LEARNER GUIDE - Yellow Media · PDF fileLEARNER GUIDE UNIT STANDARD ... LEARNING UNIT: TITLE: Further Education and Training Certificate: Performing Arts NQF ... Date of completion

LEARNER GUIDE

UNIT STANDARD: IDENTIFY JOB OPPORTUNITIES WITHIN THE

PERFORMING ARTS INDUSTRY

SAQA ID: 114546

NQF LEVEL: 03

CREDITS: 04

LEARNING UNIT:

TITLE: Further Education and Training Certificate: Performing Arts

NQF LEVEL: 04

US: 114545 Learner Guide

Identify job opportunities within the performing arts industry 2

able of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENT

LEARNER INFORMATION .................................................................................... 5

NOTES TO THE LEARNER ..................................................................................... 6

LEARNER GUIDE INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 9

Purpose ....................................................................................................................................... 9

Specific Outcomes ........................................................................................................................ 9

Assessment Criteria ..................................................................................................................... 10

To qualify .................................................................................................................................... 10

What is a credit? .......................................................................................................................... 10

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) ............................................................................................... 10

Range of Learning ........................................................................................................................ 11

Learner Support Pack ................................................................................................................... 11

Responsibility .............................................................................................................................. 11

Learner Support ........................................................................................................................... 12

Assessment ................................................................................................................................. 13

DURATION OF PROGRAMME ............................................................................. 15

ICONS .............................................................................................................. 16

LEARNING MAP ................................................................................................ 17

UNIT: 114545 IDENTIFY JOB OPPORTUNITIES WITHIN THE PERFORMING ARTS

INDUSTRY ........................................................................................................ 18

COMPETENCIES ............................................................................................... 18

........................................................................................................................ 18

........................................................................................................................ 18



MODULE: 1- IDENTIFY THE KEY ROLE-PLAYERS IN THE PERFORMING ART`S

INDUSTRY FOR OWN CAREER-PATH PLANNING. ................................................. 19

........................................................................................................................ 19

........................................................................................................................ 19

1.1 KEY ORGANISATIONS WHICH FUND THE PERFORMING ARTS ARE IDENTIFIED IN

ORDER TO KNOW WHO TO APPROACH FOR FUNDING (SO 1, AC 1) ....................... 20

1.2 KEY LOBBYING BODIES AND TRADE UNIONS FOR PERFORMING ARTISTS ARE

IDENTIFIED IN ORDER TO ENSURE THAT RIGHTS OF THE ARTIST WILL BE

PROTECTED (SO 1, AC 2) .................................................................................... 21

1.3 POTENTIAL EMPLOYERS ARE IDENTIFIED FOR OWN CAREER-PATH PLANNING.

(SO 1, AC 3) ....................................................................................................... 24

MODULE: 2- INVESTIGATE EDUCATION AND CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN THE

PERFORMING ARTS. ......................................................................................... 31

........................................................................................................................ 31

........................................................................................................................ 31

2.1 CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN THE PERFORMING ARTS, MEDIA, ADVERTISING,

MARKETING, AND RELATED ARTS FIELDS ARE IDENTIFIED (SO 2, AC 1) ............... 32

ART & DESIGN CAREER EDUCATION .................................................................. 34

ART & DESIGN CAREER PROJECTIONS ................................................................ 35

MODULE: 3- DEVELOP ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND

VALUES. ........................................................................................................... 39

........................................................................................................................ 39

........................................................................................................................ 39

SELF-ASSESSMENT............................................................................................. 59

LEARNER EVALUATION FORM ........................................................................... 60



UNIT STANDARD

UNIT STANDARD NUMBER:

114546

LEVEL ON THE NQF:

03

CREDITS:

04

FIELD:

Field 02 - Culture and Arts

Sub Field:

Performing Arts

PURPOSE:

The purpose of this unit standard is to prepare learners to be resourceful in positioning themselves within the performing arts` industry. In order to be successful in the arts in South Africa, it is necessary to understand the various options available, become innovative in finding gaps in the market, take initiative to create work where none exists and find ways of marketing oneself and one`s skills. It is also important for learners at Level 4 to research and access information about possible further study opportunities at Levels 5 and above in order to ensure life-long learning and skills development



Details Please Complete details

Name of learner

Name of Mentor

Type of Business

Facilitator

Date started

Date of completion and assessment

Learner information



Notes to the Learner

Dear Learner,

Welcome to this Learning Programme. We trust that this Learning Programme will

be of great value to you during your studies and in your future career.

To succeed in anything in life requires a lot of hard work.

It will be expected of you to work through this study guide with a great deal of

attention. It provides you with information on how to work through the material,

details exactly what will be expected of you and what objectives you need to

achieve during the study of this Learning Programme. You will have to:

Complete your assignments with dedication and submit them in time.

Complete the self study sections for your own benefit. The self study sections

provide you with the opportunity to practice what you have learnt.

Act as adult learners.

The theory you are learning helps you to understand why you are doing things in

a specific way. It also gives you a way to compare what you are doing to the way

others do things. However, the only way to become competent is by doing the

actual work according to the unit standards. This Learning Programme provides



The Learning approach will be:

Learning is a (1) active, (2) constructive, (3) cumulative and (4) goal-directed process.

Active

You have to participate and complete tasks.

Constructive

The learning content will be to your benefit.

Goal Oriented

Certain goals have to be met to complete the qualification competently.

Cumulative

The learning content builds on your existing experience.



The result of this is that you as learner will have to do the following:

Actively participate in the learning process.

Be constructive and actively convert your learning by integrating the new knowledge and

skills you gain in this learning programme with previous experience.

The cumulative character of learning implies that we need to build new knowledge and skills

into you existing knowledge and skills. Therefore, your have to resort and refer to what you

already know to ensure that this learning programme is of value to you.

You also have to be goal-directed. Work according to and achieve the learning programme

objectives as well as your personal learning objectives. Know what the learning program’s

objectives are!



Purpose The purpose of this unit standard is to facilitate learning and to ensure

that learners are able to cope with learning in the context of

learnerships, skills programmes and other learning programmes. Many

adult learners in the FET band have not been in a learning situation for

a long time, and need learning and study strategies and skills to enable

successful progression. Learners competent at this level will be able to

deal with learning materials, to access and use useful resources, to

seek clarification and help when necessary, and apply a range of

learning strategies. They do this with an understanding of the features

and processes of the workplaces and occupations to which their

learning programmes refer.

Specific Outcomes Specific outcomes describe what the learner has to be able to do

successfully at the end of this learning experience.

Learner Guide Introduction



Assessment Criteria

The only way to establish whether a learner is competent and has

accomplished the specific outcomes is through the assessment process.

Assessment involves collecting and interpreting evidence about the

learners’ ability to perform a task.

This Learning Programme includes assessments in the form of self-

assessments, group exercises, quizzes, projects and a practical training

programme whereby you are required to perform tasks on the job. You

are also expected to collect a portfolio of evidence, signed by your

supervisor that you have successfully performed these tasks.

To qualify To qualify and receive credits towards your qualification, a registered

assessor will conduct an evaluation and assessment of your portfolio of

evidence and competency.

What is a credit?

A credit is the formal recognition that you have the necessary

knowledge, skills and understanding in a particular field of study. One

(1) credit = 10 notional hours of learning. ‘Notional hours’ are time

spent on homework, assignments, practicing on the job, classroom

time, or any other time spent to become competent in the particular

standard or qualification.

Recognition of Prior

Learning

(RPL)

RPL is a way of recognising what you already know and can do. You

can receive recognition of existing competency regardless of where,

how and when it was acquired.

For RPL assessment, you need to submit evidence of a skill or

experience. This can be done by compiling a portfolio, being

interviewed, giving a practical demonstration, completing a project, or

by writing a formal ‘test’.



Range of Learning This describes the situation and circumstance in which competence

must be demonstrated and the parameters in which the learner

operates.

Learner Support

Pack

Every learner will receive at least the following resources during this

Learning Programme:

Learner Guide.

Learner Workbook.

The learner workbook must be used in conjunction with this learner

guide for developmental and formative assessment activities.

Responsibility The responsibility of learning rests with you, so . . .

Be proactive and ask questions.

Seek assistance and help from your facilitator, if required.



Learner Support

Please remember that as the programme is outcomes based – this

implies the following:

a) You are responsible for your own learning. Make sure you

manage your study, research and portfolio time responsibly.

b) Learning activities are learner driven. Make sure you use the

learner guide and workbook in the manner intended, and are

familiar with the portfolio guide requirements.

c) The facilitator is there to reasonably assist you during contact,

practical and workplace time of this programme – make sure

that you have his/her contact details.



Assessment

How will I be prepared for assessment?

During the programme developmental activities will be conducted to

assist you in preparing for final assessment. For your own benefit,

make sure that you participate fully in all the developmental and

formative assessment activities!

What will I finally be required to do for assessment?

Final assessment will be conducted on the following submission of

evidence:

Knowledge questionnaire.

Portfolio of evidence.

Structured interview.

What will be assessed in the above?

All assessments are conducted strictly in accordance with the unit

standard requirements. Assessment is a way of measuring what you

know and are able to do. When you have learnt something, you should

be able to apply what you have learnt. You may be assessed when you

are sure that you are ready to be assessed. If you do not achieve the

standard the first time, you can be coached or trained further and then

be assessed again later. You will be assessed in a number of ways and

at regular intervals. You will also sit a formal examination at the end of

your studies.

When do I start preparing for assessment?

Right from the start – make sure you are familiar with the assessment

guide/portfolio guide, and start preparing and collecting evidence from

the onset of the programme.



Formative Assessment

In order to gain credits for this programme you will need to show an assessor that you are

competent in the unit standard. The activities in this programme are designed not only to

bring about your competence but also to prove that you have mastered competence. You

are required to create a file called your portfolio of evidence (POE) to show your assessor

that you have mastered the outcomes of the unit standard. Where you see the POE icon,

you must remove the worksheet from your learner guide and place it in your POE.

Summative assessment

Not all the specific outcomes will be formatively assessed during the programme or in the

workplace. The objective is to create independent and self-sufficient learners. This means

that you will also be required to do independent research and assignments outside the

training room. This work will also need to be presented in your POE. Your assessor and you

will conduct a pre assessment meeting to discuss the assessment process and how you will

collect evidence of your competence. When you are ready, you will advise your assessor that

you are ready for the assessment. The summative assessment activities are indicated at the

end of the learning guide. If your summative assessment is conducted using observation,

role plays or verbal assessment, place a signed copy of the checklists, once completed by the

assessor/assessment panel, in your POE.



The total proposed duration of this programme is as follows

Unit Standard Theoretical Learning (30%) Workplace Learning (70%) Total

Hours

No Time/Notional Hours Time/Notional Hours

114545 28 12 40

Duration of Programme

ICONS

Icons Type of assessment Description

Formative knowledge

assessment:

This comprises of questions

to assess your knowledge.

You must obtain at least 80%

in each assessment criterion.

Self-reflexive assessment You will be required to

answer a few reflexive

questions.

Teamwork Self-Assessment

Form

After you completed this

course, you will be required

to assess your own

behaviour regarding team

work.

Work place experience After you completed this


to assess your own

behaviour regarding work

experience.

Project research After you completed this


to assess your own

behaviour regarding reseach.

http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=2ZrGJf9sD1TuhM&tbnid=QMzQ7sF71DGEaM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http://www.virtualstudio.tv/blog/post/66-work-experience-opportunities-in-video-production-and-media-for-young-people-in-the-cambridge-area&ei=dQtYUu6KPMKw0AXosoH4Dw&bvm=bv.53899372,d.ZG4&psig=AFQjCNEsimbjcXdvUSLYLUiRDMc9MOImtA&ust=1381588140131627

SAQA ID: 114545 Learner Guide


Learning Map

Module: 01-Identify the key role-players in the

performing art`s industry for own career-path planning

Module:02-Investigate education and career opportunities in the

performing arts.

Module:03-Develop entrepreneurial skills,

knowledge, attitudes and values.

Module: 04-Reflect on own career path in the performing

arts.



UNIT: 114545 Identify job opportunities within the performing arts

industry

Competencies

Knowledge

of:

knowledge of potential funding organisations, relationships with agents, producers and casting directors, a knowledge of trade unions, collaboratives, companies, licensing agents, ticketing organisations, educational institutions etc.].

roles and job opportunities that exist across a range of performing arts media.

needs of communities and how they could translate into opportunities for entrepreneurship in the performing arts.

and labour practises.

Skills to:

and skills in order to investigate suitable education and career opportunities in the performing arts, media, advertising, marketing, and related arts fields

to make an economic contribution to self and society in the performing

arts and related fields

http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=CqZN-kxFNGk-cM&tbnid=vtc2VWAr-EkR4M:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http://blogs.swa-jkt.com/swa/brianduffy/2013/08/14/drawing-knowledge/&ei=4qofUumAEMil0AWdvoHICg&bvm=bv.51495398,d.d2k&psig=AFQjCNE6u0u6yh3paTFZAzPZJ8_iWUvgEw&ust=1377893464378054

http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=Zzb39Jt1ArQIAM&tbnid=xfPH4oExiUsLaM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http://www.businesswest.co.uk/business-solutions/skills-for-business&ei=g6ofUtqeCcaZ0QX6xYHgDw&bvm=bv.51495398,d.d2k&psig=AFQjCNFB7YXd9GLJ5TBhCBl5j-ePjWm7Vw&ust=1377893191425707



Module: 1- Identify the key role-players in the performing art`s

industry for own career-path planning.

Specific Outcome

On completion of this section you will be able to: Identify the

key role-players in the performing art`s industry for own career-

path planning.

Assessment Criteria

Key organisations which fund the performing arts are identified in

order to know who to approach for funding (SO 1, AC 1)

Key lobbying bodies and trade unions for performing artists are

identified in order to ensure that rights of the artist will be

protected (SO 1, AC 2)

Potential employers are identified for own career-path planning.

(SO 1, AC 3)

The potential for self-employment is identified. (SO 1, AC 4)

Opportunities for life-long training and enrichment in the

performing arts are identified. (SO 1, AC 5)



1.1 Key organisations which fund the performing arts are identified in


Create a Funding Plan for Your Organization

Laying out a funding development plan is the first step to becoming proactive in grant seeking and

grant writing. Both non-profit and for-profits organizations can benefit from a good plan for getting

funding. Here are the parts of an all-purpose funding development plan:

Mission statement: A mission statement tells funders your purpose or vision for being a

structured nonprofit or for-profit organization. The mission statement should include the name

of your organization, its structural status (nonprofit or for-profit), the year it was formed, and its

purpose (reason for organization).

Make this statement clear and impactful, reflecting your vision. If you already have a mission

statement, maybe it creates more confusion than clarity. Take a long look at your existing

mission statement and ask yourself whether you need to rewrite that statement.

Assessment of funding needs: What programs and services do you want to offer? Where is

the funding coming from — internal or external sources? Ask and answer questions about your

organization's financial strengths, as well as its financial weaknesses. Also, consider what

funding opportunities are available to your organization and what threats to funding your

organization faces.

Funding goals: How much money do you need to raise from external funding sources for

each program or service?

Your goals should be global and futuristic; they should describe where you want to be when

the grant money runs out.

Funding objectives: What benchmarks do you want to set to assure that you reach these

funding goals?

Your goals can’t stand alone. You’ll never accomplish anything if your goals aren’t supported

by objectives. Objectives act as benchmarks or reference points; they’re measurable steps

that must be taken in order to achieve your goals. And every goal must have at least one

objective.

Action plan: What are the annual tasks, over three to five years that must be completed in

order to make your funding development plan a reality?

In the action plan part of your organization’s funding development plan, you need to sort your

funding needs into categories of for each program or service that needs external funding or

grant monies.



Monitoring and evaluation of funding objectives: How can your organization track and

prove that the project’s measurable objectives were met and at what levels? What are your

evaluation tools?

You need to determine how your organization will track and evaluate your funding plan’s

objectives. In this part of the funding development plan, make sure to mention who'll conduct

the monitoring and evaluation activities and who'll see or review the evaluation findings or

reports.

After you write your funding development plan, stick to it. Before writing any grant requests, first

make sure that the grant fits into your plan. Be organized, stay focused, and follow your funding

plan’s road map to success and stability

1.2 Key lobbying bodies and trade unions for performing artists are

identified in order to ensure that rights of the artist will be protected

(SO 1, AC 2)

South Africa - Social dialogue

Trade union freedom

Section 23 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 and the Labour Relations

Act, 1995 guarantee the right of individuals to form, join and participate in the legal activities of

trade unions.

South Africa has a vibrant trade union movement that played a major role in the struggle

against apartheid. The major trade union federation – the Congress of South African Trade

Unions (COSATU) – is a political alliance partner of the ruling party, the African National

Congress (ANC). There are at least three other national trade union federations that adopt a

more politically independent stance.

The Performing Arts Workers Equity (PAWE) is a member of COSATU, but it is relatively weak.

In accordance with COSATU’s policy that there be one union representing one industry, PAWE

and the Musicians Union of South Africa (MUSA) are in the process of merging to form one

union – the Creative Workers Union of South Africa (CWUSA) - to represent the entertainment

industry. This initiative is relatively new, and it will be a while before the union has developed

sufficient credibility and national membership to be a force.

All public sector workers may belong to trade unions except workers who are employed by the

National Defence Force, the National Intelligence Agency and the South African Secret Service.



In terms of the Labour Relations Act, it is illegal to prevent or pressurize a worker from forming

or joining a trade union.

Union prerogatives

Section 8 of the Labour Relations Act, 1995 states that trade unions have the right to determine

their constitution and rules, to hold elections for its office-bearers, to plan and organize its

administration and lawful activities and to join and participate the activities of national and

international federations of trade unions.

Consultations of the Unions by the State

On issues of economic policy, government has created a forum for business, the unions and

government to meet and discuss matters of mutual concern before policy is adopted and

implemented. In the arts sector, no such forum exists. If there is consultation with the arts

sector, it is on an ad hoc basis. After the initial close consultation between government and the

arts sector around new cultural policies (post-1994), the last 8 years have been characterised

by a lack of consultation, and even hostility on the part of government towards organisations

formed by artists, particularly those that have challenged it on various issues.

At provincial levels, the situation is more nuanced in that provincial government departments

responsible for arts and culture have engaged constructively with artist organisations around

policy and strategic matters.

Main activities of unions over the past five years and current demands

The three unions that exist are relatively new, e.g. the SA Script Writers Association (SASWA),

or in decline, e.g. the Performing Arts Workers Equity (PAWE), or in consultation around the

establishment of a new union. Much of the last five years have been taken up with vision,

capacity, funding and administrative challenges within the unions themselves.

Other NGOs within the arts sector have been more active than unions in the defence of the

rights of workers, largely as a consequence of the ineffectiveness of the unions.

In the last five years, the primary concerns of these NGOs have included:

i) monitoring the management of policy and projects by government and public funding bodies

and intervening where necessary to protect their members’ interests

ii) offering training courses for their members to help them to be effective within the unfolding

conditions e.g. how to draft budgets, devising publicity and marketing campaigns, fund-raising

to the private sector, etc.

iii) gathering and distributing information through regular newsletters to keep members informed

of developments within the sector

iv) hosting forums, competitions and events to develop the sector but also to provide

opportunities for members to have outlets for their creative work



v) building internal capacity through training, leadership seminars, mentorships, etc.

vi) undertaking research into the creative industries as a basis for reflecting on the gains made

in the last eleven years, and setting a vision and strategies for further development of the sector

in the next five years

The current trade unions are not engaged in ancillary activities at the moment. The most active

trade union is the SA Script Writers Association that runs regular training courses in

scriptwriting and related fields for its members.

Law or regulations governing these matters: Trade union matters are governed by the Labour

Relations Act, 1995.

Collective agreements

The Labour Relations Act, 1995 provides for the establishment of Bargaining Councils in which

registered trade unions and registered employer organisations within a particular industry

participate in order to debate and conclude collective agreements for their sector. There are no

examples of significant social benefits obtained through collective agreements.

There are no collective agreements per sector. Mainly because there are no unions or

employer bodies per sector. Again the main problem is articulated in the research document

produced by the Performing Arts Workers Equity in 2000 where it states “…as the (Labour

Relations Act) excludes self-employed workers/independent contractors, they would

be…excluded from the ambit of collective agreements concluded in terms of the Act. The

situation at present is that most performing arts workers labour under individual contracts which

are generally prejudicial to their interests.” The same would hold true for artists in other areas

such as the visual arts, literature, film, etc.

Promotion of social dialogue

there are no bodies that exist specifically for the promotion of social dialogue. Public discourse

and debate around the arts have been largely absent in the last eight years since the adoption

of the White Paper on Arts, Culture and Heritage. It is an irony that now that freedom of

creative expression and freedom to debate and express opinions are constitutionally

guaranteed (whereas they were restricted under apartheid), there has been a decline in the

substance, range and regularity of public discourse around the arts.

Where social dialogue takes place, it is on an ad hoc basis as the consequence of the

programmes or initiatives of non-government organisations operating in the creative industries.

Status of such bodies : The bodies engaged in, or promoting social dialogue around arts-related

issues are mainly non-government organisations.



Mediation and/or appeals

The Labour Relations Act, 1995 establishes the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and

Arbitration (CCMA) for labour-related disputes. Public funding bodies have their own

mechanisms for appeal, but there are no bodies that exist primarily for the resolution of general

disputes within the cultural sector.

1.3 Potential employers are identified for own career-path planning.

(SO 1, AC 3)

Acting

For actors, monologues and speeches are the "calling card" that they use to demonstrate their

skills to casting directors.



For actors in theater, film, and TV, the "audition is a systematic process in which industry

professionals make final casting decisions. Industry professionals may consist of casting directors,

producers, directors or agency representatives".[1] In film and television, the audition is called a

screen test, and it is filmed so that the casting director or director can see how the actor appears

on screen. Auditions are found in major media outlets (such as newspaper or radio),audition

websites, and through a talent/casting agency. One of the benefits to hiring an agent is that the

agent has connections with casting directors and performing companies. However, the agent will

take a cut (often 10%-20%) of the performer's earnings. Although an actor's talents comprise

crucial criteria in the casting process, an almost equal amount of attention is given to an actor's

"type", (a combination of personality, looks and general casting intuition) as required for a

particular production.

Actors who are selecting an audition piece, select a monologue by a character who is close to their

own age and wears neutral clothing that allows freedom of movement. Auditionees are careful not

to go over the stated time limit, and do not direct their speech to the audition panel if they are doing

an on-stage audition. The exception to the last "rule" is in cases where the audition panel requests

that the auditionee interacts with them (e.g., a director may ask the actor to speak the lines while

looking directly at the director). An actor who is doing an audition normally warms up before the

audition, just the same way an athlete would. Just as with any interview outside of the performing

arts world, an auditionee takes care to dress well. Even if the clothing is simple, it is clean and of

good quality. Auditionees know casting directors are also considering "whether or not the actor will

be easy to work with, that they know what they are doing and can take direction well".

Audition pieces are not always from the show the actor is being considered for; an actor wishing to

be cast in Hamlet may not do a monologue from that play. Most performers do have a range of

audition pieces and select something appropriate; an actor auditioning for Hamlet would have a

dramatic Shakespearean monologue ready, and not perform a monologue from an Oscar Wilde

comedy, or a contemporary playwright. Some auditions involve cold reading, or performing a script

that the actor is not familiar with. Auditions often involve monologues or speeches, but not always.

In some cases, an auditionee is asked to read a scene (with a second person reading the other

character).

For most auditions, auditionees must bring a professional 8"X10" photo called a "head shot" and a

resume that indicates their acting experience and training. It is recommended that actors bring

additional copies of the head shot and resume, in case there are additional members of the casting

team present at the audition. The casting agent or company may "call back" an auditionee days,

weeks, or even months after the initial audition for a second audition. At a major audition for a

professional company, the time limits are strictly enforced.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audition#cite_note-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_test

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wilde

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy



A musical theater performer may be given a moment to tell the piano accompanist the tempo, and

state their name and audition number to the audition panel. Then, once the auditionee starts acting

or singing, the clock starts running. A buzzer sounds when the time limit runs out, which may be a

minute and a half, two minutes, or three minutes, depending on the company. At this point, the

auditionee is expected to stop and leave to free up the stage for the next auditionee.

Right before the audition, the casting director may give new instructions that were not in the

advertisement; for example, due to time constraints, the time limit for the monologues might be cut

in half, or the vocal selections might be cut. Actors know that it is important that they follow these

last-minute instructions, and not be "thrown off balance" by these changes. At an audition, a

director may ask for changes in the delivery of the lines or in other aspects of the performance.

The goal may be to see if the auditionee is versatile or because the director disagrees with the

initial approach used by the auditionee. In either case, the behavior of the auditionee is important;

if the auditionee is cooperative in making the changes, it shows that he or she will be easy to work

with. If a script is provided beforehand, actors try to memorize as much as possible, because this

shows that they have prepared and it allows them to look up from the script and show their facial

expressions more.

It is also important to note that film auditions are different from theatre auditions. For film auditions,

actors and actresses are given sides which are often a few pages of the script with the roles that

they are auditioning for. These sides are often given 1-3 days before the audition.

In addition, nowadays technology has increase the trend of video-taped auditions. To find their

talent, casting directors are able to request auditions from actor and actresses from a different

state or country.



ROLE PLAY

Activity:01

Instructions Identify Key organisations which fund the performing arts in


Method individual Activity

Media Method Flipchart

CCFO

DEMONSTRATING

Marks 10

Notes:



PRESENTATION

Activity:02

Instructions Identify Key lobbying bodies and trade unions for performing

artists in order to ensure that rights of the artist will be protected

(SO 1, AC 2)

CCFO

COMMUNICATING

Method Group Activity


Notes:



REASECH PROJECT

ACTIVITY : 03

Instructions Identify Potential employers for own career-path planning. (SO

1, AC 3)

CCFO

COLLECTING

Method Individual Activity


Mark 10

Notes:



SIMULATION

ACTIVITY:04

Instructions Identify The potential for self-employment. (SO 1, AC 4)

CCFO

ORGANISING



Mark

Notes:



Module: 2- Investigate education and career opportunities in the

performing arts.

Specific Outcome

On completion of this section you will be able to: Investigate

education and career opportunities in the performing arts.

Assessment Criteria

Career opportunities in the performing arts, media, advertising,

marketing, and related arts fields are identified (SO 2, AC 1)

Needs and requirements of these career opportunities are

identified and evaluated (SO 2, AC 2)

Educational opportunities are investigated in order to facilitate life-

long learning and continuous development (SO 2, AC 3)

Educational institutions and learnerships are investigated for

suitability to learner`s needs (SO 2, AC 4)

The shortcomings and pitfalls of careers in the performing arts are

identified and possible solutions suggested. (SO 2, AC 5)



2.1 Career opportunities in the performing arts, media, advertising,

marketing, and related arts fields are identified (SO 2, AC 1)

Art & Design Career Paths

A full list of all the career opportunities open to artists and designers would be nearly impossible to

write – and just as difficult to read. Their careers open to the artistically-minded individual are

nearly infinite. Here’s just a snippet of the fields within art & design that are available to

aesthetically creative people.

Careers in graphic arts revolve around the use of images, colors, and designs to convey ideas,

emotions, or messages. Graphic arts are generally associated with advertising and marketing, but

can also include fine arts like drawing, painting, printmaking, and calligraphy.

Fashion careers involve anything related to the design, creation, or marketing of clothes and

accessories. Careers in fashion can encompass a wide range of roles within the product cycle,

from clothing design, to the production of fabrics and the fabrication of the garments themselves, to

retail purchasing and consumer marketing.

Animation and motion picture careers are dedicated to the creation of films, television shows,

cartoons, web-based shorts and animations, and anything else involving the creation of moving

pictures for public consumption. Those working in animation and motion picture careers can

produce works for everything from entertainment to education to advertising.

Careers in performing arts are those which revolve around the visual arts – acting, dance, or

music being the major forms. With performance art, the artist’s face and body are the medium

through which they express themselves.

Architecture and physical design is the design and implementation of physical structures and

spaces. Careers within the field include landscape architects, urban planning, interior design, and

anything else related to the creation and refinement of inhabitable spaces.

Art & Design Career Salaries

Art & design salaries vary wildly across all professions, and can have very wide ranges even within

specific jobs. Area, experience, talent, and exposure can all have a huge impact on how much an

artistic individual can hope to earn from his or her work. Based on the sample of careers discussed

above, here’s a sample of the salary ranges that art & design careers can expect to bring in.

Graphic arts salaries can vary the most among all artistic professions.



Graphic designers can expect to earn just over $40,000 annually, while they too are greatly

affected by the industry in which they work. Designers working in interactive media and computer

systems can expect to earn closer to $50,000 per year, while those working in print media can

expect to earn about $31,000. Craft artists – those who create various pieces of art and sell them

at shows and demonstrations – earn, on average, just under $30,000 annually. Fine artists (such

as painters and illustrators) earn an average just above $42,000 per year. Salaried animators and

multimedia artists earn an average of about $56,000, while art directors (those responsible for

coordinating art departments within advertising and communications departments) earned an

average of $74,000.

Fashion salaries can range greatly as well. Fashion buyers – those responsible for buying clothing

at wholesale scales for retailers who then sell directly to consumers – earn an average of $66,000

annually. Fashion designers earn an average of approximately $74,000 – however it should be

noted that the path to becoming a successful fashion designer is often a difficult one. Of those who

actually make the clothing, patternmakers earn an average of about $18 an hour, while tailors and

dressmakers earn an average of about $12 an hour.

Animation and motion picture career salaries often depend highly upon the types of projects

being worked on. Camera operators, for instance, earn an average of about $41,000, with the

middle 50 percent earning between $29,000 and $60,000. Audio and video equipment technicians

earn just over $38,000, while sound engineers earn a median wage of $47,000 per year. Animators

and multimedia artists earn an average of around $64,000. Television and movie producers earn

also around $64,000 – though obviously, the most successful producers earn much, much more

than this. Likewise, the median hourly salary for actors and actresses is about $17 an hour (with

those in performing arts companies earning less at about $14 an hour, and those in motion

pictures earning much more at closer to $30 an hour). However, we’ve all read about the incredible

salaries of the most famous movie and television stars, so the sky is the limit in terms of earning

potential for actors if you’re talented – and lucky – enough.

Architecture and physical design careers offer salaries that are often commensurate with

experience and education. Architects earn a median salary of around $70,000 per year, with the

lowest ten percent (often those just starting out) earning about $41,000, and the highest ten

percent earning nearly $120,000 per year. Landscape architects earn a median salary of around

$59,000. Interior designers usually earn around $44,000 annually, though this will vary

considerably depending on the market and the type of firm the designer works for.



Art & Design Career Education

Graphic artists have wide latitude in the amount and type of education required to work in the

field: for many positions, talent and an eye for good design is all that is necessary to break into the

profession. However, graphic arts positions within the advertising and marketing field are highly

competitive, and often require at least a college degree. Likewise, advanced positions such as art

directors often require college or even graduate education in order to be competitive. And even for

self-employed fine artists and illustrators, post-secondary education can be a great boon to their

careers: advanced training in media manipulation, color theory, and other elements of design can

turn a good artist into a great one.

Careers in fashion require varying amounts of education. In order to be competitive in the fashion

designer job market, applicants often need to have a 2- or 4-year degree in fashion design

focusing on textiles, and fabric properties. Fashion buyers and wholesalers usually – though not

always – will hold bachelor’s degree in either fashion or a business discipline. And patternmakers,

tailors, and seamstresses sometimes have post-secondary training, though the majority learn their

skills on the job.

Animation and motion picture careers likewise require a wide range of education. Actors and

actresses often have some formal training beyond high school – or attended performing arts

schools. However, formal training is seldom required to gain employment: knowing the right people

and giving good auditions are key. Likewise, producers come from varied backgrounds, and there

are few formal educational requirements for landing producing roles. Audio/visual technicians and

engineers often hold college degrees.

Architecture and physical design careers nearly always require formal training in the field.

Architects require a professional degree – either a five-year undergraduate program, or a master’s

program following a bachelor’s. Additionally, architects must pass licensure exams and gain

experience working for licensed architects before becoming fully certified. Likewise, landscape

architects must pass licensure exams after receiving bachelor’s or master’s degrees and

accumulating work experience. Interior designers often require associate’s or bachelor’s degrees,

though in some cases two- or three-year certificate programs are sufficient to gain employment.

Featured Degrees in Art & Design

Schools and Degree Information in Web Design

Schools and Degree Information in Animation & Game Design

Schools and Degree Information for Graphic Design

http://myfootpath.com/degrees-programs/web-design-degree-programs/

http://myfootpath.com/degrees-programs/animation-degree-programs/

http://myfootpath.com/degrees-programs/graphic-design-degree-programs/



Art & Design Career Projections

Graphic artists can expect their job prospects to grow steadily over the next few years, about

keeping pace with the overall expected number of jobs being created nationally. Graphic designers

will see their job prospects grow by about 13 percent by 2018, slightly faster than the national

average for all occupations. However, those designers skilled in computer applications and web

animations will find more jobs open to them, as the demand for online media and interactive design

increases greatly. It is worth remembering, as mentioned before, that as many artists are self-

employed – and there is keen competition for funding, buyers, and freelance work – artists without

specific patrons or contracts may find it difficult to earn stable wages until their establish

themselves.

ROLE PLAY

Activity:05

Instructions Identify Career opportunities in the performing arts, media,

advertising, marketing, and related arts fields (SO 2, AC 1)

Method individual Activity


CCFO

DEMONSTRATING

Marks 10



PRESENTATION

Activity:06

Instructions What are the Needs and requirements of these career

opportunities? (SO 2, AC 2)

CCFO

COMMUNICATING



Notes:



REASECH PROJECT

ACTIVITY : 07

Instructions Explain why Educational opportunities are investigated in order

to facilitate life-long learning and continuous development (SO

2, AC 3)

CCFO

COLLECTING

Method Individual Activity


Mark 10

Notes:



SIMULATION

ACTIVITY:08

Instructions Explain why Educational institutions and learnerships are

investigated for suitability to learner`s needs (SO 2, AC 4)

CCFO

ORGANISING



Mark

Notes:



Module: 3- Develop entrepreneurial skills, knowledge, attitudes and

values.

Specific Outcome

On completion of this section you will be able to: Develop

entrepreneurial skills, knowledge, attitudes and values.

Assessment Criteria

Contracts are examined with insight. (SO 3, AC 1)

The roles of agents, personal managers and producers are

investigated, ensuring that the learner knows what can be

expected of these role-players (SO 3, AC 2)

Interview and audition situations are handled with confidence.

(SO 3, AC 3)

Tools are developed to market the performing artist. (SO 3, AC 4)

Personal presentational skills are demonstrated. (SO 3, AC 5)



Economics and the Free Society

Over the past four years economic themes have recurred frequently in the pages of Literature of

Liberty. This emphasis accords with the vital importance of economic theory and policy in the daily

lives of each of us. For some time we have suffered accelerating economic crises, shortages,

dislocations, and the sapping of human ambition as a consequence of our “age of inflation.” Taxes,

an expansionary monetary policy, regulations, price controls, subsidies, and centralized

government planning in general have spread a cloud of uncertainty on our immediate economic

horizon.

What are the origins of these challenges to economic freedom? The opening set of eight

summaries explores the historical and ethical dimensions of modern critiques of the free market

and capitalism. Is the market compatible with justice and freedom? Differing responses to this

question are heard from Chipman, Cohen, and Wilbanks. Nelson's and Horne's summaries

rehearse, respectively, economic and ethical arguments critical of the free market and commercial

society. Next, Samuels underlines the academic confusion surrounding the scientific status of

policy recommendations of free trade. Steensgard and Kinser then offer historical theories to the

alleged origins of capitalism. Finally, the last five summaries report particular economic studies that

suggest the advantages of freedom and individual choice in the economic world.

Whether favoring or condemning the market principle, modern scholarship allows us to reflect on

the intellectual underpinnings of anti-market opinions.



The Compatibility of Justice & the Market

Lachlan Chipman

Foundation Professor of Philosophy at the University of Wollongong and Visiting Professor in

Jurisprudence at the University of Sydney

“Liberty, Justice and the Market.” The Center for Independent Studies, Occasional Papers #6

[Australia], (December 1981).

Many doubt the idea that a free market not only is the most efficient way of organizing the

economic affairs of society but also can do so in a manner consistent with the fundamental

principles of freedom and justice. Professor Chipman, author of Liberty, Equality and Unhappiness,

past president of the Australasian Association of Philosophy, and current president of the

Australian Society for Legal Philosophy, challenges us to reject the notion that a necessary conflict

exists between the market principle and liberty and justice. He counterargues that these principles

are symbiotic and support one another.

The author argues firstly that one who values liberty ought, to be consistent, value justice and the

market economy. Secondly, he reasons that one who values justice ought similarly to value liberty

and the market. Thirdly, he argues that one who values the free market ought also to value liberty

and justice.

Professor Chipman seeks to undermine the following beliefs: (1) The free market largely interferes

with people's freedom; restrictions on market activity would, therefore, increase people's freedom.

(2) The free market needs to be interfered with to bring about a more just distribution of goods and

services. (3) The state is the proper and potentially effective instrument for ensuring that wealth,

goods, and services are “correctly” distributed, which means distributed to those with the greatest

needs and on some sort of equal basis.

Professor Chipman clarifies various notions of individual liberty and accepts Robert Nozick's notion

that the legally permissible would be those goals achievable without violence, theft, or deception.

He traces necessary but defensible inequalities of wealth to allowing personal freedom and

forbidding coercion. He concludes that legitimately acquired wealth ought not to be redistributed by

government; the market itself has several ways to provide for the needy and improve their

condition with the state's direction. Chipman would restrict the role of the state in a free, liberal

society to preventing violence, theft, deception, and violation of contracts.



Is Capitalism Free and Just?

G.A. Cohen

“Freedom, Justice and Capitalism.” New Left Review No. 126(March-April 1981):3–16.

Professor Cohen, a Marxist analytic philosopher and author of Karl Marx's Theory of History,

argues that principled opponents of capitalism must develop a far more logically rigorous case. The

strategy for such an anti-capitalist case, he reasons, would be to meet libertarian defenses of the

legitimacy of private property on the very grounds that libertarians and classical liberals value.

Since libertarians affirm that private property is legitimate on the grounds of human freedom and

justice, the opponent of private property must demonstrate that, on the contrary, it violates both

freedom and justice. Sound arguments are required, not just assertions that capitalists follow their

class interests in defending property. Lack of conceptual clarification, Cohen states, can explain

why capitalist ideology can be sincerely believed by both the rich and the poor.

Capitalism, as an ideology of private property, is defended by the economic argument (private

property allows good economic consequences), the freedom argument (economic freedom, even

apart from its consequences, is good because freedom is good), and the justice argument

(property is morally right). The author concentrates in his “critique of ruling ideology” on the

freedom argument and sketches the outline of his response to the justice argument.

Cohen rejects as logically weak the socialist attack on capitalist freedom that either laments the

human price of unrestricted freedom or dismisses capitalism as mere “bourgeois freedom.” He

recommends a more powerful logical attack: socialists should argue against the capitalist that

capitalism is “inimical to freedom in the very sense of ‘freedom’ in which...a person's freedom is

diminished when his private property is tampered with.”

Cohen maintains that libertarians and classical liberals misuse the slippery notion of freedom. If

libertarians were consistently to favor a society in which there are no social and legal constraints

on individual freedom, then they must oppose private property which uses the state or some other

agency to restrict the freedom of someone to use any property that does not belong to him.

Libertarians do not see that private property constrains freedom since they tend to view property as

a permanent given, a “part of the structure of human existence in general.” Yet if we are serious in

our neutral definition of freedom then we must admit that property withdraws liberty from those who

do not own it. “I am unfree whenever someone interferes justifiably or otherwise with my actions.”

Libertarians, when pressed, will admit in the case of defending legitimate private property, that one

is justified in reducing the freedom of the trespasser. We thus see that they earlier were using a



moralized definition of freedom. Their ultimate ground for defending private property, then, is not

neutral freedom (they would admit the imprisoned trespasser is unfree). They finally must rest their

case on the grounds of justice. They thus represent “interference with rightfully held private

property as unjust and therefore, by virtue of the moralized definition, invasive of freedom.” Social

democrats and Marxists must address this defense of property as a just entitlement. The author

briefly outlines what such a counterargument (designed to reveal the structural injustice of private

property) would look like.

Is Free Enterprise Coercive?

Jan J. Wilbanks

Marietta College

“Free Enterprise and Coercion.” Reason Papers No. 7(Spring 1981):1–20.

Is the capitalist economic system necessarily coercive as Marx and others judged when they

analyzed workers in a free market as alienated from their labor and engaged in coerced, non-

voluntary activity? Recently, new versions of this anti-capitalist charge have been levelled by

Professors Lawrence Crocker (“Coercion and the Wage Agreement”) and Andrew McLaughlin

(“Freedom versus Capitalism”).

Professor Crocker denies that a free-enterprise market economy (FEME) provides the best

framework for a free society, claiming that “coercive wage agreements are fairly common features”

in a market economy, especially during hard times. Crocker's argument advances through

hypothetical examples. First, he outlines what he judges to be a clear case of coercion in a FEME,

involving the sale of fire-fighting equipment to needy victims in an emergency. Next, he attempts to

demonstrate that the more dubious case of a wage agreement made by needy workers in a FEME

also involves coercion. He contends that the wage-agreement case shares the crucial moral

feature of the fire-fighting equipment case. Finally, he asserts that we can legitimately extrapolate

from these foregoing cases to a wider range of situations in the FEME, because the FEME exhibits

generally the analogous features present in the two mentioned natural emergency cases.

The author scrutinizes a number of Professor Crocker's ambiguous terms, such as property, and

argues that Crocker has not, in fact, demonstrated that coercive wage agreements are fairly

common features of a FEME. Crocker has not convincingly shown that the fire-fighting equipment

example taken from Gideon is a clear case of coercion in a FEME, and he has not shown that the

wage-agreement cases he bases on the fire-fighting example are instances of coercion. Therefore,

Crocker has not provided an adequate foundation for suggesting that a FEME may not actually



offer the best framework for a free economy. In addition, to refute Crocker's anti-market case with

his dubious criterion of coercion is to provide strong grounds for suggesting that a FEME is a sine

qua non of a free society—if by the latter we mean a society in which no one is permitted to

aggress against the person or property of another.

Next, the author attacks Professor McLaughlin's anti-market notion of covert “systematic coercion,”

which is alleged to occur when there is a systematic structuring of alternatives that a person faces

in a choice situation. In effect, the capitalist system coerces one to enter that economy to survive.

From this claim, capitalism and FEME are judged to be antithetical to freedom.

The author seeks to refute McLaughlin's distinction between overt coercion and systematic

coercion through linguistic considerations which show that “systematic coercion” is not a bona fide

form of coercion. Systematic coercion is misleading and does not apply to coercion as understood

in a politico-economic context. Systematic coercion can only be coercive to the extent that it

involves the threat of injury, overt or covert, by other individuals, and thus would amount to

coercion, properly construed. Thus McLaughlin's argument fails to undermine the contention that a

FEME can be a free society's framework.

Private Enterprise vs. Central Planning

Richard R. Nelson

Yale University

“Assesing Private Enterprise: An Exegesis of Tangled Doctrine.” The Bell Journal of Economics

(Spring 1981):93–111.

Professor Nelson seeks to refute the economic superiority of private enterprise over centralized

statist systems. He argues that the twin theorems of welfare economics (which relate competitive

equilibrium to a social optimum and which he regards as the basis of the case for capitalism) are

weak foundations for economists' faith in free enterprise. Nelson asserts that, if conventional

welfare economics were to consider more deeply the three prime virtues claimed for the enterprise

form of economic organization (administative parsimony, responsiveness, and innovativeness) it

would recognize how these criteria support a centralized economy rather than the free market.

Administration's task in any economic system is to respond to uncertain changes in demand and

supply, as well as to the challenge of innovation. Welfare economics, Nelson asserts, avoids the

problem of administrative response by assuming a steady state, which allows, however, even a

tight, centrally planned system to respond effectively.



On the other hand welfare economics assumes that conditions more complex than static

equilibrium would confront a stylized central planning regime with the choice of either working with

crude decision rules or else suffering high administrative costs. Nelson counterargues that a

stylized private enterprise system would face a similar trade-off. Market transactions that ignore all

but a few dimensions of costs and benefits are cheaper than those which realistically consider

many. In a free enterprise regime, the trade-off is between leaving externalities and imposing a

more costly market-transactional structure.

The problem of unpredicted change leads to the question of responsiveness. In a dynamic

economy economic units have no assurance that their past decisions will work in the present

circumstances. Proenterprise literature contends that the capitalist system tracks the shifting

conditions of the market with low administrative overhead as opposed to the poorer performance of

a centralized economy.

Although he concedes that private enterprise responds quickly and at relatively low cost, Nelson

challenges whether its responses are well-directed. He argues that without a central mechanism to

direct firms (in dividing up increases or decreases in overall industrial capacity, for example), the

multitude of competitive firms in any industry would produce chaos rather than intelligent

responses to problems of output and inter-industry coordination.

Next, argues Nelson, although the diversity of private enterprise might appear better suited to

encouraging innovation and creativity than centralized bureaucracies, the market may in fact erect

obstacles to innovation. He alleges that a firm's fear of losing its technological secrets to rival firms

tends to discourage outlays for new research and development. In addition, as enterprises grow

larger, they suffer a decline in creativity and the ability to monitor performance. To support his

contention of free enterprise's weakness in R&D, Nelson points to the large governmental funding

of R&D in many capitalist countries.





Nelson judges that the traditional arguments for private enterprise are economic prejudices and

result from faulty empirical observation.

Vicious Motivations & Commercial Society

Thomas A. Horne

Columbia University and Political Theory (Managing Editor)

“Envy and Commercial Society: Mandeville and Smith on Private Vices, Public Benefits.” Political

Theory 5(November 1981):551–569.

In the 18th century suspicions mounted about the morally and socially dangerous consequences

that the emergent commercial society might promote. Would the pursuit of wealth and private self-

interest dissipate the individual's concern for others and for the cultivation of benevolence and

public-spiritedness? Could a society that depended upon self-interest be morally justified?

Commercial society faces a difficulty if the criterion for evaluating the good society is how well any

society nurtures virtuous citizens who set limits to their desires and who can act for the public

good. Both Mandeville and Adam Smith addressed this problem and both came away with their

moral suspicions reinforced.

Commercial society is morally problematic since it ties its promise of material prosperity to

increasing an insatiable awareness of individual self-interest and vanity (in the sense of ever

striving to materially impress others). This moral problem was most provocatively formulated by

Bernard Mandeville (1670–1733) in his Fable of the Bees as “Private Vices, Public Benefits.”

Mandeville insisted on an ineradicable tension in commercial society which depended on private

vice (in the form of self-interest, vanity, pride, and envy as morally vicious but economically

beneficial prods) to produce material survival and progress. He represented as unavoidable the

dilemma of both disapproving of the socially disruptive vices of envy and pride and yet approving of

the socially indispensable economic productivity spurred on by those very vices.

Mandeville's critics and the defenders of commercial society needed to demonstrate that economic

activity could spring from motivations that, if not explicitly moral, were at least morally neutral.

Adam Smith took up the challenge, but both his works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and

The Wealth of Nations (1776), reveal his ambiguous attitude toward commercial society. Smith

tried to find a middle position between Francis Hutcheson's claims for the importance of

benevolence as a human motivation and Mandeville's claim on the inevitability of a sadly



necessary vice. Smith asserted that the pursuit of wealth need not come at the expense of virtue.

First, Smith argued, the self-interest necessary to economic life need not dominate all other

aspects of life. Second, many forms of self-interest are either virtuous or morally neutral. Third,

merchants and others need to adopt decent moral standards in order to do business.

While Smith's analysis of self-interest in the Wealth of Nations stresses the innocent desire for

profit to better one's material condition, a more sophisticated and morally troubling analysis runs

through The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his analysis of admiration of the rich and vanity (the

desire to live better than others) Smith reveals disruptive forces that pit self-regard against the

interests of others. The socially disruptive motivation of envy threatens the stability of commercial

society.

Horne concludes by sketching what motivations and moral criteria commercial society needed to

justify itself, once it had jettisoned older notions of virtue. It, in effect, replaced virtue with freedom

as the moral standard of social organization. Mandeville's role in this shift was to undercut the

emphasis on motivation and, by consequence, to debunk the possibility of virtue. This may have

led Smith to investigate the relationship between commerce and liberty. Horne believes that the

moral problems of commercial society cannot be completely dissolved by appeals to freedom and

prosperity.

Economic Policy: Free Trade and Values

Warren J. Samuels

Michigan State University

“Economics and Science and Its Relation to Policy: The Example of Free Trade.” Journal of

Economic Issues 14(March 1980): 163–185.

For over a century, economists have debated the exact nature of their social role and the relation

of economic theory (or science) to policy. Disagreements have concerned the tension between, on

the one hand, the desire for analysis free of ideology and values, and, on the other, the reluctant

belief in the inevitability of values or ideology. The debates have also stirred doubts as to whether

economic principles apply, directly or indirectly, to matters of policy.

Prof. Samuels' article concentrates on the single principle of free trade to highlight the diverse

views among economists concerning the scientific status of their field of study and its practical

value. He reports the results of a 1977 probe which he conducted among members of the

departments of economics and agricultural economics at Michigan State University. The poll

consisted of one question: “What do you think is the relationship between the pro-free trade



position and the status of economics as a science.” The responses to Samuels' query fell

essentially into four categories.

One group of economists affirmed that the position favoring free trade is grounded in economic

science. One writer, for example, said that, “under certain ideal conditions (perfect competition, no

externalities, etc.), free trade yields a Pareto optimum. This statement,” he continued “is no less

scientific than any other in economics.” The respondent added that his view was positive, not

normative economics. He believed that “free trade yielding a Pareto-optimum” is a “justification of

free trade” but perhaps not an actual affirmation of the free-trade policy position.

A second group of respondents, quite in conflict with the first, argued that there is no justified and

conclusive relation between the free-trade position and economics as a science. One economist

wrote: “Economics is concerned with the allocation of scarce resources among competing ends.

The science of economics does not define the end. Equation of economics as a science with free

trade implies that maximum ‘output’ is the only valid end.”

The third major group of economists took a position that economics cannot advocate a specific

policy, but can describe the likely consequences of alternative policies. “As a science,” one

respondent replied, “economics should strive to identify the magnitude and distribution of benefits

and costs associated with different institutions regulating trade under different situations. There is

no scientific—that is objective— basis for a universal conclusion favoring free trade.”

Finally, one respondent alone dealt specifically with the conflict between positive and normative

economics, as well as with the question of the conditional nature of propositions. He asked the

question: “Are free trade advocacy and economics as a science incompatible?” “Yes,” he

answered, “if you are a positivist. No, if you are a normativist and allocative efficiency is your only

criterion. Maybe, if you are a normativist and your criteria are both allocative efficiency and equity.

But in your advocacy you step outside the bounds of what you can objectively say about the

specific case using knowledge from economic theory, including welfare economics.”

Prof. Samuels concludes with the comment that there are inevitably normative facets to social

science propositions. The meaningfulness of otherwise ostensibly positive “is propositions”

depends upon identifying the normative elements. Samuels suspects that, if such a process were

faithfully carried out, less disagreement would exist concerning the relation of economic analysis to

policy.



Violence, the State & the Rise of Capitalism

Niels Steensgaard

University of Copenhagen, Denmark

“Violence and the Rise of Capitalism: Frederic C. Lane's Theory of Protection and Tribute.” Review

5(Fall 1981):247–273.

Frederic C. Lane formulated his theory of protection and tribute in the 1940s and 1950s. Professor

Steensgaard hopes to encourage a debate on Lane's model, especially on its usefulness for

understanding the interrelations between the economic and the political sphere in the process of

long-term social change. Was organized violence a cause of modern economic development?

In his essay “Economic Consequences of Organized Violence,” Lane seeks to subject the (usually

political) use of violence to economic analysis. The use of violence as a monopolistic “protection”

service and the “income” derived from the production of protection may structurally influence the

allocation of scarce resources and the pattern of demand, saving, and investment. Other economic

effects of organized violence appear. Other enterprises, producing other goods than protection,

may derive a profit from the variations in the cost and quality of protection. Lane termed “protection

rent” the extra income that some merchants derived from lower costs they paid for protection

services against bandits, pirates. Through a series of stages, mercantile profits from protection rent

became more important than tribute; finally, the use of violence increasingly comes under the

control of the consumers of protection, and industrial innovation becomes more important than

protection rent as a source of business profits.

Lane's model may help us approach the problem of surplus and analyze accumulation and the rise

of capitalism. Marxist studies of the rise of capitalism out of feudalism are defective since they

ignore the history of some of the largest preindustrial concentrations and accumulations of

resources. Lane's concepts of protection rent and tribute illuminate the unique development of the

European economy in the centuries before the Industrial Revolution. Since protection is a

commodity and tribute a profit, the use of violence can be analyzed in economic terms, even

though the monopolistic nature of the enterprises makes prediction limited. Granted, the world may

not become richer by violence, but the use of organized “protective” violence may create

disequilibria of a structural character that alter economic levels and patterns. Although profits made

by state-protected large trading companies and early colonial ventures might be dismissed as

plunder, economic analysis would also point to their historical role in structurally preparing the

preindustrial economy for changes. Likewise, we need to study, with the help of Lane's model, the

enormous concentration of demand (and its structural consequences) that resulted from the



consolidation of the early modern state.

Steensgaard applies Lane's model in analyzing Levantine trade, merchants becoming producers of

their own protection (English East India Company and the V.O.C.), and the Atlantic trade. He

concludes that this model helps us understand the merchants' profits from long distance trade and

early colonization. He further asserts that the production of protection (organized violence) in

Europe remained a competitive business.

Lane's model is more useful in interpreting the origins of long-term structural change in early

modern Europe than other interpretations which suffer from one of two flaws. (1) Either they

generalize the concept of voluntary barter and confuse the model of the theoretical market with the

coercive (organized violence) reality of an age in which very few people were interested in buying

and selling unless they were under some kind of coercion; or (2) they rely upon the clumsy concept

of the feudal mode of production. Neither of these rival interpretations explains the most important

problem in early modern history, the coincidence of two unique historical phenomena: the rise of

the modern state and the rise of capitalism.

Steensgaard contends, in line with Lane's protection rent and tribute theory, that advantageous

structural consequences for rationalized markets flowed from state violence or “protection”

services. He also speculates on the following dialectic: parasitic empires grant increasing

autonomy to the market goose that lays the golden egg of tax revenues; the independent and

countervailing market displaces the empires, which become victims of their own greed.

Braudel's Ideological Theory of Capitalism

Samuel Kinser

Northern Illinois University

“Capitalism Enshrined: Braudel's Triptych of Modern Economic History.” The Journal of Modern

History 53(December 1981):673–682.

Fernand Braudel's three monumental volumes covering European economic history and the rise of

capitalism between 1400 and 1800 are impressive for their historical detail and grand sweep, but

they raise serious misgivings because of Braudel's ideological assumptions and procrustean

classifications and definitions.

After some 1500 pages, sparkling with rich nuggets of previously neglected information, Braudel

leaves unanswered the key questions concerning the genesis of capitalism's rise and dominance

in Europe. He fails to integrate the interworkings of the productive, consumptive, distributive, and



circulatory systems of the world-wide economy whose growth and history he has minutely traced.

His value-laden definition of “capitalism” as the stage of economic growth characterized by large

profits through world-wide or inter-regional trade and arbitrage is too restrictive. By concentrating

on trade and circulation of goods for profit, Braudel's understanding of capitalism neglects why

production and technology surged forward during these 400 years. The multiplication of markets

(the orthodox exchangist view of the rise of capitalism) may not have been the cause so much as

the effect of the transformation in technology and labor productivity.

Braudel's three tomes of Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme, XVe–XVIIIe siecle—

Volume I: Les Structures du quotidien: le possible et l'impossible; Volume II: Les Jeux de

l'échange; Volume III: Le Temps du monde (Paris: 1979)—challenge the view that modern

European economic life was a unified development towards the Industrial Revolution. By contrast

he maintains that economic activity between 1400 and 1800 moved along three nearly

independent lines: (1) “material life” or the “infra-economic” level of local self-sufficiency, (2)

“economy” proper marked by true market exchange, and (3) a higher level and upper limit of the

market economy, namely the domain of “capitalism,” distinguished by far-flung and eventually

world-wide trade and profitable arbitrage. In a parallel fashion this trinitarian scheme is reflected in

the subject matter of the three volumes: volume one describes the “primitive” economic routines of

isolated backward economies, volume two the accelerators of change (the creation of middle-sized

markets which trade the production surpluses of previously isolated towns and provinces, and

volume three the march of the European economy toward progress, freedom, and a world-wide

global market order familiar from Wallerstein's work.

Although he claims his interpretation is the result of neutral, empirical observation, Braudel's theory

is “doubly filtered”, first by his reliance on other historians and second by his debatable and overly

restricted notion of capitalism. In addition, Braudel's methodology professes deeply value-laden

“historical faiths”: the conviction that somewhat reified long-term economic forces always win out

over short-term ones, and that human activities form a scientifically analyzable totality—a rather

nebulous and mystical assumption which seeks to overcome the plurality and diversity of economic

activity in an elegant but arbitrary “coercive codification” of trinitarian patterns and tendencies.

Cognition, Choice, and Entrepreneurship

James M. Buchanan and Alberto Di Pierro

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

“Cognition, Choice, and Entrepreneurship.” Southern Economic Journal 46(January 1980):692–



701.

Much of the conventional theory of entrepreneurial choice-under-uncertainty neglects the crucial

distinction between cognition and choice in economic decision making. Cognition or knowledge

about the components of an economic situation may tell us little about how human actors will

choose among identified economic alternatives. Hence, entrepreneurial talent may not be

amenable to analysis by the tools of modern decision theory. We should drop attempts to apply

irrelevant theory to an incompatible subject matter. Any theoretical analysis or modelling that

leaves no room for the creative and imaginative elements in such entrepreneurial choice muddies

the waters of our understanding of economic progress.

Professor Buchanan contrasts Frank H. Knight's analysis in Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit with

G.L.S. Shakle's in respect to their differing conceptions of uncertainty. Knight did not attempt to

explain entrepreneurial choice, but merely to explain profits by distinguishing between calculable

risk and incalculable uncertainty.

Next, Buchanan critiques the misapplication of formal theories of probability to choices. Bayesian

logic and stochastically determinate patterns of outcomes can indeed aid in analyzing an

individual's cognition of the structure in which he might or might not choose among alternatives,

but such knowledge cannot predict the individual's choice. An informed player in an economic

“game” might choose not to act on his knowledge if he felt the game was unfair. Cognitive

knowledge may thus be of little value in the development of an entrepreneurial skill or sense of

emergent outcomes which depend on free choice.



Federal Expenditures ‘Crowd Out’ Private Investment

Richard J. Cebula, Christopher Carlos, and James V. Koch

Center for Study of Public Choice, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

“The ‘Crowding Out’ Effect of Federal Government Outlay Decisions: An Empirical Note.” Public

Choice 36,2(1981):329–336.

Does the evidence support the claim that government spending and expenditures “crowd out” or

contract private spending? The authors seek to answer this much-debated question by extending

the scope of Abrams' and Schmitz' 1978 study; they examine the crowding out effect of aggregate

federal government spending decisions upon purchases of new physical capital by private firms.

By limiting their analysis solely to private investment in new physical capital, they believe that they

can highlight the economic implications of crowding out for long-term inflation and short-term

unemployment that results from federal government expenditures. The authors employ

mathematical and quantitative models to test their hypotheses.

The authors empirically studied crowding out by examining the proportion of GNP devoted to

private investment in new physical capital as a function of the proportion of GNP devoted to federal

outlays. They studied three alternative models, all of which displayed evidence of (a) a definite

pattern in which government spending crowded out private investment and (b) only partial, i.e.

incomplete crowding out. These findings are compatible with earlier studies.

Two important policy implications flow from these findings. First, increases in federal government

outlays tend to diminish private-sector investment in new physical capital. To the degree that this

kind of crowding out occurs, private sector unemployment is generated. This clearly acts to

weaken the stimulatory direct effects of increased federal spending since it inhibits the private

sector. Second, to the extent that federal government spending leads to diminished investment in

new physical capital, this diminishes the rate of capital formation. This tends to worsen long-term

inflation by cutting down on the ability of “aggregate productive capacity” to keep pace with

“aggregate demand.”

These two implications cast grave doubts on the wisdom of the federal government's decisions to

increase federal outlays in various kinds of spending programs.



The Mirage of Economic Efficiency

“Economic Efficiency: Touchstone or Mirage?” The Intercollegiate Review 17(Fall-Winter

1981):33–44.

Confusion over the different meanings of efficiency has led to the erroneous belief that market

“inefficiency” requires that a centralized political regime restore “efficiency” by state regulation and

planning. As an economist, Prof. Pasour: (1) discusses the elusive meaning of efficiency in a world

of uncertain and partial knowledge, (2) shows how “efficiency” as interpreted by conventional

welfare economics and its norm of “perfect competition” provides the rationale for government

intervention into allegedly “inefficient” markets, (3) explains why inefficiency or waste cannot

meaningfully be identified or measured by outside observers who lack the subjective evaluation of

the relevant individual decision makers, and (4) argues that we should use the “principles

approach” in analyzing government attempts to create efficiency rather than decide each issue

case by case.

We need to be careful in not confusing economic with technical efficiency. Efficiency is inescapably

subjective and cannot be known apart from the subjective values of the decision maker involved.

An outside observer merely imposes his own standards of value when he labels other persons'

actions “wasteful” or “inefficient.”

Nor should we misuse the efficiency concept by associating it with the “perfect competition” norm

in evaluating real-world markets. Since the highly idealized notion of perfect competition can never

be achieved in the real world, it is misleading to use it to discover that there is “market failure” (that

is, that the real world is not as efficient as an ideal world). The “perfect competition” model is a

device for justifying government intervention to correct “market failure” (such as “monopoly,”

spillovers, advertising, and other information problems). It is unlikely that imperfect politicians

subject to well-known interests will be any more efficient than market participants.

Efficiency can be a useful concept if improvements are attempted within the terms of the decision

maker's own subjective values. However, the efficiency concept is not useful for public policy in

evaluating other people, markets, or economic systems. Since costs and benefits are based on

subjective considerations, efficiency cannot be determined independently of values and ethical

considerations by some putatively neutral team of experts.

We need to evaluate government programs to achieve efficiency on the basis of economic

principles rather than by an unfocused “case-by-case” approach. Economists are led astray in

basing policy recommendations on the efficiency notion of Pareto-optimality, the cornerstone of

welfare economics. Economics would better recommend leaving social and economic activity to



informal market principles and their decentralized, non-governmental enforcement.

Private Property and Energy Resources

Richard Stroup and John Baden

Center for Political Economy and Natural Resources at Montana State University, Bozeman

“Responsible Individuals and the Nation's Energy Future.” The Cato Journal 1(Fall 1981):421–438.

Employing some basic insights from the Austrian school of economics and the private property

rights paradigm, the authors find several reasons for believing that private property rights and free

markets in energy would better serve both national security and efficiency. By contrast collective

decision making of a political and democratic kind would create many problems. If we would

establish and recognize secure and transferable property rights to resources, then we could expect

that individuals who believe strongly in the advantages and profits from greater future energy

reserves would provide for more fuel storage, energy conversion facilities, and energy raw

materials for that anticipated future.

Investments in promising innovations are more likely to be funded in the private sector than in the

public sector. The economic equivalent of biotic diversity is automatically fostered when individuals

with different tastes, in various circumstances, are free to act and are also held responsible for

their actions. The decision makers will be better informed in the private than in the public sector,

when information is scarce and uncertainty is prevalent. Despite the greater degree of innovation,

we can expect a smaller level of waste from the private sector than from the equivalent public

sector innovations. This follows from the existence of the reality check of profit and loss in the

private sector, as well as the smaller degree of rational ignorance in that same sector. Finally, we

note that the public sector will be systematically unable to attract and hold successful forecasters in

any market so important as that of energy. It would appear that in the energy market, as in so

many other areas, that government is best which governs least.

Rent Control vs. Economic Reasoning

Michael A. Walker

Director of the Fraser Institute, Vancouver, B.C.

“A Short Course in Housing Economics.” In Rent Control: Myths & Realities: International Evidence

of the Effects of Rent Control in Six Countries. Edited by Walter Block and Edgar Olsen.



Vancouver, B.C.: The Fraser Institute, 1981, pp. 37–52.

A common myth holds the following: “Rent control is a form of tenant protection adopted because

housing is a basic need like sunshine and fresh air and its provision ought not to be left to the

vagaries of the marketplace.” The author challenges this claim from the economist's point of view

and maintains the following: “Rent control is a form of price fixing that increases the shortage of

housing and ultimately reduces the ability of tenants to choose where and under what conditions

they live. In the course of exploring this criticism of rent control, the author examines: What is the

economic behavior of people as regards housing?; How are rents determined?; What are price

controls and what effects do they have in the short term and in the long term?

The author's summary of the economic analysis of rent control includes the four following

observations:

(1)The demand for housing services is determined by the wants for social standing and recreation

as well as by the need for elementary shelter. Accordingly, family income and the price of housing

relative to the price for other things have a substantial impact on the housing demanded.

(2)The supply of housing services arises principally from the relatively fixed number of houses or

apartments in existence at a particular point in time. However, new construction, renovations (such

as basement suites), and a reduction in the average time that apartments stand vacant provide

substantial flexibility in the supply of services, even in the shortterm. The principal determinant of

the supply of housing services is the expected rate of return on investment in housing relative to

the expected rate of return on comparable investments. Rents are a principal determinant of the

rate of return on housing.

(3) The notions of “surplus” and “shortage” have economic meaning only with respect to

inappropriate prices. A surplus exists because the price (or rent) is too high; a shortage exists

because the price is too low. The concept of shortage is sometimes confused with the notion of

“scarcity.” Everything is scarce, but there are shortages of very few things.

(4) Price control produces shortages because, if the price is kept below the market price, the

control becomes, in effect, a tax on the supplier. The amount of the tax is the difference between

the market price and the control price. The only way the supplier can avoid this tax is by not

supplying the commodity or service. Since the proceeds of the tax are, in effect, given to the

consumer, the consumer is encouraged to demand more. Thus, since price control taxes suppliers

and gives the proceeds to consumers, it leads inevitably to a widening gap between the amount

demanded and the amount supplied—that is, a shortage.



In sum, rent control never lives up to its expected claims of cheap and plentiful housing. It

guarantees that the opposite will occur. Additional scholarship on the economic disadvantages of

rent control may be found in the author's book, Rent Control— A Popular Paradox (1965) as well

as in Professor Charles W. Baird's Rent Control: The Perennial Folly (1980).



Self-Assessment

Self-Assessment:

You have come to the end of this module – please take the time to review

what you have learnt to date, and conduct a self-assessment against the

learning outcomes of this module by following the instructions below:

Rate your understanding of each of the outcomes listed below:

Keys: - no understanding

- Some idea

- Completely comfortable

NO OUTCOME

SELF

RATING

1. Identify the key role-players in the performing art`s industry for own career-path planning

2. Investigate education and career opportunities in the performing arts.

3. Develop entrepreneurial skills, knowledge, attitudes and values.

4. Reflect on own career path in the performing arts.



Learner Evaluation Form

Learning Programme Name

Facilitator Name

Learner name (Optional)

Dates of Facilitation

Employer / Work site

Date of Evaluation

Learner Tip:

Please complete the Evaluation Form as thoroughly as you are able to, in order for us to continuously improve our training quality! The purpose of the Evaluation Form is to evaluate the following:

logistics and support

facilitation

training material

assessment Your honest and detailed input is therefore of great value to us, and we appreciate your assistance in completing this evaluation form!

A Logistics and Support Evaluation

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1 Was communication regarding attendance of the programme efficient and effective?

2 Was the Programme Coordinator helpful and efficient?

3 Was the training equipment and material used effective and prepared?

4 Was the training venue conducive to learning (set-up for convenience of learners, comfortable in terms of temperature, etc.)?

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B Facilitator Evaluation 1 The Facilitator was prepared and knowledgeable on the

subject of the programme

2 The Facilitator encouraged learner participation and input

3 The Facilitator made use of a variety of methods, exercises, activities and discussions

4 The Facilitator used the material in a structured and effective manner

5 The Facilitator was understandable, approachable and respectful of the learners

6 The Facilitator was punctual and kept to the schedule

Additional Comments on Facilitation


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C Learning Programme Evaluation 1 The learning outcomes of the programme are

relevant and suitable.

2 The content of the programme was relevant and suitable for the target group.

3 The length of the facilitation was suitable for the programme.

4 The learning material assisted in learning new knowledge and skills to apply in a practical manner.

5 The Learning Material was free from spelling and grammar errors

6 Handouts and Exercises are clear, concise and relevant to the outcomes and content.

7 Learning material is generally of a high standard, and user friendly

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D Assessment Evaluation


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1 A clear overview provided of the assessment requirements of the programme was provided

2 The assessment process and time lines were clearly explained

3 All assessment activities and activities were discussed

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