you go about achieving the needs

is where it becomes different. There is a need for more compassion in the women's

end. However, at the same time, they're the group that I've observed that does not like

to sit back. They're the ones who would rather be pushed harder compared to men.

think the females seem to constantly look at things as a way to do better many more

times than a guy would. I think the overall mental approach is different. We keep it fun

and teach players to compete when dealing with women. It's innate in men to

compete, but with two girls you have to teach them to compete. The girls are just as

competitive if not more than the guys, you just have to get women past the social

barriers that exist between females on the same team. They don't want their teammate

not to like them if they beat them. They have to learn that it's ok on the field, and it's

over when you're off the field. I teach that by trying to put the team in competitive

environments at all times. We keep statistics and make sure that they realize the

importance of competitiveness. I think the differences are subtle in the collegiate

athlete."

12) Dealing with conflict - "The guys, you just call them in, stare each other down and

say .. Knock it off". You take a different approach with the women. I would approach

the females individually and put it back on them to deal with. Then their maturity kicks

in and they work it out."

13) 13

14) 3

15) 3

16) 3

Coach HS

Gender: Male

Degree to which team is satisfied with coach: Some Extent

8)3

11) "With women you have to be more aware of their feelings. With men, you can

Motivate- "With men you can be more confrontational and tougher. Men would

take an insult as a challenge. You can use more negative comments and be more

straight forward. With women you have to tell them that you believe in them."

Teach- "With men, I would give more structure and talk more openly about their

weaknesses. With women, I would focus on positives. I would be hesitant to throw in

any negative comments. I would be just as tough with the females because I put more

responsibility on them."

13) 30+

14) 15

15) 5

16) 20

Table 3 Overall Data from Written Surveys

Preferred Variable Mean SD Item 1 4. 73 0.45 Item 2 4.03 0.83 Item 3 4.00 0.78 Item 4 4.49 0.59 Item 5a 4.29 0. 70Item 5b 4.19 0.73Item 5c 4.55 0.53Item 5d 4.27 0.72Item 6 4.38 0.60Item 7 3.96 0. 71Item 8 4.26 0.87Item 9 4.77 0.42Item 10 4.72 0.55Variable Mean so Age 19.5 2.23 Gender 1.07 0.26 Year in sch. 2.12 1.12 Team# 2.01 1.05 Yrs. Played 10.3 3.65 Captain 1.83 0.38 Skill 2.29 0.55 Starter 1.10 0.30 Coach Gen. 1.65 0.48

Actual

Mean fill 4.20 0.87 3.34 1.10 3.58 0.98 4.00 0.91 3.99 0.95 3.59 1.15 4.14 0.92 4.13 3.67 0.97 3.68 0.90 3.72 1.11 4.01 0.90 3.07 0.74

Difference Mean SD 0.68 0.88 0.69 0.90 0.41 0.84 0.46 0.75 0.27 0.69 0.58 1.02 0.39 0.89 0.27 0.69 0.71 0.96 0.27 0.85 0.55 0.92 0.76 0.86 1.68 0.88

Differences between Preferred and Actual Responses and their Association with Satisfaction with Coach and Satisfaction with Self.

'able 4

�II Surveys

Vari0bl� Cases Mean Stg.D�v.

Diff.lt.1 66 1.68 .880 Diff.lt.2 65 0.69 .990 Diff.lt.3 66 0.41 .841 Diff.lt.4 65 0.46 .752 Diff.lt.5a 66 0.27 .692

Diff.lt.5b 64 0.58 1.021 Diff.lt.5c 62 0.39 .894 Diff.lt.5d 66 0.27 .692 Diff.lt.6 66 0.71 .957 Dlff.lt.7 67 0.27 .845 Diff.lt.8 65 0.55 .919

Table 5 Female Coaches

Vs1riabl� Cases M�an Std. Dev.

Diff.lt.1 23 1.74 .915 Diff.lt.2 23 0.65 .832

Diff.lt.3 24 0.17 .868 Diff.lt.4 23 0.43 .896 Diff.lt.5a 23 0.09 .596

Diff.lt.5b 23 0.00 .522 Diff.lt.5c 20 0.35 .988

Diff.lt.5d 23 0.09 .596

Diff.lt.6 24 0.50 1.063 Diff.lt.7 24 0.63 .924 Diff.lt.8 24 0.63 1.135

SstisfactiQn w/ �osch r-v�tue g-value-.07 P<.57-.54 f)<.001 -.40 p<.001 -.36 P<.003 -.28 p<.02 -.30 P<.02 -.64 p<.001 -.28 J)<.02 -.63 J)<.001 -.21 p<.10 -.66 p<:.001

satisfaction wtcoach r-value Q-v01ue-.25 p<.26-.69 p<.001-.32 p<.13-.65 p<:.001-.31 p<.15-.08 p<.71-.79 P<.001-.31 P<.15-.82 f)<.001 -.70 P<,001 -.71 p<:.001

Satisfaction wt §elf r-vel!Je Q-V§IU�-.82 P<.001-.11 p<.38

.08 P<.51 -.12 p<.40 -.15 P<.24

.00 µ<.99 -.02 p<.90 -.15 P<,24 -.15 p<.23 -.22 JX.07 -.13 p<.30

SatisfactiQn w/self r-value g-value-.87 p<.001 -.15 p<.51 -.07 p<.75 -.28 p<.21 -.11 p<.63 -.24 p-<.29 -.12 P<.63 -.11 p<.63 -.40 f)<.06 -.40 JX.06 -.05 f)<.81

Table 6

Male Coaches

variable Cases Mean Stg.Q�v. Satisfactioa w/coach Satisfs1ction w[�lf ravalue 12-valu� r-value 12-valy�

Diff. lt.1 43 1.65 .870 .04 P<.78 -.79 p<.001Diff.lt.2 42 0.71 .945 -.46 p<.002 -.10 p<.54Diff. lt.3 42 0.55 .803 -.44 P<,004 .15 p<.34 Diff.lt.4 42 0.48 .671 -.09 p<.57 .01 p<.98 Diff.lt.5a 43 0.37 .725 -.25 pc:.10 -.20 p<.21 Diff.lt.5b 41 0.90 1.091 -.39 P<,01 -.01 p<.93 Diff.lt.5c 42 0.40 .857 ·.52 p<.001 -.04 p<.81 Diff.lt.5d 43 0.37 .725 -.25 p<.10 -.20 p<.21 Diff.lt.6 42 0.83 .881 -.45 p<.003 -.01 p<.94 Diff.lt.7 43 0.07 .737 ·.12 p<.43 .10 p<.53 Diff.lt.8 41 0.51 .779 -.64 p<.001 -.19 p<.24

Table 7

Male Athletes

Vsris)bl� C§s�s Mean Std.D�v. Satistact!Qn w/coa�h S9ti§fa�tion w[�lf r-value �-value r-value 1,2-valu�

Oiff.lt.1 5 1.40 1.342 .41 p<.5 •.67 p<.22 Dlff.lt.2 5 -0.40 1.517 -.66 p<.22 -.52 J)<.37 Diff.lt.3 5 0.00 .000

Diff.lt.4 5 0.00 .000 Oiff.lt.5a 5 0.40 .894 -.41 p<.5 -.10 p<.001 Diff.lt.5b 5 0.00 .000 Diff.lt.5c 5 0.00 .000 Diff.lt.5d 5 0.40 .894 -.41 p<.5 -.10 p<.001 Diff.lt.6 5 0.40 .548 .17 p<.79 -.61 p<.27 Diff.lt.7 5 0.00 .000

Diff.lt.8 5 0.00 .000

35

Table 8 Female Athletes

Varigbl� Cases Mean Std.Dev.

Diff.lt.1 61 1.70 .844 Diff.lt.2 60 0.78 .783 Diff.lt.3 61 0.44 .867 Diff. lt.4 60 0.50 .770 Diff.lt.Sa 61 0.26 .681 Diff.lt.Sb 59 0.63 1.049 Diff. It.Sc 57 0.42 .925 Diff.lt.5d 61 0.26 .681 Diff .lt.6 61 0.74 .982 Diff.lt.7 62 0.29 .876 Diff.lt.8 60 0.60 .942

Table 9 Athletes with Average skill

Variabl� Qases Mean Stg.�ev.

Diff. lt.1 41 1.73 .975 Diff. lt.2 39 0.67 .927 Diff. lt.3 40 0.38 .740 Diff.lt.4 40 0.50 .751 Diff. lt.Sa 40 0.35 .662 Diff.lt.5b 38 0.53 .951 Diff.lt.5c 38 0.34 .781 Diff.lt.5d 40 0.35 .662 Diff.lt.6 40 0.70 .912 Diff. lt.7 41 0.15 .760 Diff.lt.8 39 0.54 .790

Sgti§fa�tiQD w/coa�m r-value g-v�lye-.09 p<.48-.55 p<.001 -.39 p<.002 -.35 p<.006 -.29 p<.03 -.29 p<.03 -.64 p<:.001 -.29 p<.03 -.64 p<.001 -.20 p<.11 -.66 p<:.O01

�atisfactiQn w/coaQh r-val!Je Q-Vgl!iJ8-.00 p<.99 -.48 P<,002 -.07 p<.67 -.28 P<,09 -.43 p,<.006 -.30 pc:::.08 -.46 p<.003 -.43 pc:::.006 -.48 P<,002 -.16 p<.316 -.56 P<,001

36

Sati�fsictiQn w/§�lf r-value Q-val!iJ�-.87 p<.001-.14 p<.28-.07 p<.60-.13 p<.32 -.10 p<.45 -.02 p<.89 -.03 p<.82 -.10 p<:.45 -.15 p<.25 -.24 pc.07 -.16 p<.23

SatisfactiQD w/self r-value Q·Vglye -.81 P<,001 -.02 p<:.89 .25 p<.11 .04 J)<.79 .00 p<.10 .06 pc:::.74 .08 P<,65 .00 P<-1 .01 p<.93

-.24 p<.13 .00 pc:::1. 0

Table 10

Athletes with Above Average Sklll

V§ri§ble Case§ Mean Std,D�v. SatisfactiQ□ w/coaQh Sati�faQ.tiQn w/s�lf r-valy� Q-value r-value �-value

Diff. lt.1 22 1.64 .727 -.22 P<.32 -.88 p<.001 Diff. lt.2 22 o.n .022 -.69 p<.002 -.37 p<.09 Diff.lt.3 22 0.45 1.057 -.69 p<.001 -.22 p<.34 Diff. lt.4 22 0.45 .800 -.48 P<.03 -.37 p<.09 Diff.lt.5a 22 0.14 .774 -.23 J)<.30 -.33 p<.13 Diff.lt.5b 22 0.73 1.203 -.29 p<.19 -.10 p<.68 Diff. lt.5c 21 0.57 1.076 -.76 p<.001 -.03 p<.91 Diff. lt.5d 22 0.14 .774 -.23 p<.30 .09 p<.68 Diff.lt.6 22 0.82 1.097 -.78 p<.001 .27 p<.22 Diff.lt.7 22 0.55 .546 -.21 p<.35 .35 p<.11 Diff.lt.8 22 0.59 1.182 -.74 p<.001 .10 p<.67

37

Discussion

Once again, the main goal of this project was to determine the qualities that

female athletes desire from their coaches. This list of qualities would hopefully be

useful to coaches of female athletes. Furthermore, this list would help fill in box 3 and

6 of Chelladurai's Multidimentional Model of Leadership. If you know that the athletes

are females, then you know the behavior they prefer from their coach. This goal was

easily obtained through the written surveys. The results showed that the top ten

qualities female athletes prefer of their coaches are:

1. Knowledge

2.Caring

3.Motivational

4. Improves Players

5.Positive

6. Organized

7. Builds Relationships with Players

8. Understanding

9.lntense

1 o. Good Listener

Therefore, the question was answered. If a coach has female athletes1 it is suggested

that s/he practice these ten behaViors. Fortunately, the study also showed that athletes

reported that their coaches already exhibit 7 out of 10 (or 70%) of the top 10 qualities,

which says the coaches are on target to a large degree.

Since this data was collected from both male and female athletes with both

male and female coaches. and from four different sports, the top ten qualities desired

from a coach can be found for all of these different categories and compared with teh

top ten qualities already exhibited by coaches.

The data collected in the phone interviews with the coaches tells us a lot abOut

what the coaches think male and female athletes need in terms of coaching style.

There were no significant differences in the answers based on the gender of the

coaches. The overall differences explained by the coaches were that female athletes

need positive feedback in order to be motivated and improve, while male athletes

respond to harsh statements about their play, and take it as a challenge to improve.

Furthermore, women deal with conflict by discussing it with each other and can tend to

hold grudges. Sometimes coaches need to get involved to help solve the conflict.

However, with males the coach can just tell them to deal with it. and they yell at each

other and then forget about it. These differences are interesting and can help a coach

when dealing with both male and female athletes.

The first ten questions in the written surveys uncovered a large amount of

information about how a coach's behavior is related to an athlete's satisfaction with his

or her own performance, and satisfaction with her or her coach.

One very interesting finding is apparent in all of the surveys except the one by

male athletes. The finding is that the extend to which a coach works to improve an

athlete's performance to the desired degree of the athlete, is directly related to the

athlete's satisfaction with himhierself. The magnitude of this relationship is very large

and is statistically significant. The interesting finding is that this is the only behavior of

the coach which is related to an athlete's satisfaction with him/herself. This tells

coaches that there is not a whole lot they can do to make athletes feel better about

themselves unfess they can make the athletes improve.

The athletes' satisfaction with their coach, on the other hand, is related to almost

all of the factors. For all the surveys combined, the factors that stand out the most are

questions 2, 5c, 6 and 8. Question 2 dealt with involving athletes in the decision

making process on the field. The magnitude of the relationship is large and

statistically significant. This means that the level to which a coach involves athletes in

the decision making process on the field, to a degree they desire, is greatly related to

the athletes' satisfaction with their coach. Since the preferred mean was 4. 03, it is

recommended that coaches give athletes a great extent of involvement in the decesion

making process on the field. Question 5c tells us that the extent to which a coach

maintains a positive rapport with his/her assistant coach(es), to the degree desired by

the athletes, is highly related to the athletes' satisfaction with their coach. Most

athletes desire that coaches maintain a positive rapport with assistant coach(es} to a

very large extent. Thirdly, the extent to which coaches give athletes positive feedback,

to the degree desired by the athletes, is highly related to the athletes' satisfaction with

the coach. Most athletes desire a large amount of positive feedback. Finally, the

extent to which coaches place value on the experience of participating, to the degree

desired by the athletes, is highly related to the athletes' satisfaction with the coach.

Most athletes desire that coaches place a great of value on the experience of

participating.

The results from the surveys taken by athletes with female coaches were similar

to the results of the overall data. However, there were two other highly related and

statistically significant areas. One area is the degree to which your coach shows

concern for your personal welfare outside of your sport. The degree to which the

coach acts in a way the athletes desire, is highly related to the athletes' satisfaction

with the coach.

The results of the surveys taken by male athletes were are difficult to generalize

about. Only five male athletes took the survey, and they results did not show any

strong relationships.

The results of this survey tell us a lot about Chelladural's Multidimensional

Model of Leadership. Chelladurai's hypothesis was that, "a positive outcome - that is,

optimal performance and group satisfaction - occurs if the three aspects of leader

behavior agree. If the leader behaves appropriately for the particular situation and

these behaviors match the preferences of the group members, they will achieve their

best performance and feel satisfied.n19 The biggest problem with this model is that

Chelladurai does not clearly define the term "performance satisfaction". This could

mean the athletes' satisfaction with their own performance, or with the performance of

the coach. If Chelladurai means with the performance of the athlete, then according to

my project, Chelladurai's model is very weak. According to my study, even if a coach

exhibits the correct Required, Actual, and Preferred behavior, the only factor that the

coach can influence in raising the satisfaction of an athlete, is in improving the

athletes' performance.

A weakness in Chelladurai's model is that he does not separate Performance

satisfaction into two categories: (1 )Satisfaction with self, and (2)Satisfaction with

coach.

This study was held back by some limitations. The sample size was limited to

four teams within one conference of the NCAA. There were only different ratios of

male and female coaches in four female sports. There were no female coaches of

male athletes. For this reason, the study was limited to Just studying female athletes.

There are many possibilities for future research that can be conducted on this

subject of gender in athletics. This same survey could be redistributed to a larger

sample size including male athletes. Then the results could be determined for what

needs male athletes have of their coaches. Then we would know what the different

needs are based on gender, or if there are any differences at all.

19 Weinberg & Gould, 211.

41

Appendix I

The multldlmslonal model of leadership for sport. Chellandural

Antecedents

1

2

3

Situational

characteristics

Leader

characteristics

Member

characteristics

Leader behavior

�f4 characteristics

5

6

Actual

behavior

Preferred

behavior

Consequences

............... 7

-----------------

Performance

satisfaction

Appendix II

Interview Questions for the coaches

1 )What are your best qualities as a coach?

2)What is your coaching style?

3)What strategies do you use to improve the performance of your players?

4)To what extent do you allow your players to participate in decision making?

on the field such as strategies, and off the field such as where the team will eat

dinner.

5)What do you feel are the preferences of your players in terms of what coaching

styles they prefer?

Do you adapt any part of your coaching to fit thei, preferences?

6)How would you describe your relationship with your players off the field? What sorts

of things do you like to know about your players on and off the field?

7)What do you think are the five most important qualities to have when coaching your

specific athletes'?

8)To what degree are you satisfied with your coaching performance? 1-5 5 is highest

9)1n what areas would you like to improve as a coach?

1 O)To what degree are you satisfied with your athletes performance? 1-5

11 )What types of needs do you think female athletes have that male athletes don't?

12)What do you do as a coach that might be different, if at all, when coaching female

verses male athletes?

in the specific situations of:

1.Decision Making

2.Dealing with Conflict

3.Motivating you athletes

4. Teaching your athletes

13)How many years have you participated as an athlete in your sport?

14)How many years have you been a division I coach in your sport?

15)How many years have you coached male athletes?

16)How many years have you coached female athletes?

�ppendix Ill

-his study is designed to discover attttudes and perception of college athletes about their ooaches, and the needs athletes have,f their coaches. Please take your time to fill out this survey to the best of your ability. There are no right or wrong answers. Themly thing that matters is what you think and feel. All of your answers will be anonymous. Please answer every question. Your>articipation is greatly appreciated. Thank You.

nstructions :iIease respond to the questions and statements listed below by checking one o1 the 1ollowing categories:

Answer cateaooes: VLE -to a very little extent LE -to a little extent SE -to some extent GE -to a great extent VGE -to a very great extent

,r each survey item you are asked to respond in two ways. The first category is labeled ·ACTUAL· and measures how your ach actually behaves. The second category is "PREFERRED· and measures how you wish your coach would behave. Please ,fy mark one answer for each category.

,r example. if you felt that your coach placed winning over everything else, but you wish your coach placed more of an ,phasis on playing well then on winning, you might respond as follows:

ACTUAL PREFERRED � .LE s.E GE YGf I Y'..l..f. LE Sf � YGE

_:. 1. To what extent does your coach value winning? ____ _x_ _ _x_ __ _

·--------------------··----..-... ----·-------------------� __ , ______ . __ . ____ .,. __

=>tease use the following stem to answer questions 1-8: To what extent does your coach .... 1) ... work to improve your performance?

2) ... involve you in the decision making process on thefield (ex.strategies, practice format)?

3) .. .involve you in the decision making process off thefield (ex.team meals, team activities)?

4) ... show concern for your personal welfare outside ofyour sport?

5) ... maintain a posi1ive rapport with:-Parents-Officials-his/her Assistant COach(es)-Coaches of other teams

6) ... give you positive feedback?

7) ... place vaJue on winning?

B) ... place value on the experience ofparticipating?

Please evaluate the following statements. 9) I am satisfied with mycoach'sperforrnance.

10) I am satisfied with my own performance.

ACTUAL PREFERRED

Y.LE � .s_e GE � � 1E Sf GE YG_f

3Iease answer questions 11 & 12 in the spaces provided. : 1. In your opinion, what are the best qualities of your current head coach?

!. Please list at least five of the most important qualities you desire from any Division I coach.

ease fill out the following.

Age: ___ _

2)Gender (circle one): Female Male

3)What Division 1 sport do you participate tn? __________ _

4)What year are you in school?(circle one) First Second Third Fourth Fifth

S)How many years have you played on this college team? __ _

S)Approximately how many years have you played this sport in your entire life? ___ _

?)Are You a team captain?(circle one) Yes No

B)How would you compare your skill level to your teammates'? (circle one)

Below average Average AbOve average

9)Are you chosen to start or at least compete in half or more of your team's competitions? (circle one) Yes No

1 O)What is the gender of your head coach?(circle one) Female Male

Please return this survey directly to the large envelope.

Thank you very much for your help.

Bibliography

1 .Dorrance, Anson. Building Soccer Champions. Cary: JTCSports, Inc., 1996.

2. Eitzen and Pratt. "Gender Differences in Coaching Philosophy: The Case

of Female Basketball Teams." Research Quarterly for Exercise and

Sport 60 1989.

3. Hughes, Ginnett, and Gordon Curphy. Leadership, Enhancing the Lessons

of Experience, Burr Ridge: Library of Congress Cataloging, 1993.

4. Marshall, and Rossman. Designing Qualitative Research. Newbury Park:

Sage, 1989.

5. Neal and Thomas Tutko. Coaching Girls and Women. PsychologicaJ

Perspectives. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1975.

6. Officer and Rosenfeld. "Self-Disclosure to Male and Female Coaches by

Female High School Athletes.� Journal of Sport Psychology 7 1985.

7. Weinberg and Gould. Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology.

Champaign: Human Kinetics, 1995.

8. Weinberg, Reveles, and Jackson. "Attitudes of Male and Female Athletes

Toward Male and Female Coaches." Journal of Sport Psychology.

6, 1984.

45