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LEADERSHIP,MORALITYANDETHICS:
DEVELOPINGAPRACTICALMODELFORMORALDECISION-MAKING
AlfredW.Kaszniak1,3,CyndaH.Rushton2,&JoanHalifax3
1UniversityofArizona
Tucson,Arizona
2JohnsHopkinsUniversity
Baltimore,Maryland
3UpayaInstitute
SantaFe,NewMexico
Kaszniak, A.W., Rushton, C.H., & Halifax, J. (2018). Leadership, morality and ethics: Developing a practical model for moral decision-making. MindRxiv. April 17. mindrxiv.org/8qby6. DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/8QBY6
Introduction:
Principledandauthenticleadershipinallsectorsofsociety,includinghealth,
education,business,andfinance,requiresfundamentalshiftsinunderstandinghow
moraldiscernmentoperates.Cultivatingleaderswhoexemplifyintegrity
necessitatesgroundinginpro-socialvalues,characterformation,ethicalprinciples,
andcontemplativepracticesthatenhancemoraldecision-makingandengaged
moralaction.Thepresentpaperistheproductofcollaborationbetweena
neuroscientist,anethicist,andacontemplativeexploringissuesaroundleadership,
morality,andethics.Itisanexplorationonhowpeopleinrolesofresponsibilitycan
betterunderstandhowtoengageindiscernmentprocesseswithmoreawareness
andadeepersenseofresponsibilityforothersandthemselves.Ithasbeenwritten
inaglobalclimatewhereapracticalunderstandingofhowmoraldecision-making
worksisessentialinthistimewhentherecanseemtobeanincreasingmoral
vacuuminleadership.
Themeaningsofthewordsmoralsandethicsoverlapincommonusage,though
sometimesconflictingdistinctionsaredrawnbyphilosophersandotherscholars.
Onesimplewayofunderstandingthedistinctionisthat,“Broadlyspeaking,morals
areindividualprinciplesofrightandwrong,andasystemofethicsdealswithsets
ofthoseprinciples.”
<http://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/index.pperl?date=20010813>Theterm
ethicsisoftenusedinreferencetothephilosophicalstudyofmorality.Asystemof
ethics,bysuchusage,hasoverlapwithHaidt’s(2012)definitionofmoralsystems:
“Moralsystemsareinterlockingsetsofvalues,virtues,norms,practices,identities,
institutions,technologies,andevolvedpsychologicalmechanismsthat
worktogethertosuppressorregulateself-interestandmakecooperativesocieties
possible.”(p.314)
Hereweusemoralswhenwearereferringtoindividualprinciplesordiscernment
ofrightandwrong,ethicswhenwearereferringtosets(particularlycodifiedsets)
oftheseprinciples,andmoral/ethicalwhenwearereferringtoboth.Further,when
examiningmentalprocessesthatweseeasinvolvedinmoraldecision-makingand
action,wewilldrawdistinctionsbetweenmoralresonance,moraldiscernment
(including,thoughnotlimitedtomoralreasoning),andmoralaction.Wewillrefer
tomoralresonanceinreferencetoanexpandedperspectiveonmoralsensitivity,
whichhasbeendescribedasthe‘‘abilitytorecognizethepresenceofmoralissuesin
real-worldsituations’’(Navaez&Rest,1995).Onemeaningofthewordresonanceis
aqualitythatmakessomethingpersonallymeaningfulorimportant.Moral
resonance,aswearedefiningthisterm,involvesasetofprocessesthatdetect
whetherinitialreactionstoaneventarealignedwithpersonallyimportantvalues–
withtheleader’scharacter.Theseprocessesbeginwithattentiontosubtleand
initiallypre-consciousbodilycuesreflectingemotionalbiasesandempathic
resonancewithothers.Thesecuescanalertonetothepossibilityofamoralissue,
andcaninteractwithconscienceandaltruisticdisposition(reflectingvaluesand
character).
Wewillusethetermmoraldiscernmenttorefertothosementalprocessesthatare
primedbymoralresonancetoengageexecutivecontrolprocesses.Theseexecutive
processes,informedbyintentionsaswellassocialandemotionalcontexts,allowfor
pause,situationalreappraisal,andarousalregulation.Theemotionalregulationand
balanceaffordedbyexecutiveprocessesallowsforamodulationofpotentialbiases
inmoralreasoning(involvinginductiveanddeductivelogic,andtheapplicationof
systematicethicalprinciples).Moralreasoningtheninformsmoraldecisionsthat
supportvariouscoursesofprincipledmoralaction(seeRushton,Kaszniak,&
Halifax,2013a).Moraldiscernmentthusalsoappearstoinvolveseveral
distinguishablementalprocesses,mostoftheseoperatingwithinconscious
awareness.
Inwhatfollows,wearticulateaconceptualandpracticalmoral/ethicalmodel,
motivatedbyrecentscientificinvestigation,tosupportleadersinworkingskillfully
andcompassionatelywiththecomplexitiesthatinevitablyariseastheyengagewith
theirorganizations,others,andthemselves.
Thefocusofthismodelisonhowpeopleprocessmoral/ethicaldecisions,andhow
thisprocessingcanbedonewithgreaterfidelitytomoralresonance,moral
discernment,claimsofconscience,ethicalprinciples,andinductive/deductive
approachestomoral/ethicalreasoning.Thesemodesofprocessing,whichinclude
cognitive,somatic,emotional,andspiritualdimensions,usedifferentcapacities,all
ofwhichareimportantinreachingmorally/ethicallygroundeddecisionsand
engaginginmoralaction.
Unlikesomeearlymodelsofmoralandethicalcognition,thismodelforanapplied
approachtomorals/ethicsfocusesnotonlyonlogicalconceptualreasoning,butalso
takesintoaccountemotionaldeterminantsofmoralbehavior.Theseemotional
determinantsareoftenoperatingoutsideof,andpriortoaleader’sconsciouslogical
reasoningprocesses.Themodelalsoexaminestheleader’sabilitytoaccessvalues,
viewthesevaluesonbothdeepandsynopticlevels,andalignthemwithinasystems
perspective.Anassumptionofthismodelisthatbothconceptualandexperiential
appreciationoftheinterconnecteddomainsweproposeareessentialwhendealing
withthecriticalandcomplexissuesthatleadersfacetoday.
Itisintendedthattheproposedmodelwillbeapplicabletoleadersatalllevelsin
healthcare,government,education,law,business,andmanyotherareasthatare
bothaffectedbyandcontributetotheglobalconditionsthatareassociatedwithso
muchsufferingintheworldtoday.Thismodel,anditsimplicationsforanew
approachtomoral/ethicaleducation,isgroundedinrecentrelevantscientific
researchandscholarship,aswellasthatconcerningtheconsequencesand
biologicalcorrelatesofcontemplativepracticesthatcanenhanceprincipledmoral
action.Thefollowingsummaryofscientificresearchandscholarshipisnotintended
tobeanexhaustivereview,butratherendeavorstohighlightrepresentative
publishedworkthattheauthorsviewasmostrelevantformoral/ethicalleadership.
ScientificResearchandScholarshiponMoralResonance,MoralDiscernment
andMoralAction:
Untilthelastdecadeofthe20thcentury,thepredominantapproachtoascientific
understandingofmoralityexamineddevelopmentaltheoriesthatplacedtheir
emphasisonconsciousreasoningprocessesinadultmoraldecision-makingand
action(e.g.,Kohlberg,1969).Fromthisperspective,individualsuselogicasameans
toresolveconflictsbetweencompetingpossibleactionsandmoral/ethicalclaims.
Usingbothinductiveanddeductiveinferences,individualsevaluatecertain
premisestoreachconclusionsaboutpropermoralaction.
Althoughsocialprocessesareembeddedinsuchcognitiveapproachestomoral
discernment,theinterpersonalandsocialelementsarenotclearlydifferentiated.In
hergroundbreakingcritiqueofKohlberg’sreasonedjusticeorientationasthe
foundationofethics,CarolGilliganintroducedtheinterpersonal,emotional,and
socialaspectsofethicsinwhatisnowknownasanethicofcare(Gilligan,1982,
1988).Careethicsassertthatmoralinquirybeginswithone’sownexperience
ratherthanfirstappealingtoaprioriprinciples,externalnorms,orstandards.It
emphasizessubjectiveexperientialphenomenasuchasempathyandfeltrelational
bondsashavingcompellingmoralmeaningandconsequentmoralclaimsand
duties.Withoutdiminishingtheroleofmoralreasoning,anethicofcareemphasizes
theaffective,relational,andcontextualelementsofmoralityaspracticesof
responsibility,fromtheimmediateandpersonaltothelargerdomainsofcitizenship
andpublicpolicy.(Hamington,2010;Held,2005;Held&CityUniversityofNew
York,2014;Mohammed&Peter,2009;Walker,2008).Thisisaninterestingand
importantperspectivetobringtobearontheissueofmoralleadership.
Amajorpremiseofanethicofcareisaworldviewthatrecognizesthe
interconnectionandinterdependenceofallbeingsandthings,andwithita
responsibilitytoappreciatetheimpactofactiononothers,particularly
disenfranchisedandvoicelessstakeholders,orevenenvironmentaldimensions.
Walker(2008)identifiesfouressentialelementsofanethicofcare:1)
Responsivenesstohumanneeds,2)Responsiblecompetenceinattendingtohuman
needs,3)Valuinghumanconnectionandrelationship,and4)Valuingtheworkand
responsibilitiesofcare.Thepresentauthorswouldaddtothesefourelementsa
fifth:Valuinghumaninterconnectionswiththeenvironmentandresponsible
competenceinstewardingourenvironment.Takentogethertheseelementscreatea
broaderfoundationforappreciatingthecomplexity,moraltrade-offs,andcontours
ofintegrity-preservingaction.
Relatedtothisisanincreasingrecognitioninthecognitivesciencesand
neurosciencesoftheimportantrolesofemotionandnon-consciousprocessesinall
decisionmaking(e.g.,Damasio,1994;1999),includingmoraldiscernment
(Liljenquist,Zhong,&Galinsky,2010;Narvaez,2014;Zhong,Bohns,&Gino,2010).
Moralresonanceandmoraldiscernmentarestronglyinfluencedbytypicallypre-
consciousemotionalinfluencesthatareoftenmorepowerfulthanrational
reasoning(forreview,seeHaidt,2012).Theseemotionalinfluencesinclude
feedbacktothebrainfrombodilyprocessesthatarerapidlyactivatedinemotion
(Haidt,2001;Greene&Haidt,2002).Thesebodilyprocesses,suchaschangesin
heart-rateandrespiration,preparethebodyfortakingaction,andseveralmaybe
subjectivelyperceivable(termedinteroception)andmadeavailabletoother
consciouscognitiveprocesses,whenbroughtintoawareness(forreviewofrelevant
researchandscholarship,seeFarbetal.,2015).Researchincognitivesciencehas
madeitclearthatactivityofthebodyplaysanintegralroleincognitiveprocesses
(Barsalou,2008).
Ourbodiesthusappearcapableofprovidingwhatcanbethoughtofasearly
warningsystemsthatalertustothreats,challenges,biases,orviolationsofintegrity,
informconscienceandprincipledmoralaction,andinformtheexperienceofmoral
congruence-afeltsenseofdispositiontowardaltruism,andmoralelevation.
Greaterattentiontothebodilycuesassociatedwithsuchmorally-relevantissuesas
pre-consciousbiasesandviolationsofintegritythusappeartohavethepotentialof
counteringwhathasbeentermed“ethicalfading,”(Tenbrunsel&Messick,2004),
wheredecisionmakersallowmoral/ethicalissuestofadeintothebackground,
ceasetobefeltasrelevant,andnolongerperceivethem.
Thereiscorrelationalevidencethatpersonswhoself-reportgreatermindfulness
(open,non-judgmentalattentiontoandawarenessofwhateverisoccurringinthe
presentmoment)intheirdailylivesalsoreportthattheyaremorelikelytoact
ethically,upholdethicalstandards,anduseaprincipledapproachtoethicaldecision
making(Ruedy&Schweitzer,2010).Self-reporteddegreeofmindfulnessindaily
lifewasalsocorrelatedwithlesscheatingonabehavioralmeasureofunethical
behavior(Ruedy&Schweitzer,2010).Inaddition,thereappearstobeakindof
upwardmoralspiralinorganizationswhenleadersserveasexamplesofmoral
excellence.Asreviewedbelowinthediscussionofmoralintentions,thereis
evidencethatleaderswhomanifestmoralexcellenceintheirfairnesswithothers
andtheirself-sacrificeengendermoralelevationandgreatercommitmentamong
theirfollowers(Vianello,Galliani,&Haidt,2010).
Theneuralarchitectureofmoralcognitionappearstoinvolveaconvergenceofboth
pre-consciousandconsciousemotional,physical,social,andcognitiveprocessing
networksevolvedtosupporthumansinnavigatingtheintellectual,social,material,
andmorallandscapeoftheirlives(Bzdok,Gross,&Eickhoff,2014;Helion,2014;
Mathews&Bok,2014;Tangneyetal.,2007).Agrowingbodyofresearchonthe
neuralcorrelatesofmoralityhassuggestedthatourmoralsenseistheresultofan
integrationofconsciouscognitiveprocesseswithseveralprimarilypre-conscious
processesinvolvedinemotionalresponsestosocialsituationsandempathic
attunementtothebehaviorandintentionsofothers(forreview,seeMarazziti,
Baroni,Landi,Ceresoli,&Dell’Osso,2013).
TheEvolutionaryRolesofDisgust,Fear,andSocialCooperationinMoral
Resonance:
Moralresonanceandmoraldiscernmentappeartohavesomeoftheirevolutionary
originsandbiologicalcorrelatesintheemotionsofdisgustandfear(Wicker,etal.,
2003).Humansandotheranimalsshowquickaversiontoanythingthatposesa
threatofharm.Disgustisparticularlyelicitedbysights,smells,andsoundsthat
signalthethreatofdisease,suchasexcrement,indicatorsofinfection,deadbodies,
spoiledfoods,andparticularanimals(Curtis&Biran,2001;Oaten,Stevenson,&
Case,2009).Aregionofthebrain’scerebralcortexenfoldeddeepwithinthefissure
separatingthetemporalandfrontallobes,calledtheanteriorinsula,hasbeen
showntobeactivatedwhenapersonisexperiencingdisgust,andwhenseeing
others’facialexpressionsofdisgust(Phillipsetal.,1997).Stroke-relatedbrain
damageinvolvingtheinsulahasbeenshowntoresultinbothdecreasedresponses
todisgust-inducingsensorystimuli,anddifficultydiscriminatingdisgustfacial
expressionsfromthoseofotheremotionssuchasanger(Calderetal.,2000).
Theanteriorinsularcortex(AIC)receivesvisceral(fromtheinternalorgans)and
visualinputandisinvolvedinautonomicnervoussystemresponsesthataffect
visceralactivity(Wickeretal.,2003).TheAIChasbeenfoundtobeinvolvedina
numberofmental/behavioralphenomena,fromvisceralandsexualfeelings,to
maternallove,craving,decision-makingandsuddenexperiencesofinsight.Such
observationshaveledtotheorizingabouttheimportanceof“embodiment”
(consciousandnon-consciouseffectsofvisceralandotherbodilyfeedbacktothe
brain)inmentalprocesses(e.g.,Farbetal.,2015),andithasbeenproposedthatthe
AICmakesafundamentalcontributioninallconsciousawareness(Craig,2009).
GiventheseobservationsregardingtheAIC,itisnotsurprisingthatdisgustoften
produceschangesinthebodilyreflectionsofautonomicnervoussystem(ANS)
responses,includingdecreasedheart-rate,bloodpressure,andskinconductance,
alteredstomachactivity,andchangesinrespiration(Meissner,Muth,&Herbert,
2011;Ritz,Thons,Fahrenkrug,&Dahme,2005).Thereisalsoacharacteristicfacial
expressionofdisgust,whichappearstomanifestacrosscultures(Ekman,Friesen,&
Ellsworth,1972).Further,seeinganother’sfacialexpressionofdisgust,elicits
activityinthosesamebrainregions(includingtheAIC)thatareactivatedwhenone
experiencesdisgustoneself(Wicker,etal.,2003).
Asecondemotionisrelevanttoconsiderinregardtomoralresonance.The
physiological,experiential,andbehavioralcomponentsofthefearresponseare
initiatedwhenaneventisappraised(consciouslyornon-consciously)asapotential
threat.Theamygdala,analmond-shapedbrainstructuredeepintheforwardpartof
thetemporallobes,andconnectedbrainstructuresplayanimportantroleinthe
rapiddetectionofwhatissalienttotheindividual(Cunningham&Brosch,2012;
Santos,Mier,Kirsch,&Meyer-Lindenberg,2011),oftenpriortoconscious
awarenessoftheevent.Salienteventscanbepotentialthreats,potential
affordances/opportunities,orsomedegreeofacombinationofthesevalences(i.e.,
ambivalent).Thedetectionofsalience,anddeterminationofthesalientevent’s
valenceareinfluencedbytheindividual’smotivationsorneeds(e.g.,hunger,thirst,
socialaffiliation,etc.).Absentarelevantneed,aneventmightnotbedetectedas
salient,andhenceignored(i.e.,respondedtowithindifference).
Asaconsequenceofsaliencedetection,attentionisfocusedontheeventandvarious
biologicalprocessesaresetinmotionthatprepareforaversion(tothreat),
approach(toaffordance/opportunity),orconfusion(toambivalence).Forexample,
ifthesalienteventisappraisedaspotentiallythreatening,theamygdalainitiates
multiplecomponentsofthefearresponse,whichincludeautonomicarousaland
neuroendocrinerelease(seeAdolphs,2013).Fearalsonarrowsandbiasesattention
tothepotentialthreats(Harrison,Hurlemann,&Adolphs,2015;Todd,Talmi,
Schmitz,Susskind,&Anderson,2012),andmayinterferewithempathicconcern
andpro-socialemotionsandbehavior(Cikara&Bavel,2014;Harrison,Hurlemann
&Adolphs,2015).Forexample,aleaderencounteringacolleagueoremployeeofa
differentracial,cultural,religious,orpoliticalgroupmightautomaticallyandpre-
consciouslyappraisethisotherasposingapotentialthreat,basedonpriorcultural
orfamilialconditioning.Theresultantbiologicalprocessesoffeararousalwould
narrowandbiastheleader’sattentiontoonlythoseactionsoftheotherpersonthat
seemtoconfirmthepotentialforthreat.Asaresultofthisbiasingofattention,the
leadermightnotregisterfacialorotherindicatorsoftheother’sdistress,andhence
notexperiencetheempathicresonancethatwouldgiverisetoconcernand
compassionateaction.
Ithasbeenarguedthatdisgustandfearmayhaveanimportantroleincertain
aspectsofmoralityandethics.Forexample,Tybur,Lieberman,andGriskevicium
(2009)describethreefunctionaldomainsofdisgust:pathogendisgust,leadingto
avoidanceofinfectiousorganisms;sexualdisgust,leadingtoavoidanceofpotentially
dangeroussexualpartnersandbehaviors;andmoraldisgust,leadingtoavoidance
oftheviolationofsocialnorms.Remindersofphysicalcleanlinesscaninfluence
moralandpoliticalattitudes(Helzer&Pizarro,2011),andpersonswhoaremore
likelytoexperiencephysicaldisgustarealsomorelikelytoexperiencemoral
disgust(Jones&Fitness,2008),consistentwiththesedifferentkindsofdisgust
sharingcommonbiologicalprocesses.Althoughmoraldisgustmayleadto
principledmoralaction,disgustcanalsoleadtohorrificallyimmoralactions.When
inwarsorethnicconflicts,personsofaparticulargrouparedehumanizedand
likenedtovermin,cockroaches,orotheranimalsthatelicitpathogendisgust,then
atrocitiessuchas“ethniccleansing”orgenocideareoftentheoutcome(seeSemelin,
2007).Dehumanizationofpersonsinparticulargroupsmayalsoresultinreactions
ofdisgustthatmanifestinlessdramatic,butequallyharmfulsystemicviolence,such
asracialdiscriminationandsexism.
Moraldiscernmenthastraditionallybeenconsideredtobeshapedbysocialnorms
andstandardsmotivatedbynon-selfishconsciousconsiderationssuchasrespectfor
others,concernfortheirwell-being,andfairness/impartialityinintentions.Thereis
researchsupportingthisperspective(Fehr&Fischbacher,2004).However,
preconsciousmentalprocesses,involving,forexample,disgustandfear,canoccur
beforeandinfluenceconsciousmoraldiscernment(David&Olatunji,2011).Thisis
particularlyrelevantforpre-consciousprocessesthatcanoperateinthesphereof
theleadershipexperience.Fortheleaderwhoisinteractingwithothersofdifferent
gender,race,culture,orbackground,priorconditioningcaninitiatepre-conscious,
andthereforeunrecognizedbiasesrelatedtodisgustandfear.
Thevalueoffearandanxietyasevolutionarysurvivalmechanismsiswell
understood,buttheadaptiveutilityoftheseemotionsisprimarilyinmanaging
shorttermthreats.Inthelongterm,whenrepeatedlyorpersistentlyactivated,they
canbedestructive.Forexample,thecorrelationobservedbetweendegreeofair
pollutioninU.S.citiesandincreasesincriminalandunethicalbehaviorappearsto
bemediatedbyanxiety(Lu,Lee,Gino,&Galinsky,2018).Fearandanxietycanalso
overwhelmotheremotions,deprivingleadersoftheirfullemotionalcapabilities,
thoughtheimpactisnotexclusivelyemotional.Fearandanxietycanincurlong-
lasting,sometimesdisablingandevenlife-threateningimpairmentsthatmay
markedlylimittheabilityofaleadertodevelopandexerciseothercapabilities.
(Armony&Vuilleumier,2013;Deppermannetal.,2014;Kalin,Shelton,&Davidson,
2004;Maren&Phan,2013;Pittenger&Duman,2007).Forexample,theleaderwho
worksinanenvironmentthatisdrivenprimarilybyefficiencycanchronically
engagefear-based,anxiety-riddledresponsestoBoardimprimaturs,inorderto
demonstratereturnoninvestmentcalculationsthatmayfailtoaccountforthe
contextoftheorganization’smission.Insuchcircumstances,burnoutcanoccur,
numbingtheleader’sabilitytonotice,respondto,andtakeactiontoupholdthe
broaderorganizationalvalues.Casesofmoralinjuryanddistresssuggest,for
example,thatalthoughthereishighvariabilityinindividualsensitivity,biological
andenvironmentalmoralstressorscaninducealossofmoralfunctionality
(Boudreau,2011;Brock&Lettini,2012;Glannon,2011;Hunt,2011;Litzetal.,2009;
Maguen&Litz,2012;C.Shay,2009).
Inadditiontothecontributionsofdisgustandfear,thereisevidencesupportingthe
conclusionthathumanmoralityalsohasevolutionarygroup-levelnaturallyselected
originsinmotivesandskillsforcooperatingwithothers,influencedbysociocultural
contextsandinteractions(Haidt,2012;Tomasello&Vaish,2013;Warneken&
Tomasello,2009).Asobservationsofhumanevolutionarycousinssuchasthegreat
apeshavesuggested,ourevolutionaryancestorslikelylivedinsocialgroupswith
empathy,variousemotions,gratitude,andasenseoffairnessinfluencingsocial
behavior(deWaal,1996),eventhoughsuchancestorsdidnotseemtoshow
processeswewouldidentifyasconsciousmoralreasoning.
Agrowingbodyofresearchsupportstheconclusionthatevolutionhasshapedour
presentbiologyandpsychologynotonlybysurvivalofthefittest,butalsobygroup-
level“survivalofthekindest”(seeHaidt,2012;Keltner,2009),resultinginaninnate
capacityforcooperationandaltruism(seealsoRicard,2015).Accumulating
researchdemonstratesthatgreaterhappinessandsatisfactionisproducedby
altruisticactionsthanbythosethatareegocentric(seeDiener&Seligman,2002).
Ourevolvedaltruisticdisposition,akindofbasicgoodness,isthusbothan
importantaspectofconscience,andperhapsthemostsignificantcontributorto
personalhappiness.
Themoralrelevanceofourevolvedcapacitiesfordisgust,fear,andsocial
cooperationcanbeappreciatedbyreflectingonhowtheserelatetothemost
commondimensionsofmorality.Haidt(2012),basedonsurveysconductedby
himselfandcollaborators,describesdimensionsofthemoralspectrumasincluding:
1)harm/care,2)fairness/reciprocity,3)ingroup/loyalty,4)authority/respect,and
5)purity/sanctity.Thefirstthree(Harm/care,fairness/reciprocity,and
ingroup/loyalty)wouldappeartobemoststronglyrelatedtosocialcooperation,
whileauthority/respectmightalsorelatetofear,andpurity/sanctitytodisgust.As
Haidtandcolleaguesalsohavefound,thesedimensionsofthemoralspectrum
differentiallyrelatetoindividualdifferencesinworldviewthatareassociatedwith
politicalidentification(i.e.,liberalversusconservative).Thereisevidencelinking
suchdifferencestofearanddisgustreactivity.Forexample,conservativeshave
beenfoundtobemoreeasilydisgustedthanliberals(Inbar,Pizarro,&Bloom,
2009),andshowhigherthreatsensitivity(Jost,Glaser,Kruglanski,&Salloway,
2003).Thesedifferencescanbeobservedearlyinlife.Forexample,BlockandBlock
(2006)foundthatwomenwhoidentifiedasliberalswhenadultshadbeenearlier
ratedbynurseryschoolteachersasshowingtraitsconsistentwithnovelty-seeking
andthreatinsensitivity.
Itshouldbenotedthatthepracticalapplicationsofthemodelwehavedeveloped
herewillnotlikelyresolveintergroupdifferencesinworldview,political
orientation,andassociateddifferencesinthosemoraldimensionsthataremost
salientandaremostlikelytoelicitmoralreactivity.However,practicalimplications
ofthemodelmayfacilitategreaterclarityandadecreaseinunrecognizedbiasesin
moraldecision-making.Inaddition,havingaframeworkinwhichtounderstandthe
moraldecision-makingofanothermayfosterlessreactivityinface-to-face
interactionswithanotherwhoinitiallyseemsthreateningorunfamiliar.
EmotionandRationalCognitioninMoralResonanceandMoralDiscernment:
Mind-brainprocessesinvolvedinmoralresonanceandmoraldiscernmenthave
beeninferredfromtheresultsofstudiesemployingmoraldilemmascenarioswhile
simultaneouslyrecordingbrainactivityviafunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging
(fMRI).Commonmoraldilemmascenariosposesituationsinwhichtheparticipant
mustdecidewhetheritismorallyacceptabletosacrificeoneindividual’slifetosave
thelivesofseveralothers.Suchresearchhassuggestedthatindividualsare
influencedbybothemotionalandcognitive/rationalfactorsinmakingmoral
discernments.Brainareasassociatedwithemotional/socialprocesses(e.g.,medial
prefrontalcortex(MPFC),posteriorcingulate/precuneus,superiortemporal
sulcus/temperoparietaljunction)andwithconsciousabstractreasoning(e.g.,
dorsolateralprefrontalcortex)andcognitiveexecutivecontrol(e.g.,anterior
cingulatecortex,ACC)areactivatedwhenpersonsmakejudgmentsofmoral
acceptabilityinresponsetothesekindsofmoraldilemmascenarios(Greene&
Haidt,2002).
Thecontributionsofemotionalprocessesappeartobepredominantwhenamoral
dilemmaisexperiencedas“personal”(Greene,Nystrom,Engell,Darley,&Cohen,
2004).Greenetal.(2001)identifypersonalmoraldilemmasasthosethatmeet
threecriteria:(1)themoralviolationmustbelikelytocauseseriousharm;(2)the
harmmustbetoaparticularpersonorgroupofpersons;and(3)theharmmustnot
resultfromdeflectionofanexistingthreatontoadifferentparty.Leaders,for
example,mayconfrontsuch“personal”moraldilemmaswhentheymustmake
decisionsregardingtrade-offsnecessarytobalancetheorganization’sbudget.
Executivesneedtotaketheperspectiveofthosewithoutauthorityinfluenceor
staturetounderstandtheimpactofbudgetdecisionsonothers.Iftheleader
identifieswithothersinexecutiveroles,theleadermayfailtoappreciatethe
significanceoftheimpactofbudgetcutsonthosewhodonotenjoythesame
authorityorinfluencewithintheorganization.Discernmentinresponsetomoral
dilemmasthatdonotmeetthecriteriadescribedbyGreen,etal.(2001)appearsto
bemorestronglyinfluencedbyprocessesofconsciousabstractreasoningand
cognitivecontrol(Greeneetal.,2004).Examplesherewouldincludetheapplication
ofsystematizedethicalprinciples,values,andnormstoorganizationalpolicy
developmentorbudgetallocations.
TheRoleofIntentionsinMoralDiscernment:
Intentionreflectsagoal,purpose,oraimanindividualiscommittedtobringing
about-anaimorstandardthatguidesaction.Thereiscontroversyregardingthe
relationshipbetweenintentionsandbeliefsandwhetherintentionissufficientto
guideaction(seehttp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intention/).Priorornormative
intentionsthatarealignedwithvaluesandbeliefs,suchasbringingaboutthe
greatestgoodforthoseaffectedbyadecisionoraction,canofferausefulcognitive
toolinappraisingethicallycomplexsituations.However,itisimportantto
distinguishone’sintentionsfromwhatoneactuallydoes.Forexample,aleadermay
intendtobringaboutgoodoutcomesforthecompany,butmayormaynotactin
accordancewiththoseintentions.Onepotentiallyfruitfulapplicationofintentionin
leadershipinvolvespausingtoreconnecttoone’sbeliefsandvalues(suchas
reducingharmsandbenefittingothers)andexaminingthecoherenceand
consistencyinone’sintentionsandactions.
Ithasbeenfoundthatparticipantsinstudiesinvolvingmoraldilemmascenarios
placeastrongemphasisontheinferredintentionofanactorwhendiscerning
whetheranactionismorallyacceptable(Greeneetal.,2009).Thediscernmentofa
leaderaboutwhetherornottheactionsofcolleaguesandemployeesaremorally
acceptableisthusinfluencedbyhowtheleaderconstruestheseothers’intentions.
Similarly,asalreadynoted,theleader’sengagementinprincipledmoralactionmay
beinfluencedbytheleader’sownintentions.Theleader’sintentions,andinferences
abouttheintentionsofothers,arethusimportantcomponentsofmoral
discernment.Intentionisstronglyinfluencedbyculturalconditioningandmessages
affectingtheleader’sworldview,values,andcharacter,allofwhichareintegral
aspectsofconscience.Asdescribedbelow,theleader’sviewofreality,including
viewsrelatedtoselfandother,permanence/impermanence,
interconnectedness/interdependence,causalityandconsequentiality,andsoonall
contributetoasenseofresponsibilityandanethicofcare.
Insocialpsychologicalexperimentswithinnaturalworksettings,ithasbeenfound
thatleaders’interpersonalfairnessandunselfishness,reflectingtheiraltruistic
dispositionandintention,powerfullyelicitasenseofmoralelevationintheir
followers.Further,thissenseofmoralelevationwasfoundtofullyaccountfor
followers’organizationalcitizenshipandemotionalcommitmenttotheorganization
(Vianello,Galliani,&Haidt,2010).
ConscienceinMoralResonance:
Conscienceisaninnerfeelingorintuitionthatcanbeviewedasa“…barometerfor
appraisingintentions,actsorbehaviorsasmorallypraiseworthyormorally
culpableinrelationtoamoralidealorstandard”(Beauchamp&Childress,2013).It
involvesaself-reflectiveprocesstodiscern,forexample,whatisobligatoryor
prohibited,thedegreetowhichvariousactionsarealignedwithanaltruistic
disposition,andwithwhatonebelievestobevirtuous,honorableor
malicious/hurtful,andone’smoralstandingandcharacter.Theinitiationofthis
processprobablybeginspre-consciously,fromsubtlebodilycuesaccompanying
empathicresonancewithanother’semotionalexperience,conditionedbythe
leader’sworldviewandexperienceofself(seeDambrun&Ricard,2011).Included
ininitiationofconscienceisalsodetectionandinterpretationofthefeelingsand
somatic/physiologiccuesassociatedwithalignment(e.g.balanced,atpeace,
resolute)orviolationofintegrity(e.g.shame,guilt,remorse).Thisprocessof
appraisalinformstheleader’schoicesaboutwhatisrequiredinresponse—either
actionorinaction.
Thereisgrowingevidencethatconscienceisfarmoresocialandemotionalthan
wouldbeexpectedfromperspectivesthatassumehighlyindividuated,autonomous,
self-containedrationalactors.Auniquelyhumanprojectis“themoralmakingofthe
world,”exploringthemoralcategoriesbywhichweapprehendtheworld,themoral
communitiesweconstruct,themoralsignificationofaction,themorallaborof
agents,theproductionofmoralsubjectsandthemoralvalues,issues,debates,and
vocabulariesthatconstitutemoralthoughtanddiscourseattheindividualand
collectivelevels(Fassin,2012).
Conflictsofconscience,thatis,detectingdissonanceorincongruenceofone’svalues,
commitmentsorcharacter,therebyimperilingintegrity,canbeassociatedwitha
broadrangeofmoralharms.Thesecanrangefromtemporaryfeelingsof
frustration,anxiety,angerorsadnesstomoreintense,sustainedfeelingsofguilt,
remorse,lossofself-respect,lossofidentity,self-betrayalormoraldistress
(Rushton,inpress,b).Afailuretoadjudicatethedissonanceorincongruencecan
erodeintegrityandproduceavarietyofdetrimentalphysical,emotional,behavioral
andspiritualconsequences,particularlyifthisissustainedandrepeated(Carse&
Rushton,2017).Conceivably,habituallyoverridingthesignalsofconsciencecan
leadtodampeningtheirstrengthwhenoccasionsthatthreatenintegrityarise.
Embracingthecallofconscienceisvitalforleaderswhoarecommittedto
preservingorrestoringtheirintegritywhenchallengedorthreatened.Attentionto,
andinquiringintothemeaningandsignificanceofthesomaticandemotionalcues
ofconscienceengagesothermentalprocessestohelpclarifypathwaysfor
principledmoralaction.
TheSocial,Emotional,RelationalandOrganizationalContextsofMoral
ResonanceandMoralDiscernment:
Moral/ethicaldecisionsandbehavioroccurwithinsocialcontexts,whetherfamily,
informalgroups,ororganizations.Thesecontextsinfluencemoralresonanceand
moraldiscernment.Humansappeartopossessinnatemoralcapabilitiesandare
socializedinculturallydifferentiatedways.Anelementofthemoraldevelopmentof
individualsinvolvesparticipationinmoralcommunities.Dominguez(2015)
describestheneuralcorrelatesofmoralagencyas“...foundbeyondtheconfinesof
asinglebrain:inthecomingtogetherandinteractingofacommunityofbrains,in
theshapingofthemoralbrainbythesocialfieldandculture,andintheworkingsof
aneurocognitivesystemthatevolvedtoabsorb,reproduce,andcontributetoshared
worldsofmeaning”(Dominguez,2015,p.289).Suchcollectivemoralitycan
producegreatercoherencewithsharedmoralvalues,orcanleadtoacollective
”moralblindness”toissuesthatviolatewidelyrecognizedmoralvaluessuchas
compassion,dignityandfairness.
Socialecologicalframeworkshavebeenwidelyadaptedwiththerecognitionthatno
singlefactorcanexplainorpredictaparticularphenomenon(Baronetal.2014;
Fleury&Lee2006).Giventhecomplexityoftheenvironmentswhereleadersserve,
anunderstandingofthedynamicinterplayamongthedimensionsthatinfluencethe
culture,workenvironments,andintimaterelationshipswheremoral/ethicalissues
ariseisnecessary.Achievingamoral/ethicalcultureisaboutachievingashared
purposeandperspectiveaswellasorganizationalstructuresthatdrivedecisions
thatareconsiderateandrespectfulofindividualsandarangeofperspectives.
Whenissues,suchasverticalandhorizontalviolence,underminecongruence
betweenindividualandcollectivevaluesandbehaviors,andorganizational
processesandstructures,individualandorganizationalintegritycanbe
undermined.Theseorganizationalelementsaresituatedwithinabroader“culture”
thatreflectstheringsofinfluenceoutsidetheorganizationalcontextand
encompasseslargeraspectsofsocietyincludingeconomic,socialpolicy,andother
mega-influencers.Theseaspectsaffectindividualleaders,forexample,when
structuralinequalitiescreatedifferencesinaccesstocertaingoodsandservices—
thatis,involvingissuesofsocialanddistributivejustice.Theselargerinfluences,if
theysupportethicalbehaviorsanddecision-makingattheindividuallevel,arevital
forsupportingindividualmoralagencyandcollectivemoralresponsibility(Rushton
&Sharma,inpress,a).
Socialandorganizationalcontextsinwhichaleaderissituatedcanalsoaffectthe
leader’semotionalexperienceandmood,inbothpositive(e.g.,happiness,serenity)
andnegative(e.g.,anger,fear,despondency)directions.Suchemotional/mood
consequencesofsocialandorganizationalcontextsaffectthescopeofwhataleader
willlikelyperceivetobepossiblechoicesformoralaction.Whenpositive
emotion/moodispresent,individualsperceiveawiderrangeofpossibilitiesfor
action(Fredrickson&Branigan,2005).Positiveemotion/moodalsosetsinto
motionupwardspiralstowardenhancingemotionalwell-beingoftheleaderand
othersinthesocialgroupororganization(Fredrickson&Joiner,2002).
However,socialandorganizationalcontextscanalsoworkagainstindividualand
collectivemoralagencyandresponsibility.AsnotedinaNewYorkTimesOp-Ed
columnbyDavidBrooks(2016),“Whenwebuildacademicdisciplinesandsocial
institutionsuponsuppositionsofselfishnesswe’remissingthemotivationsthat
drivepeoplemuchofthetime.Worse,ifyouexpectpeopletobeselfish,youcan
actuallycrushtheirtendencytobegood.”
Brooksdrawsseveralexamplesinsupportoftheseassertionsfromthosethatare
providedbySamuelBowles(2016)inhisbook,TheMoralEconomy.Bowles’
scholarshiprevealsthatethicalandaltruisticmotivescanbe“crowdedout”by
messagesfromthelargerculture,itsinstitutions,andworkplaces,conveyedby
varioustangible(oftenmonetary)rewardsandpunishments.Thesemessages
communicatethatlimitedself-interestistobeexpected,orthattheindividual
cannotbetrustedtoactinwaysthatconsiderprosocialvaluesandthegreatergood
forbothselfandothers.Inaddition,asnotedabove,socialandorganizational
contextsthatengendernegativeemotionalexperiencealsonarrowtherangeof
whatareperceivedpossibilitiesforaction(Fredrickson&Branigan,2005).This
narrowingofperceivedpossibilitiespotentiallyblindstheleadertoavailablemoral
actionsandwaysofresolvingmoralconflicts.Withoutconsciousattentiontothe
pervasivenarrativethatisconveyedverballyandbehaviorally,leadersmay
inadvertentlyreinforcemessagesthatservetounderminetheintegrityof
individualsandtheorganization.(Rushton&Sharma,inpress,b)
TheImpactofHighEmotionalArousalonMoralResonanceandMoral
Discernment–TheRolesofEmpathicandMoralDistress:
Forthoseleaderswithinorganizationsthatservepersonswhoaresuffering,
includinghealthcare,socialservice,legal,educational,andsomebusiness/financial
organizations,empathicdistress(feelingdistressinseeinganother’ssuffering)and
empathicover-arousal(unpleasanthighphysicalarousalinseeinganother’s
suffering)areasignificantrisk.Empathicdistress/over-arousalcanresultin
behavinginwaysthatareself-focused(Batson,Early,&Salvarani,1997),primarily
concernedwithreducingone’sownunpleasantover-arousal,includingwaysthat
ignoretheotherperson’sneedsandthuspotentiallyinterferewithmoralresonance
andmoraldiscernment.Aparticulartypeofmoralsuffering,moraldistress,has
beendefinedas“anguishoranxietytiedtoasenseofimperiledintegrity,
experiencedunderconditionsofconstraintorduress”(Carse&Rushton,2017).
Moraldistresscanoccurinalltypesoforganizations,insituationswherethemoral
discernmentsofdifferentpartiesareinconflict,orwhereanindividual’smoral
discernmentisinconflictwithinstitutionalpolicies,resourceconstraints,or
managementdecisions(Rushton,Kaszniak,&Halifax,2013a;2013b;Rushton,
Caldwell,Kurtz,2016).Particularlywhenaccompaniedbyemotionalover-arousal,
moraldistresscaninhibitclarityofmoraldiscernmentthroughemotionaleffectson
thebiasingofattention(seeYiend,2009).Moraldistressinworksettingshasbeen
associatedwithlong-termpsychologicalconsequencesandburnout(Allenetal.,
2013).Forthesereasons,itishelpfultoexaminetheprocessesbywhichempathic
andmoraldistressoccur.
Humansareattunedtoandautomatically/spontaneouslymimictheemotional
arousalanddistressofothers,beginningasyoungassixmonthsofage.This
spontaneousmimicryisreflectedbysuchindicesasrespondingtopupilsize
observedinotherpeoplewithcorrespondingchangesinthechild’sownpupilsize
(Fawcett,Wesevich,&Gredeback,2016).Adultsshowspontaneousandinvoluntary
mimicryofthefacialemotionalexpressionofanother,evenwhenthatfacial
expressionisshownveryquickly,andimmediatelymaskedbyasubsequentneutral
face,sothattheother’sfacialemotionalexpressionisnotconsciously
registered/reported(Dimerg,Thunberg,&Elmehed,2000).Thisspontaneous
mimicryappearstoinvolvebrainsystems,referredtoas“mirrorneurons”
(Rizzolatti&Sinigaglia,2008),inwhichthesameneuronalprocessesactivated
whenweengageinaparticularintentionalactionareactivatedwhenobservinga
similaractionshownbyanother.Whenweseeanotherinpainanddistress,this
“mirroring”alsoinvolvesbrainsystemsthatreflecttheemotionaldistressthat
accompaniesourownpainexperience,includingitsmanifestationsinthebody
(Lamm,Batson,&Decety,2007).Thesebrainprocessesareconsideredbyseveral
contemporarysocialneuroscientiststobefoundationaltohumanempathy(e.g.,
Decety,2007).
Forbothhumansandseveralotheranimals,empathic“resonance”withanother’s
distressoftenleadstowhathasbeentermed“empathicconcern,”orcompassion,
understoodasempathyaccompaniedbyintenttodecreasetheother’ssuffering(De
Waal,2008).Empathicconcernhasbeenshowntobeasignificantpredictorof
helpfulbehaviorinsocialinteraction(Winczewski,Bowen,&Collins,2016).
Empathicconcernisthusanimportantcontributortomoralresonanceinsituations
involvingthesufferingordistressofothers.
However,empathycansometimesleadtoempathicdistress,particularlywhenthe
physiologicarousalofempathyisveryhigh,termedempathicover-arousal
(Eisenberg,2002).Empathicover-arousaloftenresultsinthepersonwhois
experiencingempathicdistressnotattendingtoorcomingtotheaidofadistressed
other,focusinginsteadonstrategiestoreducetheirowndistress(Eisenberg,2002).
Incontrast,whenemotionalarousalisregulatedthroughexecutivebrainsystems
thatdirectattention,inhibitimpulsiveaction,andplanalternativeresponses,then
empathicconcernismorelikelythanempathicdistress(seeEisenberg&Eggum,
2009).Burnoutinhelpingprofessionalsandothersmayreflect“empathyfatigue”
(fromrepeatedempathicdistress)andnotwhatisoftenreferredtoas“compassion
fatigue”(e.g.,Figley,1995).Compassion,reflectingattentionalstability,emotional
balance,andlovingdeterminationtohelpthosewhosuffer,isassociatedwith
positiveemotion,andappearsnottofatigue(seeRicard,2015;Halifax,2018).
Experimentshaveshownthatempathicdistress,ratherthanempathicconcernand
compassion,ismorelikelywhensomeoneistakingaself-focusedperspective,and
nottakingtheperspectiveofthedistressedother(Batson,Early,&Salvarani,1997).
Thisoftenreflectsdifficultyindisengagingfromone’sownself-focusedperspective
andshiftingtotheperspectiveoftheother(Royzman,Cassidy,&Baron,2003).
Moregenerally,self-centeredpsychologicalfunctioninghasbeenrelatedtogreater
degreesofexperiencedunhappiness(forreview,seeDambrun&Ricard,2011).An
importantcomponentofempathythatleadstoconcernandcompassion,ratherthan
distress,appearstobeflexibilityinshiftingperspective(forreviewofrelevant
socialpsychologicalresearch,seeBatson,2013;forreviewofsocialneuroscience
studiesoffactorsaffectingempathy,seeZaki&Ochsner,2013).
Asnotedabove,whenpersonsfacedwiththedistressofanotherexperience
empathicover-arousalanddistress,theyarelikelytoengageinvariousendeavors
toreducetheirowndistress.Inadditiontoshiftingattentionawayfromthe
distressedother,thesewaysmayincludeattemptsatsuppressingtheiremotion.
Suchsuppression,referredtoasa“consequent-focused”emotionregulation
strategy(i.e.,astrategyemployedaftertheemotionhasbeenaroused),tendstobe
ineffectiveandoftenactuallyresultsinanincreaseinphysiologicalarousal(Gross&
Thompson,2007).Alternatively,“antecedent-focused”regulationstrategies(i.e.,
thosefocusedoneventsthatinitiateemotionalresponses,andoninterpretationof
theseevents),particularlywhatistermedreappraisal(seeingadifferentmeaningof
theevent),tendtobemoreeffectiveinactuallyreducingemotional,including
empathic,over-arousal.
Forexample,personswithoutspecifictrainingwhoviewapatientundergoinga
painfulclinicalprocedurearelikelytothemselvesexperiencedistress,showing
activationinthosebrainsystemsrelatedtotheemotionalaspectsofpersonalpain
experience.However,clinicianstrainedintheparticularpainfulprocedureareable
toshiftperspective,appraisingthesituationdifferently(e.g.,knowingthatthe
outcomewillactuallyreducethepatient’ssuffering),andshowactivationofthose
brainsystemsassociatedwithperspectiveshiftingandthemodulationofother
brainsystemsthatareinvolvedininitiatingemotionalarousal(Cheng,etal.,2007).
Suchantecedent-focusedemotionregulation,reappraisingthesituationand
especiallyincorporatingawarenessoftheother’sperspective,isalsoarguably
relevantinsituationsofmoraldistress(Rushton,Kaszniak,&Halifax,2013a;Carse
&Rushton,2017).
TheRoleOf“Selfing”InCompromisingAttentionAndMoralDiscernment:
Giventheassociationofempathicover-arousalanddistresswithself-focused
perspectivetaking,antecedent-focusedemotionregulationstrategiesthatactually
reduceself-focusmightbeoptimal.Anumberofneuroimagingstudieshave
indicatedthatbrainsystemsassociatedwiththereplayingofpastmemoriesand
projectionintovariousfuturescenariosareassociatedwithself-focusedcognition
andexperience(e.g.,Buckner&Carrol,2006;Legrand&Ruby,2009;Northoff&
Bermpohl,2004).Thisbraincapacityfor“selfing”(generatingaconstructed,
narrativesenseofself)isusefulinfutureplanning,andplaysaroleinhowwe
understandthemindsandexperiencesofothers(Legrand&Ruby,2009).However,
variousshapingfactors(cultural,parental,educational,socialrole,professional)can
leadtoinflexiblereificationofthissenseofself,fluctuatinglevelsof
happiness/unhappiness,anddecreasedcompassionandaltruism(Dambrun&
Ricard,2011).
Recentresearchhasindicatedthattheattentiontrainingofwhathasbeentermed
mindfulnessmeditation(Hasenkamp&Barsalou,2012;Lutz,Slagter,Dunne,&
Davidson,2008;Malinowski,2013;Quaglia,Braun,Freeman,McDaniel,&Brown,
2016)modulatesself-specifyingandnarrativeself-networksinthebrain(Brewer,et
al.,2011;Vago&Silbersweig,2012).Theleaderwhohasdevelopedgreaterstability
ofattentionandpliancyofattentionshiftingthroughmindfulnesspracticeisless
likelytobecaughtininflexibileself-focus,andmorelikelytobeabletotakethe
perspectiveofanother,resultinginagreatercapacityforempathicconcernand
compassion.
Activityinself-specifyingandnarrativeself-networksinthebrainhasbeenfoundto
beassociatedwithmind-wandering,whereinattentiondriftsawayfromagiventask
athand(Mason,etal.,2007).Recentevidencesuggeststhatgreatermind-wandering
isassociatedwithlesscaringtowardoneselfandothers(Jazaierietal.,2016).
Leadersmustoftendealwithmultipledistractions,andifthesedistractionstrigger
mind-wandering(withafocusontheself),thiscanresultinbeingathighriskfor
decreasedcaringandcompassion.Ittakespracticetonoticemind-wanderingand
bringattentionbacktothepresent.
Long-termmeditatorsshowevidencethatisconsistentwithrapidantecedent-
focusedemotionregulation(Nielsen&Kaszniak,2006),perhapsduetomodulation
ofbrainself-networks.Eventhosetrainedforonlyafewweeksinmindfulness
meditationshowevidenceofdecreasedactivationofthesebrainself-networks,with
increasedactivationofbrainsystemsinvolvedinpresent-centeredawarenessof
bodilyactivity(Farb,etal.,2007).Suchbriefmindfulnessmeditationtraining
appearstoenhancetheactivityofbrainemotionregulationsystems(Desbordes,et
al.,2012).Personstrainedinmindfulnessmeditationforonlysevenweeksalso
showreducedinterferenceofemotionalarousalontheperformanceofa
subsequentcognitivetask(Ortner,Kilner,&Zelazo,2007),aswellasreductionin
theimmunesystemactivationassociatedwithchronicemotionaldistress(Creswell,
etal.,2012).
Justsixweeksoftraininginmeditationfocusingoncultivatingaltruisticlove
(termed“loving-kindnessmeditation”)hasbeenshowntoreducesubtlebiasagainst
stigmatizedout-groupssuchasthehomelessorpeopleofcolor(Kang,Gray,&
Dovidio,2013).Evenasinglesessionofloving-kindnessmeditationpracticehas
beenfoundtosignificantlyincreaseparticipants’senseofsocialconnectedness
(Hutcherson,Seppala,&Gross,2008).Short-termmeditationtraining(both
mindfulnessandloving-kindness)hasbeenshowntoincreasealtruisticresponding
toanother’sdistress(Condon,Desbordes,Miller,&DeSteno,2013).And,thereis
evidenceofenhancedactivationofbrainsystemsrelatedtoemotionregulation
followingmeditationtraining,correlatedwithevidenceofgreatercompassionate
behavior(Klimecki,Ricard,&Singer,2013;Weng,etal.,2013).
MoralResilience:
Thisevidenceregardingmeditationhasmotivatedtherecommendationofattention
training,throughmindfulnessandrelatedpractices,asanapproachtoenhance
compassionandreducemoraldistress(Rushton,Kaszniak,&Halifax,2013a,
2013b).Suchtrainingmayalsobeanimportantcontributortothecultivationof
moralresilience,whichRushton(2016;inpress,b)hasdefinedas“thecapacityof
anindividualtosustain,restoreintegrityinresponsetomoraladversity.”Moral
resilienceispositedasavitalantidotetothedespairandmoraldistressthatis
provokedwhenindividualsdiscernthemorallydesirableactionandareunableto
actonitbecauseofinternalorexternalconstraints.Theconceptofmoralresilience
suggeststhatwhilenegativearousal,activatingmoralresonance,including
conscience,isassociatedwithmorallydistressingevents,sucharousalisnot
necessarilyevidenceofmoralinsufficiencyorfailing(Rushton,inpress,a).Rather,
thedistressexperiencedisasignalofmoralconscientiousness—thatoneisawareof
thetensionorconflictbetweenvariouscoursesofaction,noticesit,andispropelled
intoaprocessofinquirytounderstandthenuances,context,boundariesofethical
permissibility,andconsequencesofpossiblecoursesofaction,onselfandothers
(Carse&Rushton,2017).Leaderswhoaremorallyresilientarebetterableto
navigatetheinevitableethicalconflictstheyconfrontwithoutdetrimentalor
excessivelingeringresidue.Intentionallycultivatingthecapacitiesthatbuildmoral
resiliencecansupportleaderstopreservetheirintegrityinthemidstofcomplex
andchallengingcircumstances(Rushton,Kaszniak,&Halifax,inpress).Moreover,
moralresilienceisorientedtowardintegrityandcanofferleadersanimportant
anchorwhentheymustmakeethicalchoicesthatrequiretrade-offsthatwill
necessarilycauseharmorsufferingtospecificpeopleorgroupsofpeopletheyare
leading.
MoralReasoningandEthicalSystems:
Whenanindividualleaderbecomesawareofamoraldilemma,dissonance,or
incoherence,influencedbythevariouscognitiveandemotionalprocessesdescribed
above,thelogicalprocessesofmoralreasoningcomeintoplayindeterminingthe
specificsofprincipledmoralaction.AsdescribedbyKathleenDeanMoore(2016),
“Moralreasoningisdiscourseinwhichpeopleaffirmwhattheythinkistrueorgood
orrightandthen,thecrucialstep,backtheirclaimswithreasons.”(p.19)Toolsfor
moralreasoningsuchastraditionalethicalprinciplesandtheoriesprovideonelens
forexploringmoralconflicts,althoughreasoningaloneisonlyweaklylinkedto
moralbehavior(Blasi,1983;Thoma,1994).Thesystematiccodificationofmoral
reasoningintoethicalsystemscanprovideusefulgeneralguidancetoleaderswho
facefrequentmoraldilemmasinthecourseoftheirresponsibilities.However,such
frameworks,inthecontextofbusyexecutivepractice,maybereducedtominimalist
standardsorbeconfusedwithlegalorcompliancestandards;therebydiminishing
theireffectiveness.Modelsofmoralcompetencythatgobeyondanassemblageof
discretemoral/ethicalcomponentsmayprovidemorenuancedguidanceforwhata
leadercandointheimmediacyofamoralchallenge.
Oneofthemostcitedmodelsofmoralcompetencyisthefour-componentmodel
developedbyJamesRestandcolleagues,synthesizingnearlyacenturyofmoral
developmentsciencetotheorizefouressentialprocessesforeffectivemoralagency.
(Elm&Weber,1994;Rest&Thoma,1985;Rest,1986a,1986b;Rest,Bebeau,
Narvaez,&Thoma,1999;Restetal.,2000;)Sinceitsinitialdevelopment,themodel
hasbeenexpandedtoincludeafifthcomponent.Theexpandedmodelincludes:1)
MoralSensitivity,2)Moralreasoning,3)Moralcommitment,4)Moralcharacter,and
5)Moralaction.
Narvaez(2008a;2008b;2010),buildingonRest’sfoundationhasdevelopedmore
complex,integratedmodelsofmoraldevelopmentandfunctioningthatcapture
manyoftheemergingdiscoveriesinneuroscience,philosophy,anthropology,and
humandevelopment.Inhercross-culturalmoraldevelopmentresearchand
practice,Narvaezhasintroducedinnovativetheories,mostnotably,TriuneEthics
Theory(TET)andIntegrativeEthicalEducation(IEE),inaholistic,empirically
derivedapproachtomoralityandcharacterdevelopmentthatincorporates
elementsofmoralphilosophy,neuroscience,anthropology,andpsychologytoblend
cognitive,social,andintuitionisttheorieswithafocusonethicalexpertise.(Narvaez,
2008a,2008b,2010).Themodelweproposeheredrawsuponandexpands
Narvaez’work.
Summary:
Insummary,emotionalprocesses(involvingdisgustandfear,aswellaspositive
emotions),empathy(andempathicdistress),altruisticdisposition,worldview,sense
ofselfandself-focus,intentions,attention,cognitivecontrolprocesses,moral
reasoning,moraldistress,andmoralresiliencyallappeartomakeimportant
enablingorinhibitorycontributionstomoraldiscernmentandprincipledmoral
action.Researchontheeffectsandcorrelatesoftheattentiontraininginherentto
mindfulnessmeditationpracticesuggeststhatsuchpracticesmaybeusefulin
reducingself-focusedbiasaswellasempathicandmoraldistress.Thefollowing
proposedmodelthereforeemphasizesalloftheseprocessesintheserviceof
providingpracticalguidanceforenhancingmoraldiscernmentandprincipledmoral
action.
TheModel:
Basedonconsiderationsoftheevidenceandscholarshipreviewedabove,aswellas
ourownpersonalandcontemplativepracticeexperience,weproposethefollowing
modelofhowvariouspre-consciousandconsciousprocessescontributetomoral
resonanceandmoraldiscernment,andinturn,toprincipledmoralaction.This
modelover-simplifieswhatisamorecomplexsystemofiterativeandrecurrent
influencesinwhichthevariousprocessesthataredescribedandgraphically
depictedinterdependentlyco-conditioneachother.However,forthepurposeof
providingaheuristicmodelthatcanhelpguideleadersinunderstandingthe
processesbywhichmoral/ethicaldecisionsandactionsoccur,anddeveloping
feasibleeducationderivedfromthemodel,wehavedecideduponthesimplified
proposaldepictedinFigures1a,1b,1c,and1d.Itshouldalsobenotedthatthis
modelisintendedtodescribenormativehumanprocesses.Thereisconsiderable
variabilitybetweenpeopleinthefunctioningofeachoftheprocesseswedepict.
And,therearesomeforwhomthemodelwouldlikelybeinaccurate.Forexample,
thosepersonswhoaredescribedaspsychopathsmayshownoevidenceofempathic
resonancewithothers,andthereforeareabletoharmotherswithoutemotional
reactionorremorse(Blair,Jones,Clark,&Smith,1997;Hare,1999).Althougha
commonperceptionisthatpersonsdescribedaspsychopathsarefoundprimarily
withinprisonpopulations,therearesome“successfulpsychopaths”whocanbe
foundinbusinessandotherleadershippositions(Babiak&Hare,2007).
Figure1a:InitialPerception-ReactionProcesses
Percep&on)Reac&on,
Conscious,
Pre)conscious,
Sensory,Event,
Perceptual,Pa7ern,,
Recogni&on,
Empathic,Resonance,
Empathy,Cues,
,,,,,
Not,Salient,,
Threat,,
Ambivalence,,
Affordance,,,,,,
Bodily,Reac&on,
,Indifference,
,Aversion,
,Confusion,
,Approach,
Implicit,Memory/
Condi&oning,
Figure1b:MoralResonanceProcesses
Moral&Resonance&
Conscious&
Pre0conscious&
Bodily&Reac4on&A6ended&
To?&
Empathic&Resonance&
A6ended&To?&
Conscience:&Alignment&or&
Conflict&With&One’s&Values&&&Character&
Yes&
No&
Yes&
No&
Una6ended&Empathy&Cues&
Una6ended&Bodily&Reac4on&Cues&
Bodily&Reac4on&Cues&
Empathy&Cues&
Altruis4c&Disposi4on&
Altruis4c&Disposi4on&
Sensed&Misalignment&or&Conflict&
Alignment&&&Integrity&
Figure1c:MoralDiscernmentProcesses
Pre$conscious+
Execu.ve+Control+Pause,+
Reappraisal,+Arousal+
Regula.on+
Cogni.ve+Processing/+
Moral+Reasoning/+
Ethical+Systems+
Moral+Discernment+
Conscious+Social+&+Emo.onal+Contexts+
UnaBended+Empathy,+Empathic+Distress,+or+Moral+Distress+Cues+
UnaBended+Bodily+Reac.on+Cues+
Conscience:+Sensed+Misalignment+or+Conflict++
Lack+of+Execu.ve+Control+
Moral+Conflict+ Moral+Conflict+
Inten.ons+
Altruis.c+Disposi.on+
Distress+
Alignment+&+Integrity+
Figure1d:MoralActionProcesses
Theprocessesshowninthismodelbeginwithasensoryevent.Sensoryevents
relevanttothemoral/ethicaldomaincouldinvolveseeingorhearingsomeoneharm
another,observingsomeonewhoisinphysicaloremotionaldistress,observing
someoneintheleader’sorganizationbeingtreatedunjustly,observingsomeone
speakingdisrespectfullytoasupervisor,learningofsomeonehavingbetrayed
organizationalconfidentialities,oranyofapotentiallyendlessnumberofother
examplesrelevanttotheleader’smoralfoundations.
Cogni&ve)Appraisal)&)Conscience:)
Sense)of)Moral)Alignment)&)Resolu&on?)
Moral)Ac&on)
Return)to)Moral)Discernment) No)
Conscious)
Pre>conscious)
Una@ended)Empathy,)Empathic)Distress)or)Moral)Distress)Cues)
Una@ended)Bodily)Reac&on)Cues) Impulsive)Self>focused)Ac&on)
)))
Self>interested)Moral)Ac&on)
Principled)Moral)Ac&on)
Cogni&ve)Processing)
Conscience:):)Sensed)Misalignment)or)Conflict)))
If)Any)Sense)Of)Moral)Misalignment)Exists,)Appraisal)&)Conscience)May)Ac&vate)
Alignment)&)Integrity)
Inthecasewhereamoraland/orethicaldilemmaorviolationisperceived,the
mind/brainquicklyinitiatesasetofpre-consciousandconsciousprocessesthat
eventuallyleadtothesensoryeventbeingrecognized,conceptualized(i.e.,made
senseof),andabletoaffectmoralresonance,moraldiscernment,andprincipled
moralaction.
Thefirstoftheseprocessesinvolvesperceptualpatternrecognition,whereinvarious
sensoryelements(e.g.,shape,color,movement)are“bound”togetherintowhat
quicklybecomesconsciouslyrecognizableasameaningfulperceptorevent.This
perceptualpatternrecognitionprocessisaffectedbyalloftheleader’sprior
conditioningandimplicitmemory(e.g.,habitlearning),operatingoutsideof
consciousawareness.
Theresultsofthispatternrecognitionbecomesimultaneouslyavailabletobotha
processthatincorporatestheleader’smomentaryneeds/motivations,andtoa
processthatmaygiverisetoempathicresonance,bothinitiallyoperatingoutsideof
consciousawareness.Needsormotivationsactiveinthemomentmayinclude
hunger,thirst,safety,physicalcomfort,socialaffiliation/affection,sex,and“higher
order”needssuchassocialinclusionandpositiveself-regard,amongothers.
Empathicresonancereferstotheautomaticsimulationwithintheleader’sown
brainandbodyofaspectsoftheexperienceofanother,initiatedbysuchcuesasthe
other’sfacialexpression,bodilyposture,toneofvoice,etc.Forexample,perceiving
thefacialexpressionofanotherinpaincaninitiatethosesamebrainandvisceral
activitiesinaleaderthatarepartoftheother’sunpleasantpainfulexperience.
Althoughthemind/brain/bodyprocessesinvolvedininitialempathicresonance
operateoutsideconsciousawareness,theremaybeconsequentbodily/visceral
activities(e.g.,heart-rateincrease,changeinbreathing,tightnessinthechest,etc.)
thatareavailabletoaleader’sconsciousawareness,orthatcanbemadeavailable
bypracticedcarefulattentiontothebody,andhenceaffectprocesseswegroupas
moralresonance.
Aleader’sneeds/motivationsinanygivenmomentareinfluencednotonlyby
variousbiologicalandpsychologicalconditions(e.g.,bloodsugarlevel,relative
recentabundanceordeprivationofsocialaffiliation/affection),butalsobyaleader’s
worldviewandsenseofself.Worldviewandsenseofselfarenotexplicitlydepicted
infigures1a–1dbecausetheyaffectmultipleaspectsofeachgroupofprocesses,
fromwhatisdetectedassalienttotheself,towhetheranotherisexperiencedas
havingsimilaritiestoone’sself,andthereforeelicitingempathicresonance,andalso
conditioningaltruisticdisposition,values,intentions,andmoralreasoning.
Worldviewreferstoinfluencesthataffectwhataleaderpre-consciouslydetermines
tobesalient,importantorofvalue.Theseinfluencesrangefromhowaleaderwas
treatedandraisedbyparents,throughculturalmessagesandpractices,to
institutionalnorms.ThiscandeterminehowaleaderprioritizeswhatHaidt(2012)
describesasdimensionsofthemoralspectrum,including:harm/care,
fairness/reciprocity,in-group/loyalty,authority/respect,andpurity/sanctity.
Worldview,thoughpre-consciouslyaffectingwhatisfelttobeimportantor
valuable,maybeconsciouslyexperiencedasthenarrativesorstoriesthataleader
livesandseesher/himselfasparticipatingwithin.Suchstoriestypicallyincorporate
senseofselfinrelationtoothers,andcanhavewide-rangingeffects.Asnotedby
MacyandJohnstone(2012):
“Futuregenerationswilllookbackatthetimewearelivinginnow.Thekind
offuturetheylookfrom,andthestorytheytellaboutourperiod,willbe
shapedbychoiceswemakeinourlifetimes.Themosttellingchoiceofall
maywellbethestorywelivefromandseeourselvesparticipatingin.Itsets
thecontextofourlivesinawaythatinfluencesallourotherdecisions.”(p.
33)
Senseofselfreferstothoseautomaticandpre-consciouswaysofsensingthenature
ofselfinrelationtoothers,alsoinfluencedbyparental,cultural,institutional,and
othercontexts.Oneleadercouldhaveapre-conscioussenseofselfasfixed
(unchangingovertime),incompetitionwithothersforscarceresources,and
independent(neithermuchaffectedbytheneedsandactionsofothers,norseeing
one’sownneedsandactionsasmuchaffectingothers).Anotherleadermighthavea
senseofselfascontext-specific(changingfluidlyasconditionedbycontextand
situation)andinterdependent,withaleader’sneedsandbehaviorcontinuously
affectingandaffectedbythoseofothers.
Consideraleaderwithamorecontext-specificandinterdependentsenseofselfthat
includesthevaluingofcooperation,commonhumanity(despitesuperficial
differences),andmutualcare.Forthisfirstleader,theperceptionofanother’s
sufferingmayactivateorstrengthenthemomentaryneed/motivationto
compassionatelyrelievethatsuffering.Conversely,considertheleaderwithamore
fixed,competitive,andindependentimplicitsenseofself.Forthissecondleader,the
samephysiologicalandemotionalarousalofempathicresonancemayactivateor
strengthenthemomentaryneeds/motivationsforsafety,forreducingunpleasant
arousaltoregainphysicalcomfort,andforconservingscarcepersonalresources
(e.g.,energy,time).
Forthefirstleader,theperceivedevent,ininteractionwiththatleader’smomentary
needs/motivations,wouldinfluencetheprocessofsaliencedetectionandvalence
determinationinsuchawaythattheeventwillbeprocessedasbothsalientandas
positivelyvalenced(i.e.,asanaffordanceoropportunityforcompassionate
concern).Forthesecondleader,thissameeventwouldmorelikelybeprocessedas
eithernotsalient,andthereforeignored,orasapotentialthreat.When,withinthe
saliencedetectionandvalencedeterminationprocess,bothpotential
affordance/opportunityandthreataredetected,thereisambivalence.
Thissalience-andvalence-determiningprocess,inturn,activatesanotherprocess
wehavelabeledas“bodilyreaction.”Thesereactionsinvolvethevariouswaysin
whichaleader’sbodyisbeingpreparedfordifferentpossibleactions.If,asaresult
ofallofthepreviouslydescribedprocesses,thepersonoreventhasbeenappraised
asapotentialaffordance/opportunity,variousphysiologicalprocessespreparea
leaderforapproach.Here,forexample,aleadermightexperienceasenseof
quickenedpositivearousal/energyinresponsetoanalignmentofthesituationwith
altruisticintentionsorempathicconcern.If,alternatively,theappraisalisthatof
potentialthreat,thenaleader’sphysiologypreparesforaversiveaction,either
avoidance,withdrawal,escape,oraggression.Here,forexample,aleadermight
sensetheabdomentighteninginresponsetoanappraisedthreattoher/his
integrityorcorevalues.Whenambivalenceispresent,thereisconfusion,sensing
thebodypreparingsimultaneouslyforbothapproachandaversion.And,ofcourse,
ifthepersonoreventisappraisedasnotsalientandignored,thereisneutralityor
indifferenceandnoparticularpreparationforaction.
Eachofthesebodilyreactionsmaythusgiverisetosubtleperceivablecues–afelt
senseofbodilychange–thatmaybebroughtintoconsciousawareness,particularly
withpracticedattentiontothesebodilycues.Suchbodilycuesofdifferentreactions
arehelpfulforaleadertorecognize,becausetheyareindicatorsofwhatmight
otherwisebeunnoticedpotentialbiasesthatcanaffectmoraldecisionsandactions.
Attentiontothesebodilycues,withcuriosityandaninquiryintotheirsignificance,
thusformsanimportantprocesswithinmoralresonance.
Inadditiontotheperception-reactionstreamofbodilychangesthatpreparethe
bodyforactionorinaction,whentheeventisassociatedwithapersonorpersons
thereisaparallelstreaminwhichempathicresonance,initiallyoccurringpre-
consciously,initiatesbodilycuesthatcanbeavailabletoconsciousawareness.
Thesebodilycuesmaybeexperiencedasasenseof“feelingwith”anotherperson,
whichmayinvolvepositiveornegativeemotionalexperience,dependingonthe
emotionbeingexpressedbythepersonwhoisperceived.
Withinthesubsequentprocessesassociatedwithmoralresonance,theleadermay
focusattentionontheseempathicbodilycues,aswellasbodilycuesthataccompany
preparationforaversion,approach,orambivalence/confusion.Beingawareof
bodilycuesmay,inthebestofcircumstances,primeunbiasedinquiry.Bringing
whatwouldhavebeenimplicitbiasinginfluencesintoconsciousawareness,through
attendingtothesebodilycues,allowsotherconsciousconsiderationstohelp
balancevariousinfluencesaffectingdecisionsandactions.Inthecontextofanevent
presentingapotentialmoralissue,attentiontofeltexperiencecanactivate
conscience,hereseenasaconsciousprocessthatdetectsalignmentorconflict
betweeninitialreactionstoeventsandaleader’svaluesandcharacter.Processesof
consciencearesensitivetopotentialviolationsofpersonalintegrity-understoodasa
stateoffeltwholenessandharmony.Conscienceispre-consciouslyconditionedby
aleader’sworldview,corevalues,andexperienceofself,whichcombineto
determinealtruisticdisposition–theinclinationtoprovidehelptoothers,even
whenatacosttoself.
Activationofconsciencemaymanifestinafeltsensethatcanindicatealignmentand
integrity,oralerttheleadertoapossibleconflictandviolationofintegrity.For
example,inthecaseofaleaderobservingacolleaguewhodisrespectingan
employee,therecouldbeafeltsenseofdisgustatthemistreatmentofanotherthat
isinconflictwithpositivefeelingstowardthecolleaguewhomayplayacriticalrole
intheorganization’sstructureandprofitability.
Conflictmayalsooccurbetweenaleader’sownconscienceandthesocialand
institutionalcontextsinwhichaleaderissituated.Withrelativelyunbiasedand
stableattention,theprocessofconsciencecanincludeanopeninquiryprocessthat
isattunedto:(1)awarenessofanymisalignmentormoralconflictdeterminedby
conscience,(2)aspectsofthesituation,includingtheinterestsandvaluesofothers,
(3)aleader’sownworldview,mostdeeplyheldvalues,howselfisexperiencedin
relationtoothers,andhowconsiderationofthesereflectsandshapescharacter,and
(4)aninitialawarenessofpossiblechoicesofaction.Itisimportanttonotethat
consciencealoneoughtnotbethefinalarbiterofmoralaction.Rather,itisan
elementinacomplexprocessthatrequiresinquiryanddiscernmenttounderstand
themeaningandsignificanceofthesignalandtouseittoassistindiscernmentof
ethicallyjustifiedactionorinaction.
Summarizingthesefirsttwopartsofourproposedmodel,twostreamsofprocesses
operatewithinthedomainsofinitialperception-reactionandmoralresonance.One
isdominatedbyneeds/motivationshavingtheireffectsonsalience/valence
detection,andconsequentlydeterminingbodilyreactionsthatprepareforaction.
Theotherstreamisdominatedbyempathicresonance,involvinganinitiallypre-
conscioussimulationoftheother’semotionalexperiencewithinone’sownbrain
andbody.Thisempathicresonancegivesrisetosubtlebodilycuesthatcanbe
experiencedasfeelingwiththeother.Whenthebodilycuesofthesetwostreams
arebroughtintoconsciousawareness,incombinationwithaltruisticdisposition,
conscienceisactivated.Ifconsciencedetectsalignmentandintegrity,then
principledmoralactioncanoccur.Althoughnotillustratedinthegraphicdepiction
ofthemodel,insomecasesitmaybethattheinitialcuesindicatethatalignment
andfurtherdiscernmentisneededtoverifyorshiftawarenesstowardtheaction
thatwillbestserveinthesituation.Further,itmaybethecasethataleadercanstill
beinintegritywithher/hisownvaluesevenwheneffortstoactareconstrained
(Rushton,inpressa).Whenconsciencedetectsmisalignmentorconflict,initiationof
theprocessesofmoraldiscernmentisnecessaryinordertoprepareformoral
decisionsandactions.
Intheprocessesassociatedwithmoraldiscernment,thepreviousprocessesof
conscience,wheremoralmisalignmentorconflictisdetected,cangiveriseto
distress.Whensuchdistressresultsinhighemotionalarousalandisnotgiven
sufficientattention,itcanmotivateself-interestedmoralaction.Similarly,when
initialbodilyreactioncues,ormisalignments/conflictsofconscienceare
unattended,theresultcanbeimpulsiveself-focusedaction.However,through
awarenessofbodily,affectiveandcognitiveresponses,distresscanbemodulatedby
consciousexecutiveprocessesthatinitiatereappraisal(i.e.,differentsense-making)
ofthesituation,withconsequentemotionregulationthatreducesarousal.The
regulatoryfunctionofexecutiveprocessesislikelytobemosteffectivewhena
leaderhaspracticedattendingtosubtlephysicalcues.Executiveprocessesarealso
influencedbyone’saltruisticdisposition,activatedbyattentiontothebodilycuesof
empathicresonance,inturninformingtheleader’spre-consciousandconscious
intentions.Theseintentionsarealsoinfluencedbysocial(includingorganizational)
andemotionalcontexts.Aleader’sprosocialintentions,suchasactingkindly,fairly
andjustlywithothers,canbestrengthenedbyexecutiveprocessesthatare
themselvesinfluencedbythepreviousprocessesofconscience.
Theactivationofconscience,alongwiththeinfluencesofperceiveddistress,
intentions,andsocial/emotionalcontext,asmediatedbyexecutiveprocesses,can
thenbebroughtintothemoraldiscernmentprocess.Here,thecognitiveactivitiesof
inductiveanddeductivemoralreasoningandconsiderationofethicalprinciples
preparealeaderforprincipledmoralaction.
Inthesuiteofmoralactionprocesses,theresultofmoraldiscernmentleadsto
eitheraconsciousmoraldecisionorprincipledmoralaction(or,insomecases,
principledinaction).Inafinalrecursivestage,aleadercanobservetheeffectsof
her/hisownmoraldecisionsandactions,callinguponconscienceandinsightto
determinewhethermoralalignmentandresolutionhasbeenreached,orwhether
additionalengagementofmoraldiscernmentisnecessary.Asalsoillustratedwithin
theprocessesofmoralaction,whenaleaderhasnotattendedtobodilyreaction
cues,ortomisalignments/conflictsofconscience,thenimpulsiveself-focusedaction
islikelytooccur.Examplesofimpulsiveself-focusedactionincluderage,angry
accusation,resourcehoarding,dishonesty,andotherbehaviors.Similarly,self-
interestedmoralactionscanoccurwhenaleaderhasnotattendedtoempathic
resonance,empathicdistress,ormoraldistresscues.Suchself-interestedactions
maysuperficiallyappeartobemoral,butservetheprimarypurposeofrelievingthe
leader’sowndistress.
ImplicationsoftheModelforLeadershipEducation:
Thenovelaspectsofourproposedmodelhaveseveralimplicationsforleadership
education.First,theysuggestthatsucheducationwouldbenefitleadersbyfocusing
onthoseprimarilypre-consciousprocessesinvolvedininitialperceptionand
reactiontoapotentiallymorallysignificantevent.Preciselybecausetheseprocesses
occuroutsideofconsciousawareness,leadersneedtounderstandtheirimpactand
acquirestableandpliantattentionalskillstoallowanopenandcuriousobservation
ofsubtlebodilyreactionspotentiallysignalingbothempathicresonanceandbodily
preparationsforactionthatmaybiasmoraldecisions.Acquiringsuchattentional
skillsrequiresthekindofpracticecharacteristicofmindfulnessmeditationtraining,
whereinfeelings,thoughts,andothermentalformationsarerepeatedlynoticedwith
alertopenness,curiosity,andnon-judgment.
Asecondimplication,giventheimportanceofworldviewandsenseofselfin
altruisticdispositionasitinformsconscience,isthatleadershipeducationshould
includeintensivereflectionanddiscussionofworldviewandsenseofself.Whatare
aleader’s(typicallyunexamined)assumptionsabouttheirinterdependent
relationshipswithothers?Towhatextentdoescompetitionversuscooperation
dominatehowothersareapproached?Whatarealeader’smostdeeplyheldvalues?
Theseandmanyotherrelatedquestionscanhelpbringintoawarenessthis
importantsetofinfluencesuponconscience.
MatthieuRicard(2015),inhisbookAltruism,emphasizesthefar-reaching
importanceofworldview:
“…menandwomenacrosstheworldmustrecognizethattheyare
interdependentonmultiplelevels–betweencontinents,nations,andas
individuals–andtobeawareofourcommondestiny.Theinterestsofour
humancommunitycanonlybesafeguardedbymeasuresthatarecommonto
everyone,eveniftheyruncontrarytonear-sightednationalinterests,local
selfishness,thehegemonyofmultinationals,andthemachinationsof
lobbyistswhomeddlewithpolicy,oftentransformingtheinternationalscene
intoagathering-placewheresordidhagglingprevails.”(p.676)
Ricardadvocatesfortheimportantroleofmeditativepracticesthatcultivatea
stableandvividattention,andthosethatreinforceoursenseofdeep
interconnectionwithallbeingsandtheentireplanetitself.Someoftheevidence
regardingthemorally-relevanteffectsofdifferentmeditativepracticeswere
reviewedabove.Whethersuchpracticesarecapableofallowingatransformationof
thoseleaderswhoaremosthighlycommittedtoaworldviewandsenseofselfthat
isfocusedonindividualism,egoism,andselfishness,remainsanopenquestion.
Athirdimplicationinvolveshowmoralalignmentormisalignmentandconflictis
sensed.Again,becausebodilycuesofintegrityversusdiscomfortordistresscan
providetheearliestwarningsofalignmentormisalignment,acultivatedand
practicedopenattentiontobodilyexperienceseemscritical.Whenleadersareable
torecognizeandleveragethesecuestodeepeninsightanddiscernment,itis
possiblethattheirrelationshiptothedistressorconflictinherentinleadership
couldbeshiftedfromguiltandshametocuriosityandpossibility(Carse&Rushton,
2017).
Afourthimplicationisrelatedtotheimportantroleofexecutivementalcontrol
processincreatingsufficienttimeforreappraisingeventsinwaysthatresultin
greateremotionregulation,reducingtherisksofimpulsiveself-focusedactionor
primarilyself-interestedmoralaction.Executivecontrolprocesses,aswith
attentiontobodilycues,areenhancedbymindfulnesswhichhelpscultivatethe
abilitytostopandreappraise.
Ourintentionisthatwhatwehaveproposedinthepresentmodelmightmotivate
newpracticalapproachestoleadershipeducationtoenhancethemoralintegrity
andmoralresilienceoftheleadersoftodayandtomorrow.
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